Vlado 

Spiridonov
Mladjen Ćurić

Fundamentals
of Meteorology
Fundamentals of Meteorology
Vlado Spiridonov • Mladjen Ćurić

Fundamentals of
Meteorology
Vlado Spiridonov Mladjen Ćurić
Meteorology and Geophysics Department of Meteorology
University of Vienna University of Belgrade
Wien, Wien, Austria Belgrade, Serbia

ISBN 978-3-030-52654-2    ISBN 978-3-030-52655-9 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-52655-9

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021

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Preface

v
vi Preface

This book is dedicated to our planet’s atmosphere, our great challenge and inspi-
ration. It is just an extended arm of our great fascination, “Meteorology.” The
book opens the doors to the achievements made in this new millennium, making
linkage between contemporary science, technology and society, and the path-
ways how meteorology contributes to the development of science. Fundamentals
in Meteorology incorporates all significant eras, from ancient times to the pres-
ent days. It explores important atmospheric phenomena and physical processes
from a local to global scale and from seconds to years. In addition to the general
topics, our novel book incorporates other important ones such as the atmospheric
boundary layer, atmospheric waves, atmospheric chemistry, optics, and
electricity.
As the weather keeps changing time to time and from place to place, sudden
worsening of its conditions can change our mood, especially when it is unfavorable,
Preface vii

unstable, and severe. But when the sun and the blue sky reappear, the rays of happi-
ness return our confidence, which is a sufficient reward for this modest work.
Finally, we invite you to join us on a journey through the atmospheric space and
bear witness to these wonderful events occuring within our atmosphere and
even beyond.

Wien, Austria Vlado Spiridonov

Belgrade, Serbia Mladjen Ćurić
Acknowledgments

We would like to thank all our colleagues, friends, and experts around the world for
their contribution and constructive discussions over the past years during our invited
talks, visits, seminars, and other activities. We would also like to acknowledge those
who provided us with some original material, photographs, and graphical illustra-
tions. We are also grateful to the following for permission to reproduce some fig-
ures: NASA, NOAA, NCAR, EUMETSAT, AMS, UCAR Comet, WMO, ZAMG,
IMGW, and Harvard University Center for the Environment. The authors express a
special gratitude and appreciation to Prof. Dr. Anastazija Kirkova-Naskova for
proofreading of the book.
Finally, we would like to thank our families for their unreserved support, patience,
and understanding throughout the years for this hard and delicate work such as writ-
ing a book.
Thank you.
By authors

ix
Contents

1 Introduction����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    1
References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    2
2 Meteorology as a Natural Science����������������������������������������������������������    5
2.1 Definition of the Atmosphere������������������������������������������������������������    5
2.2 Methods of Research of the Atmosphere������������������������������������������    6
2.2.1 Experimental Method of Research���������������������������������������    7
2.3 Relationship Between Meteorology and Other Sciences������������������    7
2.4 Classification of Meteorology����������������������������������������������������������    8
2.4.1 Classification Based on the Studied Area ����������������������������   12
2.4.2 Classification According to the Scale of Processes��������������   14
2.5 The Modern Term of Meteorology ��������������������������������������������������   15
References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   16
3 Historical Background����������������������������������������������������������������������������   17
3.1 Aristotle’s Meteorologica������������������������������������������������������������������   17
3.2 Early Research Period����������������������������������������������������������������������   18
3.3 Modern Research Period������������������������������������������������������������������   21
References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   23
4 Structure and Composition of the Atmosphere������������������������������������   25
4.1 Earth Spheres������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   25
4.2 Basic Characteristics of the Atmosphere������������������������������������������   25
4.3 Origin of the Atmosphere������������������������������������������������������������������   26
4.4 Chemical Composition of the Atmosphere ��������������������������������������   27
4.5 Significant Atmospheric Gases ��������������������������������������������������������   28
4.5.1 General Facts About the Atmosphere ����������������������������������   28
4.6 Atmospheric Structure����������������������������������������������������������������������   30
4.6.1 Thermal Structure of the Atmosphere����������������������������������   32
4.7 Magneto-electronic Structure������������������������������������������������������������   32
References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   34

xi
xii Contents

5 Energy and Radiation������������������������������������������������������������������������������   35

5.1 Basic Features ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������   35
5.2 Radiation Laws ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������   36
5.3 Electromagnetic Radiation����������������������������������������������������������������   37
5.4 Solar Radiation����������������������������������������������������������������������������������   39
5.4.1 Solar Constant����������������������������������������������������������������������   39
5.4.2 Direct Solar Radiation����������������������������������������������������������   40
5.4.3 Diffused Solar Radiation (D)������������������������������������������������   41
5.4.4 Solar Radiation Factors��������������������������������������������������������   42
5.4.5 Temporal and Spatial Changes in Insolation������������������������   44
5.5 Optical Radiation������������������������������������������������������������������������������   45
5.5.1 UV Index������������������������������������������������������������������������������   46
5.5.2 UV Index Factors������������������������������������������������������������������   47
5.6 Ozone Layer��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   48
5.7 Earth Longwave Radiation����������������������������������������������������������������   49
5.7.1 Earth’s Annual and Global Mean Energy Budget����������������   51
5.7.2 Earth’s Heat Balance������������������������������������������������������������   53
5.7.3 Earth Radiation Budget and the Planetary Temperature������   54
5.7.4 The Simple Greenhouse Model��������������������������������������������   57
References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   58
6 Atmospheric Thermodynamics��������������������������������������������������������������   59
6.1 Definition������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   59
6.1.1 Thermodynamic System ������������������������������������������������������   60
6.2 An Ideal Gas Law ����������������������������������������������������������������������������   61
6.2.1 The Equation of State of Dry Air������������������������������������������   62
6.2.2 The Equation of State of Moist Air��������������������������������������   62
6.3 First Principle of Thermodynamics��������������������������������������������������   63
6.3.1 The First Principle of Thermodynamics
for an Ideal Gas��������������������������������������������������������������������   64
6.3.2 Enthalpy��������������������������������������������������������������������������������   65
6.3.3 Poisson Equations ����������������������������������������������������������������   65
6.3.4 Potential Temperature ����������������������������������������������������������   66
6.3.5 Implementation of the First Principle
of Thermodynamics��������������������������������������������������������������   67
6.4 The Second Principle of Thermodynamics��������������������������������������   68
6.4.1 Definition of Entropy������������������������������������������������������������   68
6.4.2 Summary on Reversible and Irreversible Processes ������������   71
References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   71
7 Air Temperature��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   73
7.1 Air Temperature Definition��������������������������������������������������������������   73
7.2 Heat and Temperature ����������������������������������������������������������������������   74
7.2.1 Heat Transfer������������������������������������������������������������������������   74
7.3 Temperature Factors��������������������������������������������������������������������������   75
7.3.1 Heat Advection����������������������������������������������������������������������   77
Contents xiii

7.4 Temperature Changes������������������������������������������������������������������������   78

7.4.1 Daily Insolation and Pure Radiation ������������������������������������   79
7.4.2 Daily Air Temperature Distribution��������������������������������������   79
7.4.3 Vertical Temperature Change������������������������������������������������   80
7.4.4 Adiabatic Changes of Temperature��������������������������������������   82
7.4.5 Temperature Inversion����������������������������������������������������������   82
7.4.6 Global Distributions of Temperature������������������������������������   82
7.4.7 Surface Temperatures������������������������������������������������������������   83
7.4.8 Urban Heat Island ����������������������������������������������������������������   83
7.5 Temperature Scales ��������������������������������������������������������������������������   84
7.6 Isotherms������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   85
7.7 Latitudinal Heat Balance������������������������������������������������������������������   85
References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   86
8 Atmospheric Pressure and Wind������������������������������������������������������������   87
8.1 Mass of the Atmosphere��������������������������������������������������������������������   87
8.2 Definition of Atmospheric Pressure��������������������������������������������������   88
8.3 Geopotential��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   89
8.4 Barometric Pressure Distribution������������������������������������������������������   90
8.4.1 Pressure Gradient������������������������������������������������������������������   91
8.4.2 Isobars ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������   92
8.4.3 Isohypses������������������������������������������������������������������������������   93
8.4.4 Hydrostatic Balance��������������������������������������������������������������   94
8.5 Pressure Systems������������������������������������������������������������������������������   95
8.6 Daily Pressure Distribution��������������������������������������������������������������   98
8.7 Reduction of the Surface Pressure to Mean Sea Level Pressure
(MSL)������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   99
8.8 Hydrostatic Equilibrium (Approximation) ��������������������������������������   99
8.9 Standard Atmosphere������������������������������������������������������������������������  103
8.10 Barotropic vs Baroclinic Atmosphere����������������������������������������������  104
8.11 Reduction on Atmospheric Pressure to Mean
Sea Level Pressure����������������������������������������������������������������������������  105
8.12 Stream Field��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  105
8.13 Definition of Wind����������������������������������������������������������������������������  108
8.14 Classification of the Winds ��������������������������������������������������������������  108
8.14.1 Permanent Wind��������������������������������������������������������������������  108
8.14.2 Trade Winds��������������������������������������������������������������������������  108
8.14.3 Anti-trade Winds������������������������������������������������������������������  109
8.14.4 Periodic Winds����������������������������������������������������������������������  110
8.14.5 Local Winds��������������������������������������������������������������������������  111
8.14.6 Land and Sea Breezes ����������������������������������������������������������  111
8.14.7 Mountain and Valley Winds��������������������������������������������������  112
8.14.8 Katabatic Winds��������������������������������������������������������������������  113
References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  113
xiv Contents

9 Atmospheric Stability������������������������������������������������������������������������������  115

9.1 Air Stability��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  115
9.2 Static Atmospheric Stability ������������������������������������������������������������  116
9.3 Stability Due to Air Movement��������������������������������������������������������  117
9.4 Convective Instability ����������������������������������������������������������������������  118
9.5 Low-Level Inversions������������������������������������������������������������������������  119
References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  120
10 Atmospheric Moisture ����������������������������������������������������������������������������  123
10.1 Water Vapour in the Atmosphere����������������������������������������������������  123
10.2 Air Moisture Quantities������������������������������������������������������������������  124
10.3 The Relative Humidity��������������������������������������������������������������������  127
10.4 The Moisture Deficit ����������������������������������������������������������������������  129
10.5 A Dew Point Temperature��������������������������������������������������������������  129
10.6 The Phase Changes ������������������������������������������������������������������������  130
10.7 Condensation and Evaporation ������������������������������������������������������  131
References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  133
11 Clouds and Precipitation������������������������������������������������������������������������  135
11.1 Formation of Clouds ����������������������������������������������������������������������  135
11.1.1 Air Saturation Mechanism����������������������������������������������  137
11.1.2 Adiabatic Cooling ����������������������������������������������������������  138
11.1.3 Water Vapour Supply by Air Mixing������������������������������  138
11.1.4 Mixing and Diffusion������������������������������������������������������  140
11.1.5 Diabatic Cooling ������������������������������������������������������������  141
11.1.6 Formation of Cloud Elements ����������������������������������������  141
11.1.7 Precipitation��������������������������������������������������������������������  141
11.1.8 The Mechanism of Ice Nucleation����������������������������������  142
11.1.9 Classification of the Microprocesses������������������������������  143
11.2 Cloud Definition and Classification������������������������������������������������  143
11.2.1 Cloud Classification��������������������������������������������������������  144
11.2.2 Cloud Classification by Form������������������������������������������  144
11.2.3 Cloud Classification Based on Height����������������������������  144
11.2.4 International Cloud Classification����������������������������������  145
11.2.5 Cloud Classification by Composition�����������������������������  150
11.2.6 Classification by Mechanism of Formation��������������������  150
11.2.7 Special Clouds����������������������������������������������������������������  151
11.3 Fog��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  152
11.3.1 Fog Types and Formation������������������������������������������������  152
11.4 Hydrometeors����������������������������������������������������������������������������������  154
11.4.1 Precipitation��������������������������������������������������������������������  155
11.4.2 Orographic Rainfall��������������������������������������������������������  156
11.4.3 Convective Rainfall ��������������������������������������������������������  156
11.4.4 Frontal Rainfall ��������������������������������������������������������������  157
References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  158
Contents xv

12 Atmospheric Motion��������������������������������������������������������������������������������  159

12.1 Real Forces��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  160
12.1.1 Pressure Gradient Force��������������������������������������������������  160
12.1.2 Gravity����������������������������������������������������������������������������  162
12.1.3 Friction����������������������������������������������������������������������������  164
12.2 The Forces That Are the Effects of Earth’s Rotation����������������������  166
12.2.1 Centrifugal Force������������������������������������������������������������  166
12.2.2 Coriolis Force (C) ����������������������������������������������������������  168
12.3 Some Common Resultant Forces����������������������������������������������������  170
12.3.1 Earth’s Gravity Force������������������������������������������������������  170
12.3.2 Buoyancy Force��������������������������������������������������������������  171
12.4 Atmospheric Motion ����������������������������������������������������������������������  174
12.4.1 The Equation of Motion in a System Rotating
Together with the Earth�������������������������������������������������� 174
12.5 Application of the Equations of Horizontal Motion ����������������������  177
12.5.1 Geostrophic Wind (Vg)����������������������������������������������������  177
12.5.2 Thermal Wind (VT)����������������������������������������������������������  180
12.5.3 Gradient Wind ����������������������������������������������������������������  183
12.5.4 Quasi-geostrophic Equations of Motion ������������������������  185
12.6 Vertical Motions in the Atmosphere ����������������������������������������������  187
12.7 Vorticity Equation ��������������������������������������������������������������������������  187
12.8 Basic Characteristics of Vorticity����������������������������������������������������  192
12.8.1 Positive Vorticity Advection PVA and Upward
Air Motion���������������������������������������������������������������������� 194
References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  195
13 Atmospheric Waves����������������������������������������������������������������������������������  197
13.1 Waves: General Features����������������������������������������������������������������  197
13.2 Wave Equation��������������������������������������������������������������������������������  198
13.2.1 Mathematical Description of 1-D Waves������������������������  199
13.3 Atmospheric Waves������������������������������������������������������������������������  201
13.3.1 History Studying Atmospheric Waves����������������������������  201
13.3.2 Atmospheric Waves: Definition��������������������������������������  201
13.3.3 Factors that Form a Wave������������������������������������������������  202
13.3.4 Basic Wave Properties and Classification ����������������������  202
13.4 The Mathematical Concept of Atmospheric Waves������������������������  203
13.4.1 Atmospheric Sound Waves����������������������������������������������  203
13.4.2 Gravity Waves ����������������������������������������������������������������  208
13.4.3 Inertial-Gravity Waves����������������������������������������������������  213
13.4.4 Rossby Waves������������������������������������������������������������������  214
References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  216
14 Atmospheric Boundary Layer (ABL)����������������������������������������������������  219
14.1 ABL Historical Overview ��������������������������������������������������������������  219
14.2 ABL Definition and Basic Characteristics��������������������������������������  220
14.2.1 ABL Significance������������������������������������������������������������  223
xvi Contents

14.3 ABL Structure��������������������������������������������������������������������������������  223

14.3.1 Surface Layer������������������������������������������������������������������  224
14.3.2 Mixing Layer������������������������������������������������������������������  224
14.3.3 Residual Layer����������������������������������������������������������������  225
14.3.4 Stable Boundary Layer����������������������������������������������������  225
14.3.5 Free Atmosphere ������������������������������������������������������������  225
14.4 Factors Influence on ABL Structure ����������������������������������������������  226
14.4.1 The Neutral PBL ������������������������������������������������������������  226
14.4.2 The Ekman Wind Spiral��������������������������������������������������  226
14.4.3 Unstable Stratified Atmospheric Boundary Layer����������  227
References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  228
15 General Circulation of the Atmosphere ������������������������������������������������  229
15.1 General Atmospheric Circulation Definition����������������������������������  229
15.2 Conceptual Model of the General Atmospheric Circulation����������  230
15.3 Three-Cell Model of Circulation����������������������������������������������������  230
15.3.1 Circulation in Hadley Cell����������������������������������������������  231
15.3.2 Intertropical Convergence Zone��������������������������������������  232
15.3.3 Zonal Pressure Patterns ��������������������������������������������������  234
15.3.4 Upper Tropospheric Wind and Pressure Patterns������������  234
15.4 The Wind Patterns��������������������������������������������������������������������������  235
15.4.1 Eastern and Western Winds��������������������������������������������  236
15.5 Global Distribution of Pressure, Rainfall, and Climate������������������  236
15.6 Ocean Circulation ��������������������������������������������������������������������������  237
15.6.1 Major Ocean Currents ����������������������������������������������������  239
15.7 Ocean Waves ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������  240
15.8 Large-Scale Circulation Modes������������������������������������������������������  242
15.8.1 North Atlantic (NAO) and Artic Oscillation (AO)����������  242
15.8.2 El Niño-Southern Oscillation������������������������������������������  245
15.8.3 La Nina����������������������������������������������������������������������������  245
15.9 Winds at the Regional Scale: Monsoon������������������������������������������  246
15.10 Jet Streams��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  248
15.10.1 A Waiver Jet Stream��������������������������������������������������������  249
15.11 Rossby Planetary Waves ����������������������������������������������������������������  249
References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  250
16 Air Masses and Fronts����������������������������������������������������������������������������  253
16.1 Definition of Air Masses ����������������������������������������������������������������  253
16.1.1 Air Mass Source Region ������������������������������������������������  254
16.1.2 Formation Criteria����������������������������������������������������������  254
16.2 Air Mass Classification ������������������������������������������������������������������  254
16.2.1 Polar Continental and Artic Continental
Air Masses (cP and cA)�������������������������������������������������� 255
16.2.2 Maritime Polar Air Masses (mP)������������������������������������  255
16.2.3 Tropical Maritime Air Masses (mT) ������������������������������  256
16.3 Air Mass Modification��������������������������������������������������������������������  256
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16.4 Fronts (Frontal Boundaries)������������������������������������������������������������  257

16.4.1 Types of Weather Fronts��������������������������������������������������  257
16.4.2 Occluded Fronts��������������������������������������������������������������  260
References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  261
17 Cyclones and Anticyclones����������������������������������������������������������������������  263
17.1 General Terms ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������  263
17.2 Low-Pressure Systems: Cyclones ��������������������������������������������������  264
17.2.1 Formation of Extratropical Cyclone��������������������������������  265
17.2.2 Life Cycle of the Extratropical Cyclone ������������������������  265
17.2.3 Cyclone Movement ��������������������������������������������������������  267
17.2.4 Upper Level Low������������������������������������������������������������  269
17.3 High-Pressure System: Anticyclone ����������������������������������������������  271
17.4 Weather Conditions Associate with Cyclones
and Anticyclones����������������������������������������������������������������������������  272
References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  273
18 Tropical Storms����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  275
18.1 General Overview ��������������������������������������������������������������������������  275
18.2 Tropical Cyclone Formation ����������������������������������������������������������  276
18.2.1 General Factors ��������������������������������������������������������������  277
18.2.2 The Basic Ingredients������������������������������������������������������  278
18.3 Areas of Formation ������������������������������������������������������������������������  278
18.4 Classification of Tropical Cyclones������������������������������������������������  279
18.5 Tropical Storm Structure����������������������������������������������������������������  280
18.5.1 Cyclonic Eye ������������������������������������������������������������������  281
18.5.2 Eyewall����������������������������������������������������������������������������  282
18.5.3 Rain Bands����������������������������������������������������������������������  283
18.5.4 Dimensions of the Tropical Cyclone������������������������������  283
18.5.5 Tropical Cyclone Life Cycle and Tracks������������������������  284
18.5.6 The Weather Associated with Tropical Cyclones������������  285
18.5.7 Tropical Cyclone Disasters ��������������������������������������������  285
18.5.8 Large Storm Wave ����������������������������������������������������������  285
18.5.9 Windstorms and Flooding ����������������������������������������������  286
18.5.10 Names of Tropical Cyclones ������������������������������������������  287
References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  287
19 Thunderstorms, Lightning, and Tornadoes������������������������������������������  289
19.1 Basic Definition������������������������������������������������������������������������������  289
19.2 Thunderstorm Formation����������������������������������������������������������������  290
19.3 Life Cycle of a Thunderstorm��������������������������������������������������������  290
19.4 Thunderstorm Classification ����������������������������������������������������������  291
19.5 Atmospheric Electricity������������������������������������������������������������������  294
19.5.1 General Features of Lightning����������������������������������������  294
19.5.2 Origin of Atmospheric Currents��������������������������������������  295
19.5.3 The Mechanism of Charge Separation����������������������������  295
19.5.4 Creation of a Field����������������������������������������������������������  297
xviii Contents

19.5.5 Lightning Stroke��������������������������������������������������������������  298

19.5.6 Mechanism of the Lightning Discharge��������������������������  298
19.6 Tornado ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  299
19.6.1 Classification of Tornadoes ��������������������������������������������  300
References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  301
20 Meteorological Hazards��������������������������������������������������������������������������  303
20.1 Natural Disasters����������������������������������������������������������������������������  303
20.2 Meteorological Hazards������������������������������������������������������������������  305
20.2.1 Droughts��������������������������������������������������������������������������  305
20.2.2 Tropical Cyclones ����������������������������������������������������������  307
20.2.3 Floods and Flash Floods�������������������������������������������������  307
20.2.4 Landslides or Slippery Ground ��������������������������������������  309
20.2.5 Avalanches����������������������������������������������������������������������  309
20.2.6 Desert and Dust Storms��������������������������������������������������  309
20.2.7 Heat Waves and Cold Spells��������������������������������������������  310
20.2.8 Severe Storms, Lightning, and Tornadoes����������������������  311
20.2.9 Forest of Wildland Fires��������������������������������������������������  311
20.2.10 Heavy Rainfall and Snowfall and Strong Winds������������  312
20.2.11 Extreme Air Pollution ����������������������������������������������������  312
20.2.12 Tsunami��������������������������������������������������������������������������  313
References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  314
21 Atmospheric Optics ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������  315
21.1 Basic Properties of Sunlight������������������������������������������������������������  315
21.1.1 Light Velocity and Refractive Index��������������������������������  316
21.1.2 Dispersion ����������������������������������������������������������������������  316
21.1.3 Reflection������������������������������������������������������������������������  317
21.1.4 Refraction������������������������������������������������������������������������  318
21.1.5 Scattering������������������������������������������������������������������������  318
21.1.6 Diffraction ����������������������������������������������������������������������  319
21.2 Photometeors����������������������������������������������������������������������������������  320
21.2.1 Mirage ����������������������������������������������������������������������������  320
21.2.2 Rainbow��������������������������������������������������������������������������  321
21.2.3 Halo ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������  322
21.2.4 Glory ������������������������������������������������������������������������������  323
21.2.5 Corona ����������������������������������������������������������������������������  323
21.2.6 Aurora ����������������������������������������������������������������������������  324
21.2.7 Colour of the Sky������������������������������������������������������������  325
21.2.8 Cloud Iridescence������������������������������������������������������������  325
References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  326
22 Atmospheric Chemistry��������������������������������������������������������������������������  327
22.1 Units of Measurements ������������������������������������������������������������������  327
22.1.1 Mixing Ratio ������������������������������������������������������������������  327
22.1.2 Number Density��������������������������������������������������������������  328
Contents xix

22.1.3 Partial Pressure����������������������������������������������������������������  329

22.1.4 Dry and Wet Deposition��������������������������������������������������  330
22.1.5 Gas-Particle Partitioning ������������������������������������������������  330
22.2 Chemical Composition of the Atmosphere ������������������������������������  330
22.2.1 Water Vapour as a Greenhouse Gas��������������������������������  331
22.3 Ozone Photochemistry��������������������������������������������������������������������  332
22.4 Atmospheric Pollution��������������������������������������������������������������������  334
22.4.1 The Mechanisms of Air Pollution ����������������������������������  334
22.4.2 Classification of Pollutants����������������������������������������������  334
22.4.3 Primary Atmospheric Pollutants ������������������������������������  335
22.4.4 Factors Affecting Air Pollution ��������������������������������������  338
22.4.5 Acid Rain������������������������������������������������������������������������  338
22.5 Atmospheric Aerosols��������������������������������������������������������������������  339
22.5.1 Effects of Atmospheric Aerosols������������������������������������  341
22.5.2 Origin of Aerosols ����������������������������������������������������������  341
22.5.3 Aerosol Particle Concentration ��������������������������������������  342
22.5.4 Aerosol Particle Size Distribution����������������������������������  343
22.5.5 Sources of Atmospheric Aerosols ����������������������������������  345
22.5.6 The Role of Clouds in the Atmosphere
Pollution�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 345
References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  346
23 Weather Forecast and NWP��������������������������������������������������������������������  349
23.1 Weather Forecast Overview������������������������������������������������������������  349
23.2 Historical Background��������������������������������������������������������������������  349
23.2.1 Early Research Period ����������������������������������������������������  350
23.2.2 Weather Forecast Evolution��������������������������������������������  352
23.2.3 Modern Weather Forecast ����������������������������������������������  352
23.2.4 Early Numerical Weather Prediction (NWP)������������������  354
23.3 Numerical Weather Prediction Concept������������������������������������������  356
23.3.1 Uncertainties in Weather Forecasts ��������������������������������  358
23.3.2 Weather Forecast Practice ����������������������������������������������  360
23.3.3 Weather Charts����������������������������������������������������������������  361
23.4 Weather Forecast Methods��������������������������������������������������������������  361
23.4.1 Objective Methods����������������������������������������������������������  361
23.4.2 Subjective Methods ��������������������������������������������������������  362
23.5 Weather Forecast Types Based on the Range
of the Processes������������������������������������������������������������������������������  365
23.5.1 Very Short-Range Weather Forecast ������������������������������  365
23.5.2 Short-Range Weather Forecast����������������������������������������  366
23.5.3 Medium-Range Weather Forecast ����������������������������������  366
23.5.4 Extended-Range Weather Forecast ��������������������������������  368
23.5.5 Monthly Weather Outlooks ��������������������������������������������  369
23.5.6 Long-Range Weather Forecast����������������������������������������  369
23.5.7 Climate Forecast��������������������������������������������������������������  370
xx Contents

23.6 Ensemble Forecast Method������������������������������������������������������������  371

23.6.1 Deterministic Vs Probabilistic Forecast��������������������������  371
23.7 Numerical Weather Prediction Structure����������������������������������������  372
23.7.1 Data Assimilation������������������������������������������������������������  373
23.7.2 Reanalysis ����������������������������������������������������������������������  374
23.7.3 Application of New Technologies for Weather
Forecasting���������������������������������������������������������������������� 375
23.7.4 Observations and Forecasts��������������������������������������������  375
References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  376
24 Climate and Climate Change������������������������������������������������������������������  377
24.1 Definition of Climate, Climate Elements, and Factors ������������������  377
24.2 Climate System ������������������������������������������������������������������������������  378
24.3 Milankovic Theory of Climate Change������������������������������������������  379
24.4 Climate Classification ��������������������������������������������������������������������  382
24.5 Climate Factors (Controllers) ��������������������������������������������������������  382
24.6 Climate Types ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������  383
24.6.1 Modern Term of Climate������������������������������������������������  384
24.7 Climate Modelling��������������������������������������������������������������������������  384
24.7.1 Climate System Simplification����������������������������������������  385
24.7.2 Climate Models ��������������������������������������������������������������  385
24.8 Climate Change������������������������������������������������������������������������������  387
24.8.1 Scientific Overview of Climate Change��������������������������  387
24.8.2 Climate Change Factors��������������������������������������������������  388
24.9 Climate Variability��������������������������������������������������������������������������  389
24.9.1 Arctic Amplification��������������������������������������������������������  390
24.9.2 Solar Activity������������������������������������������������������������������  391
24.10 Climate Change Ingredients������������������������������������������������������������  392
24.10.1 Greenhouse Effect ����������������������������������������������������������  393
24.10.2 Global Warming��������������������������������������������������������������  393
24.11 Current Climate Change Status������������������������������������������������������  394
24.12 Future Climate Projections, Risks, and Impacts ����������������������������  395
24.12.1 Adaptation, Mitigation, and Sustainable
Development ������������������������������������������������������������������ 395
References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  397
25 Meteorological Measurements and Observations ��������������������������������  399
25.1 Meteorological Observing Systems������������������������������������������������  399
25.2 Basic Meteorological Elements������������������������������������������������������  401
25.3 Standardization of Measurements��������������������������������������������������  401
25.4 Measurement of Air Temperature ��������������������������������������������������  403
25.5 Measurement of Atmospheric Pressure������������������������������������������  407
25.6 Measurement of Air Humidity��������������������������������������������������������  409
25.7 Measurement of Surface Wind��������������������������������������������������������  413
25.8 Measurement of Precipitation ��������������������������������������������������������  414
25.9 Measurement of Solar Radiation����������������������������������������������������  416
Contents xxi

25.10 Measurement of UV Radiation ������������������������������������������������������  418

25.11 Measurement of Visibility��������������������������������������������������������������  419
25.12 Measurement of Evaporation����������������������������������������������������������  420
25.13 Upper Air Measurements����������������������������������������������������������������  420
25.13.1 Measurement of Upper Wind������������������������������������������  422
25.14 Advanced Remote Sensing Measurements ������������������������������������  422
25.14.1 The Global Observing System����������������������������������������  423
25.14.2 LIght Detection And Ranging (LIDAR) ������������������������  424
25.14.3 SOund Detecting And Ranging (SODAR)����������������������  424
25.15 Measurements at Automatic Weather Stations (AWS) ������������������  425
25.16 Satellite Observations ��������������������������������������������������������������������  426
25.17 Special Measurements��������������������������������������������������������������������  429
References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  429

Index������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  431
About the Authors

Mladjen Ćurić was born in Zabljak, Montenegro. He completed his Bachelor in

 

Hydrometeorology l in Belgrade and was awarded top marks. Dr. Ćurić graduated
in meteorology from the University of Belgrade, where he also completed his post-
graduate study and Ph.D. thesis. From 1977 to 1980, he attended Colorado State
University, Fort Collins, USA, through several study visits; Imperial College,
London, England; Manchester University, England; and The Meteorological Office,
Bracknell. From 1972 to 1978, Dr. Ćurić was appointed as Teaching Assistant,
Department of Physics and Meteorology, Belgrade University, and since 1990 he
has been a Full Professor at the Institute of Meteorology, Belgrade University. From
1979 to 1982, Dr. Ćurić was Director of the Institute of Meteorology, University of
Belgrade. From 1982 to 1984, he was Vice Dean in the Faculty of Physics, University
of Belgrade. Dr. Ćurić was also nominated as a Member of the Executive Committee
of the International Commission on Clouds and Precipitation-IAMAP from
1988–1996. Since 1990, he has been a Member of the Executive Committee of the
National Association of Environment Protection. Dr. Ćurić was Vice Dean at the
Faculty of Physics from 1996 to 1998 and from 2004 to 2007.
His professional and scientific interest are the fundamental topics in meteorol-
ogy, that is, dynamics of atmosphere, cloud physics, applied meteorology and

xxiii
xxiv About the Authors

hydrology, weather modification, and environment protection. Dr. Ćurić is the

author of several books and author and co-author of more than two hundreds papers,
mainly in international reviewed journals (Journal of the Atmospheric Science,
Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, Tellus, Journal of Applied
Meteorology, Atmosphere-Ocean, Theoretical and Applied Climatology,
Atmospheric Research, Meteorology and Atmospheric Physics, Journal of
Geophysical Research).

Vlado  Spiridonov was born in Skopje. He completed primary school in Grigor

 

Prlicev, secondary school in Rade Jovcevski Korcagin, and high school at the
Institute of Physics, the Faculty of Natural Sciences, St. Cyril and Methodius
University, Skopje. Dr. Spiridonov received specializing Sci., M.Sc., and
Ph.D. degrees from the Institute of Meteorology, Physical Faculty of the University
of Belgrade.
In 2004, the National Research Council of Canada granted a Postdoctoral
Fellowship to Dr. Spiridonov at Meteorological Service of Canada, The Air Quality
Modelling Branch.
In the same year, the Government of the Republic of Macedonia appointed Dr.
Spiridonov as Director General of the Hydrometeorological Service and the
Permanent Representative of the Republic of Macedonia to the World Meteorological
Organization.
In April 2007, he was appointed as Assistant Professor in Meteorology at the
Faculty of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, while in 2012 he became Associate
Professor in Meteorology, and still continuing, at Ss Cyril and Methodius University
in Skopje. Dr. Spiridonov is a Faculty Member in the National Council of Climate
Change in Macedonia as well as the Representative of the Commission of
Atmospheric Science at the World Meteorological Organization.
From 2017 to 2019 Dr. Spiridonov was a Visiting Professor of Meteorology at
the University of Vienna, Faculty of Earth Sciences, Geography and Astronomy,
Department of Meteorology and Geophysics, as a proxy for General and Theoretical
Meteorology. He has made a significant contribution in developing and promoting
education and learning platforms by implementation of innovative approach and
About the Authors xxv

novel solutions in academic practice at UNIVIE. His research activities and valu-

able scientific publication record within a 2 years were highly acknowledged by the
Department of Meteorology and Geophysics.
He has participated in several international scientific conferences, organized
international events and symposiums, and has given presentations, scientific lec-
tures, and invited talks to plenary sessions and seminars worldwide.
Dr. Spiridonov has published many scientific papers in international journals,
five books, and has won several awards (e.g., Innovation of the Year-2000  in
Macedonia, Gold medal with mention at EUREKA-2000 exhibition in Brussels, a
Genius Prize by Hungarian Association of Innovations, and GRAND PRIX in 2002
on 4th GENIOUS International Invention Exhibition in Budapest for the invention
associated with fog dispersal method).
His present research is related to the development of a new storm alert system
using a non-hydrostatic mesoscale forecast model, a Cloud Resolving Model, and
suitable diagnostic tool for calculation of severe weather indices. Many sensitivity
studies indicate that this novel method shows good performance in more accurate
evaluation of severe storms and the local-scale hazards impact over area of interest
as valuable information for severe weather alert worldwide.
Chapter 1
Introduction

Meteorology belongs among the oldest scientific disciplines. It has a long-lasting

history that reaches back to the distant past of the human civilization. From the
beginnings of life, people have been trying to adapt to the atmospheric behaviour, to
create a more comfortable life, and to control those conditions that endanger or
make life uncomfortable. There is no doubt that today meteorological science has a
tremendous importance around the world. Every day, people are faced with various
manifestations of weather. Depending on weather conditions, they adapt their
planned activities. Weather manifestation is closely related to the status of the atmo-
sphere, which has a wave nature. The scientific discipline that examines atmospheric
phenomena, atmospheric structure, composition, atmospheric features and phenom-
ena, and the important processes that occur in a thin surrounding layer of the
atmosphere-­troposphere, water, and air including the future state of the atmosphere
is referred to us as “meteorology”. Basically, meteorology examines the physical
processes that occur in the atmosphere. Hence, this scientific discipline is often
referred to as the “Physics of the Atmosphere” (see Spiridonov 2010; Spiridonov
and Ćurić 2011; Andrews 2010; Salby 1996). Meteorology as an interdisciplinary
science cuts across a various number of natural disciplines. Thus, there is a great
interest in meteorology, especially in the last two to three decades, when the global
community is facing with global warming and climate change with extreme weather
events. During this period many comprehensive textbooks, scientific publications,
and studies were dedicated to this contemporary and interdisciplinary science (e.g.
Andrews 2010; Ackerman and Knox 2007; Ćurić 2006; Lutgens and Tarbuck 2009;
Salby 1996; Anthes 1996).
The key motivation for writing this contemporary textbook arrives from the need
for comprehensive and systematic way of describing all the important atmospheric
phenomena and processes that constitute the modern concept of meteorology. The
purpose is to offer an advanced understanding and significant knowledge of the
important topics relating to these natural environmental processes. Standard, theo-
retical, and experimental approach gradually adapts the reader into the subject and
introduces the problems which emerge. Furthermore, the essential elements of

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 1

V. Spiridonov, M. Ćurić, Fundamentals of Meteorology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-52655-9_1
2 1 Introduction

mathematics are used, in order to easily present certain phenomena and processes in
the atmosphere. We have tried to incorporate all important topics in the modern
concept of the physics of atmosphere meteorology. The writing is primarily intended
for students of the atmospheric and environmental sciences and physics of the atmo-
sphere meteorology or those who attend the general course in meteorology. Yet
again, this book is designed for a wider circle of readers, starting from primary,
secondary, and higher education to all those interested in meteorology who want to
find useful information, content, and interpretation of certain global phenomena and
processes occurring in the atmosphere of our planet. With an exceptionally read-
able, comprehensive, and extensive illustrative and interesting approach with the
standard appropriate mathematical concept, it describes the basic characteristics of
the atmosphere, including weather, climate, and climate change. The book begins
with the definition of the subject and the tasks of meteorology, methods of research,
classification of meteorology, and the relation between meteorology and other sci-
ences. It also contains chapters on the historical overview, structure and chemical
composition of the atmosphere, energy and radiation in the atmosphere, the energy
budget of the Earth, the basis of the thermodynamics of the atmosphere, air tem-
perature, and its variations. The book covers all the major topics of atmospheric
moisture processes (e.g. air humidity, condensation and formation of clouds, their
classification as well as an explanation of the process of formation of precipitation).
It also deals with chapters devoted to air pressure and winds, atmospheric statics,
planetary boundary layer, atmospheric dynamics, turbulence, the global atmo-
spheric circulation, air masses and fronts, cyclones, anticyclones, and tropical
cyclones. The book also contains basic information about natural disasters related
to weather, water and climate, atmospheric optical phenomena (photometers), and
atmospheric electricity. Climate and climate change, complexity of climate system,
climate models, the modern watching of climate change, greenhouse effect, and
global warming are considered with a special attention. A chapter in this book is
especially devoted to the methods and techniques of analysis and weather forecast-
ing development and application of numerical weather prediction. The 25th novel
chapter briefly introduces the readers in atmospheric chemistry, aerosols, and the
factors affecting the pollution source of atmospheric gases and aerosols. The last
chapter describes the meteorological measurements and observations, modern
instruments and devices used to measure atmospheric phenomena, radar and satel-
lite measurements, and observations of the atmosphere.

References

Ackerman, S. A., & Knox, J. A. (2007). Meteorology: Understanding the atmosphere (2nd ed.,
528 pp). Brooks/Cole.
Andrews, D.  G. (2010). An introduction to atmospheric physics (2nd ed., p.  237). Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Anthes, R. A. (1996). Meteorology (7th ed., 224 p). Pearson.
Ćurić, M. (2006). History of meteorology (monography) (pp. 563 (1, 2)). Belgrade: BIG Press.
References 3

Lutgens, F. K., & Tarbuck, E. J. (2009). The atmosphere: An introduction to meteorology (12th
ed., 505 pp). Pearson.
Salby, M.  L. (1996). Fundamentals of atmospheric physics (pp.  627 (4,5 11, 14)). San Diego:
Academic Press.
Spiridonov, V. (2010). Meteorology (pp.  317). ISBN 976-9989-57-642-331, COBBIS.MK-ID
79389450.
Spiridonov, V., & Ćurić, M. (2011). An introduction to meteorology (pp.  241). ISBN
978-608-65175-0-2 COBISS.MK-ID 83607306.
Chapter 2
Meteorology as a Natural Science

Meteorology is the branch of science which studies the atmosphere of our planet; its
structure, composition, and properties; the physical processes closely related to the
Earth’s surface, water, and air; various weather phenomena; weather and climate;
and the future state of the atmosphere (Lindzen et al. 1990; Ackerman and Knox
2007; Ahrens and Henson 2016).

2.1  Definition of the Atmosphere

According to the AMS glossary of meteorology, Earth’s atmosphere is a gaseous

envelope gravitationally bound to our planet Earth (Fig. 2.1) (Glickman 2000). In
order to determine its status and a behaviour at a given time, it is necessary to con-
duct observations at a different point, not only at the Earth’s surface (surface obser-
vations) but also at a certain height above sea level (upper air observations). From
here comes the necessity to organize a special meteorological station network and
aerological observation, equipped with suitable instruments and apparatus.
Moreover, there are special observatories for detailed observation and monitoring of
certain electrical, optical, and sound phenomena, the turbulence in the atmosphere,
and certain physical processes in clouds. Generally, in studying physics, the labora-
tory experiment appears as the primary used method. On the other hand, the meteo-
rological laboratory is the atmosphere itself. In research applied in physics,
conditions can be changed to introduce or eliminate certain factors in order to adopt
some laws.
Unlike physics, in meteorology such changes are not possible because numerous
secondary factors that affect a phenomenon or processes cannot be isolated. As the
scientific discipline, meteorology has the following tasks:

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V. Spiridonov, M. Ćurić, Fundamentals of Meteorology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-52655-9_2
6 2  Meteorology as a Natural Science

Fig. 2.1  The Earth’s

atmosphere

1. To identify and describe the processes that emerge in the atmosphere in a qualita-
tive and quantitative manner
2. To explain these phenomena and based on the obtained data to establish the laws
governing these processes
3. By applying these laws, to develop secure and reliable methods to predict their
future development in a period
4. To develop effective methods for modifying natural atmospheric conditions
based on personal needs, interdisciplinary application of meteorology in all eco-
nomic sectors (e.g. energy, transport, health, environment, tourism), and other
important activities
Meteorology is the contemporary natural science that is applied in various sec-
tors (e.g. water management, industry, energy, agriculture, transport, health, tour-
ism, etc.).

2.2  Methods of Research of the Atmosphere

In the current stage of development, meteorology as a natural science offers four

methods of scientific research:
1 . Method of observation in natural conditions
2. Method of experiments, which in a wider sense means laboratory measurements
and research in natural conditions, so-called field experiments
3. Method of theoretical analysis based on the general laws of physics, the physical
principles (Blake and Robson 2008), and exploitation of mathematical apparatus
4. Numerical methods for solving processes and phenomena considered a subject
of meteorology (atmospheric models)
A wide application in meteorology has the experimental method of measurement
and monitoring, in such cases when a specific data for scientific research purposes
(Antarctica, Arctic, oceanographic observations, etc.) are required.
2.3  Relationship Between Meteorology and Other Sciences 7

2.2.1  Experimental Method of Research

The experiment has a significant place in meteorology. Certain atmospheric phe-

nomena, such as lightning, cloud formation, and polar lights, could be monitored in
the laboratory conditions. In meteorology a huge amount of data that are subjected
to processing and analysis could be collected through observation and experiment.
In that view, the statistical method has the primary importance. It allows, by way of
averaging, to exclude random sides of separate atmospheric phenomena and to sep-
arate primary direction with its characteristics. Statistical method of correlation rep-
resents statistical measure that describes the size and direction of a relationship
between two or more meteorological variables. This method quantitatively expresses
the extent of that relationship. However, statistical methods do not explain in more
detail these relationships. For these reasons, the ultimate need is to apply an essen-
tial mathematical-physical analysis based on physical laws, specifically the physical
and mathematical relations for description of the atmospheric behaviour.

2.3  Relationship Between Meteorology and Other Sciences

As a planet, Earth is consist of three substances: gas (atmosphere), liquid (hydro-

sphere), and solid (lithosphere). Physical-chemical processes that take place within
them are now taught by independent studies. All these components are integrated
under a common name known as “geophysics”. Consequently, meteorology is the
group of geophysical sciences, and therefore it is closely related to other sciences of
that group, such as Earth physics and oceanography. Since a long time ago, the link-
age between meteorology and astrophysics, and more specifically between meteo-
rology and physics of the Sun, is established and reinforced. Regardless of the
numerous links to other sciences, according to the nature of task solution and meth-
ods used, meteorology is a physical science. It can be successfully developed only
based on achievements in physics, more precisely, its main branches: mechanics,
thermodynamics, hydrodynamics, aerodynamics, dynamics, and others. Therefore,
there is no doubt that meteorology may rightfully be called physics of the atmo-
sphere. According to the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG),
meteorological science studies only a layer of the atmosphere in a shallow vertical
space up to a height of 20 km. The rest of the atmospheric studies belong to so-­
called “Aeronomy”. Aeronomy is the science of the upper part of the atmosphere,
where dissociation and ionization are very important (Brasseur and Solomon 2005).
This kind of division is obviously not appropriate because the processes in the
atmosphere are interconnected. Thus, it is impossible to observe separately the
wave motions that characterize the dynamics of the mesosphere and the lower ther-
mosphere from the wave motions in the lower atmosphere, because these are inter-
related motions. Or, atmospheric discharges in the troposphere result in spectacular
electrical phenomena, such as blue jet, elves, and ring discharges (see Fig. 2.2).
8 2  Meteorology as a Natural Science

Fig. 2.2  The electrical

discharges in the
troposphere are related to
that in stratosphere and
mesosphere

2.4  Classification of Meteorology

Dynamic meteorology, physical meteorology, and applied represent three scientific

branches focused on studying the fundamental principles, the atmospheric pro-
cesses, and the application in various sectors.
Dynamic Meteorology. Dynamic meteorology studies the movements in the
atmosphere using the laws of the dynamics and thermodynamics of the atmosphere.
These basic laws applied to the atmosphere become very complicated, especially in
situations where clouds are formed. The main task of this branch of meteorology is
to provide a theoretical basis for understanding the effects of atmospheric move-
ments on the weather and climate from the smallest to the largest. Within dynamic
meteorology, a numerical weather forecast is being developed which solves the
equations of the dynamics and thermodynamics of the atmosphere by numerical
methods, since in most cases their solutions cannot be found by analytical methods.
It is the science of dynamics of the atmospheric processes (Fig. 2.3). It is a funda-
mental discipline in meteorology where the complex meteorological processes and
phenomena are interpreted in theoretical way using the fundamental principles of
fluid dynamics and thermodynamics. The physical quantities that characterize the
state of the atmosphere are temperature, density, pressure, etc.
Physical meteorology explains the physical processes in the atmosphere, such as
solar radiation, absorption, reflection and scattering, and outgoing terrestrial radia-
tion. It studies the cloud physics (see Fig. 2.4), aerosols, precipitation, atmospheric
moist processes, and near surface processes such as mixing, turbulence, and friction.
Applied meteorology includes a wide range of individual scientific disciplines
which deal with a specific application of meteorology in many sectors: transport,
health, environment, agriculture, and water economy (Fig.  2.5). In the following
2.4  Classification of Meteorology 9

Fig. 2.3 Dynamical
meteorology

Fig. 2.4 Physical 16.00

meteorology
14.00

12.00
HEIGHT (KM)

10.00

8.00

6.00

4.00

2.00

22.00 24.00 26.00 28.00 30.00 32.00 34.00 36.00 38.00 40.00 42.00

HORIZONTAL DISTANCE (KM)

text, a brief description of each individual branch of the applied meteorology

is given.
Synoptic meteorology is a branch of applied meteorology whose name is derived
from the Greek word synopsis, which is understood. This branch of meteorology
aims to forecast the weather. Synoptic meteorology analyses processes in the atmo-
sphere based on measurements and observations recorded on geographic maps for
places where measurements are made at a point in time, so-called synoptic maps.
The modern weather forecast is increasingly based on a numerical forecast, but still
with the decisive role of man in interpreting the synoptic situation that arises based
on drawn diagnostic maps and diagrams, products of different numerical models,
and radar and satellite images. Synoptic meteorology is the science of weather pre-
diction (e.g. Lackmann 2012; Barry and Carleton 2001; Bott 2012). The basic
method is synoptic, and it consists of an analysis of atmospheric phenomena and
processes with the help of special maps with a scale on which the data are caused by
meteorological observations carried out at different points on Earth. These maps are
called synoptically charts. The name derives from the Greek word “synopsis” which
means “entry”, thus enabling to obtain a representation of time over a wider region,
drawn on the map, and to provide forecasts for future situations.
10 2  Meteorology as a Natural Science

Fig. 2.5  Applied meteorology

Climatology refers to a science that is focused on formation of climate in differ-

ent geographical regions. “Climate” refers to a long-term specific regime of meteo-
rological weather of a given area designated by the influx of solar radiation, the
properties of the Earth’s surface, and the atmospheric circulation.
Agriculture meteorology is a discipline which has studied the impact of meteoro-
logical factors on the state of agriculture.
2.4  Classification of Meteorology 11

Biometeorology or medical meteorology is a discipline that studies the impact of

weather on human health. It is a separate branch of applied meteorology and studies
the human sensitivity to various atmospheric conditions. It is an interdisciplinary
activity in science that studies the interactions between the biosphere and the atmo-
sphere. Human biometeorology is a part of biometeorology, which deals with the
study of weather and climate impacts on human health. The title biometeorology is
sometimes replaced with the term bioclimatology that studies the climate impact
on health.
Radar and satellite meteorology is a discipline that deals with teaching methods,
techniques, and tools for radar observation and identification of clouds and cloudy
systems and methods and devices for satellite monitoring of the atmosphere and the
processes (Raghvan 2003).
Hydrometeorology is a branch of applied meteorology, which refers to the hydro-
logical cycle, water balance, and statistics of intensive rainfall. Hydrometeorologists
prepare and issue forecasts of accumulated (quantitative) precipitation, the rainfall
and snowfall intensity, and emphasize the areas with potential flash flooding.
Aeronautical meteorology is a branch of applied meteorology that refers to the
impact of weather on air traffic management. It is important for pilots to understand
the implications of weather on their flight planning and on their aircraft, as outlined
in the manual for air information.
Environmental meteorology is the study of the physics, dynamics, and chemistry
of the interactions of the Earth’s atmosphere and the urban built environment and
the provision of meteorological services to the populations and institutions of met-
ropolitan areas. Environmental meteorology mainly analyses industrial pollution
dispersion physically and chemically based on meteorological parameters such as
temperature, humidity, wind, and various weather conditions important for architec-
ture including analysis of how the construction phase of industrial and/or commer-
cial buildings, residential housing, highways, bridges, and towers can be best
accomplished during sustained periods of good weather.
Technical meteorology deals with the application of meteorology in separate
technical branches of the economy, electric power economy, construction, transport,
tourism, and other disciplines.
Weather modification is a branch of applied meteorology dedicated to human
activity to affect the atmospheric processes which characterize the weather. There
are standard methods and modern techniques to artificially influence and modify
weather, also used for rain augmentation, hail suppression, fog dispersal, control of
electrical discharges, and icing prevention. There is also another applied discipline
as forensic meteorology.
Forensic meteorology is meteorology, focused on scientific studying of weather,
applied to the process of reconstructing weather events for a certain time and loca-
tion. This is done by acquiring and analysing local weather reports such as surface
observations, radar and satellite images, and other data.
12 2  Meteorology as a Natural Science

2.4.1  Classification Based on the Studied Area

Depending on the region or area where certain atmospheric processes and phenom-
ena are manifested, meteorology is divided into tropical meteorology, polar meteo-
rology, marine or ocean meteorology (oceanography), and mountain meteorology
(Fig. 2.6).
Tropical meteorology studies the structure of the atmosphere and its behaviour in
areas around the equator, roughly between 30 deg. north and south latitude. Weather
and climate of tropics include phenomena such as northeast and southeast trade
winds, hurricanes, Intertropical Convergence Zone, jet streams, monsoon, and El
Niño-Southern Oscillation. Over the tropics more energy from the sun arrives than
it is lost in space (infrared radiation). The opposite occurs in high latitudes from
30 deg. lat to the poles. The excess energy from the tropics is carried by the winds
in high latitudes, by means of vertical circulation known as Hadley cell.
Polar meteorology is a branch of meteorology which explores the weather and
climate in high latitudes of the Earth. In polar regions, the Sun never rises far above
the horizon, and it remains constant throughout the year, so that snow and ice can
remain for long periods even at lower positions. Meteorological processes that
occur have exceptionally local characteristics in large proportions of the two Polar
Regions.

Fig. 2.6  Region based classification.

(a) WRF-ARW forecast of hurricane Dorian 3 Sep 2019; (b) Landscape-Weather Station,
Antarctica Research; Credit: Pixabay; (c) North Pacific storm waves as seen from the NOAA M/V
Noble Star, Winter 1989; Credit: NOAA; (d) A shot of the unusual Kelvin-Helmholtz waves in
cirrus cloud; Credit: Astronautilus; https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/deed.fr
2.4  Classification of Meteorology 13

Marine or ocean meteorology mainly deals with the study of oceanic areas,
including islands and coastal regions. This discipline is a practical application for
the Earth’s needs and air navigation through the ocean.
Coastal meteorology studies meteorological phenomena in the inner part of the
mainland, about 100 km from the coast. In meteorology, the determination of the
processes in a coastal zone is based on detailed knowledge of maritime and land
boundary layers and the interactions of the system atmosphere-sea. But, in order to
understand the processes better, the atmospheric dynamics in large-scale circulation
and coastal ocean should also be considered. Coastal meteorology is used for
weather forecasting in coastal areas. This branch of meteorology helps to under-
stand the physical, chemical, and biological aspects of ocean coastline.
Mountain meteorology is focused on the effects of mountains on the atmosphere,
which are placed in all scale processes of movement. Alpine meteorology is a spe-
cial branch of this scientific discipline that deals with the impact of the mountain
system of central and southern Europe, approximately 805 km in length and 161 km
in width, which stretches from the Mediterranean Sea through northern Italy and
southeastern France, Switzerland, southern Germany, and Austria and in the north-
western part of the Balkan Peninsula. Based on the studied layer in the atmosphere,
meteorology is divided into planetary boundary layer meteorology and aerology.
The boundary layer meteorology. It is the branch of meteorology that studies the
processes in the layer of air which is directly above Earth’s surface and is known as
the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) or planetary boundary layer (PBL) (Fig. 2.7).
The effects of surface heating, cooling, and friction cause turbulent mixing within
the layer of air. Considerable heat flux, mass, or momentum in a time scale less than
a day is transported with a turbulent movement. Boundary layer meteorology
includes the study of all types of surface boundaries: Earth-surface environment,
including oceans, seas, and lakes and urban and non-urban lands.

Fig. 2.7  Boundary layer

meteorology
14 2  Meteorology as a Natural Science

2.4.2  Classification According to the Scale of Processes

The atmosphere has a wave nature, characterized by different spatial and temporal
distribution of phenomena and processes (Lin 2007). Therefore, when studying the
atmosphere, meteorology can be divided into different areas of significance and
importance, depending on the spatial and temporal field of interest. One extremely
important branch of this scale is climatology. The time scale of meteorology, hours
to days, is divided into micro-scale, meso-scale, synoptic-scale, and global-scale
meteorology (see Fig. 2.8).
Micro-scale meteorology studies a small-scale atmospheric process, associated
with the interaction of the atmosphere and Earth’s surface. In these processes sur-
face transport and exchange of energy, heat and humidity at the ground layer of
atmosphere, convection, microphysical processes in clouds, turbulent processes in

Fig. 2.8  Classification based on the scale of the processes. (a) Numerical simulation of cloud-­
aerosol chemistry; (b) rotor clouds as the mesoscale instability phenomena; (c) numerical simula-
tion of hurricane Irma; (d) global mean sea level pressure in hPa
2.5  The Modern Term of Meteorology 15

the atmosphere, and the processes of diffusion are included. Spatial scale of these
processes is with a horizontal dimension less than 2–10  km, with time scales
between 15 min and 1 h. Meso-scale meteorology is a branch covering atmospheric
processes which have horizontal scales ranging from micro-scale to synoptic scale
from 20 to 200  km approximately, with a vertical scale that starts at the Earth’s
surface and covers the atmospheric boundary layer, the troposphere, tropopause,
and the lower part of the stratosphere. Time scale of meso-scale processes may be
from a few hours to less than 1 day, until the end of the life cycle of the phenome-
non. The meso-scale phenomena of special interest are storms, MCS, squall lines,
convective bands, frontal precipitation in tropical cyclones and extratropical
cyclones, and topographic established weather systems, such as mountain waves
and winds from the sea and land.
Synoptic-scale meteorology is basically a more dynamic field that refers to the
horizontal coordinates in terms of time. It includes phenomena such as cyclones,
extratropical cyclones, baroclinic troughs and ridges, frontal zones, and, to some
extent, jet currents. All these phenomena are usually drawn on weather maps, to
define specific time. Minimum horizontal scale of synoptic phenomena is limited in
space between the surface and observing stations.
Global-scale meteorology or planetary scale meteorology encompasses the
global atmospheric circulation, long waves, baroclinic waves, synoptic cyclones,
radiation, and surface processes of heat exchange and moisture between the oceans
and land. The study of temporal forms in this area covers the transport of heat from
tropics polewards. Also, the oscillations in a large scale are of extreme importance.
These oscillations have periods that are greater than the annual seasonal cycle.
Global scale directs the thresholds of perception of the meteorology towards clima-
tology. The traditional definition of climate is turned down in a larger time scale,
explaining how the global oscillations caused climate and weather disturbances in
synoptic and mesoscale.

2.5  The Modern Term of Meteorology

Today we are living in an era of climate change and global warming. We are wit-
nessing an increased frequency of atmospheric natural disasters that endanger our
planet Earth. Development and application of new technologies contribute to obtain-
ing better quality knowledge and information on the status and behaviour of the
atmosphere of our planet and the processes occurring in it. Modern view of the
meteorology (Helmis and Nastos 2012) almost transcends the conventional defini-
tion of meteorology as the “Physics of the Atmosphere”. Meteorology, as a sub-­
discipline of geophysics, grows into an interdisciplinary science, which is widely
devoted to the study of energy and planetary processes and interactions that take
place between the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere of planet
Earth and greatly affects the global climate system.
16 2  Meteorology as a Natural Science

References

Ackerman, S. A., & Knox, J. A. (2007). Meteorology: Understanding the atmosphere (2nd ed.,
528 pp). Brooks/Cole.
Ahrens, C. D., & Henson, R. (2016). Meteorology today, an introduction to weather, climate and
the environment (11th ed., 662 pp). Boston: Cengage Learning.
Barry, R.  G., & Carleton, A.  M. (2001). Synoptic and dynamic climatology (pp.  620 (23, 24)).
London: Routledge.
Blake, D., & Robson, R. (2008). Physical principles of meteorology and environmental physics.
Global, synoptic and micro scales (p. 261). Singapore: World Scientific Publishing CO. Pte. Ltd.
Bott, A. (2012). Synoptische meteorologie, methoden der wetteranalyse und-prognose (pp.  485
(23)). Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag.
Brasseur, G. P., & Solomon, S. (2005). Aeronomy of the middle atmosphere – chemistry and phys-
ics of the stratosphere and mesosphere (3rd ed.). Springer. 644 str.
Glickman, T.  S. (2000). Glossary of meteorology (2nd ed., p.  855). New  York: American
Meteorological Society.
Helmis, C. G., & Nastos, P. T. (Eds.). (2012). Advances in meteorology, climatology (1278 pp).
Springer.
Lackmann, G. (2012). Midlatitude synoptic meteorology dynamics, analysis, and forecasting (345
pp). Boston: American Meteorological Society.
Lin, Y.-L. (2007). Mesoscale dynamics (pp.  630 (12, 13)). Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Lindzen, R. S., Lorenz, E. N., & Platzman, G. W. (1990). The atmosphere – a challenge. The sci-
ence of Jule Gregory Charney (pp. 321 (3, 23)). Boston: American Meteorological Sociaty.
Raghvan, S. (2003). Radar meteorology (pp. 549 (25)). Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Chapter 3
Historical Background

3.1  Aristotle’s Meteorologica

Occurrences in the atmosphere have long been a subject of human interest. As with
other sciences, it is almost impossible to precisely determine the beginning of the
development of meteorology (e.g. Ćurić 2006; Neves et  al. 2017; Lutgens and
Tarbuck 2009; Spiridonov and Ćurić 2010). One should make a distinction between
meteorology as a natural science and meteorology as a separate “branch of knowl-
edge”. It seems that the term “meteorology” originates from 340  BC when the
Greek philosopher Aristotle (Fig.  3.1) wrote a book on human philosophy titled
“Μετεωρολογικά” (Greek) “Meteorologica” or “Meteora” (Latin). This book rep-
resented the philosophical study of the atmosphere at that time, including different
meteorological elements and weather phenomena (e.g. humidity, clouds, rain, snow,
wind, hail, lightning, and thunder). Also, other areas such as astronomy, geography,
and chemistry were also included. The book was titled “Meteorologica” because
each particle that was falling from the sky or that was suspended in the atmosphere
was called “meteor”. Today, we make a distinction between “meteors” (extra Earth
meteors) and hydrometeors (particles of water or ice in the atmosphere). The Greek
word “meteors” refers to something “high in the sky”, which is located between
Earth and the universe, while the word “logos” means study.
Although there were no instruments yet, the ancient Greeks collected data on the
state of the atmosphere, primarily wind and precipitation, and various atmospheric
phenomena were described and interpreted. Greek philosophers seemed to under-
stand the hydrological cycle, while water vapour, since it was invisible, was less
understood. Aristotle’s disciple Theophrastus wrote “Weather Signs” containing a
set of prognostic rules derived from celestial phenomena. In “Meteorologica”
Aristotle tried to explain weather phenomena in a philosophical way. Although most
of his claims were wrong until the seventeenth century, many Aristotle’s original
ideas were not scientifically recalled.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 17

V. Spiridonov, M. Ćurić, Fundamentals of Meteorology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-52655-9_3
18 3  Historical Background

Fig. 3.1  Bust of Aristotle

(384–322 BC)

3.2  Early Research Period

The origin of meteorology dates since its beginning  in 3000  BC (Teague and
Gallicchio 2017), through development as a legitimate, natural science dating from
late sixteenth century. Meteorology has been recognized as a natural science only
since the end of the 16th century. At that time, it was clear that the speculations of
natural philosophers were inadequate and that greater knowledge was necessary for
further understanding of the atmosphere. Certain instruments that would likely
measure properties of the atmosphere (e.g. temperature, humidity, pressure) were
necessary, but such instruments were never found until the end of that period. The
first of such discoveries was the hygrometer. Greek philosophers seemed to under-
stand the physical basis of the circulation of water through land-atmosphere system,
even in the absence of the instruments. Because the water in the gas (vapour) state
is invisible, these processes were less understandable. Questions pertaining to the
properties of this “invisible water vapour” led to the finding of an instrument for
measuring humidity by the German mathematician Cardinal Nicolas de short,
around 1450. The second invention of that kind was the water thermometer. The
discovery was attributed to Galileo Galilei (Fig. 3.2) in 1593, although the exact
date of his finding is not certain to this day. The ideas and the inventions of Galileo
motivated other scientists at that time to continue the search and the discovery of
other instruments for measuring atmospheric phenomena. Another invention in the
seventeenth century was instrument for measuring atmospheric pressure, called
“barometer”. The “barometer” is known as an instrument of Torricelli Evangelista,
an Italian mathematician who studied in the class of Galilei.
In 1643, Torricelli and his student Vincenzo Viviane constructed a vacuum tube
and used mercury for measuring the weight of the air column (Fig. 3.3). The first
anemometer for measuring wind speed was constructed in 1667 by Robert Hock,
3.2  Early Research Period 19

Fig. 3.2  Galileo Galilei

(1564–1642)

Fig. 3.3 Torricelli
Evangelista (1608–1647)

while Horace de Saucer completed this list of important meteorological instruments

in January 1780, with the construction of fibrous hygrometer as an instrument for
measuring the humidity of the air. In 1765, daily measurements of air pressure were
conducted; the moisture content of the direction and speed of wind were deter-
mined. For the first time, this is done by the French scientist, Lavoisier Laurent, who
stated: “With all this information it is almost always possible to provide the weather
forecast with reasonable accuracy, one to two days in advance”. However, things
were not as simple as Lavoisier thought. Since 1872 the Government British
Meteorological Office had prepared daily weather maps collecting the data and
drafting on a simple weather chart. Later, a new graphical tool was developed to
20 3  Historical Background

enable more rapid transmission of information. In that period, isobars-drawn lines

on a weather map, connecting points of equal barometric pressure and isotherms-
connecting lines having equal temperature were found. Other graphic devices were
also developed for characters for the display of wind direction and strength, as well
as lines that describe the intersections of warm and cold air masses. In 1854 a
French warship and 38 merchant ships sank in fierce storm near Krim’s port of
Balaklava. The Director of the Paris Observatory was asked to investigate the tem-
poral disaster. With the analysis and verification of meteorological reports, it was
noticed that the storm occurred 2 days before the ships sank and passed through
Europe from the southeast. If there was a system for monitoring the weather at that
time, ships would be notified of a storm surge. As a result of these findings, a
national storm warning service was established in France. This period is recognized
as the beginning of the modern meteorology. In 1862 Lord Kelvin, Scottish math-
ematician and physicist, suggested an absolute temperature scale, as the important
finding, which allowed further application in research and study of temperature
characteristics of the atmosphere. Instruments continue to develop during the eigh-
teenth and nineteenth centuries, with the full support of new technological achieve-
ments that impact on the deepening of our knowledge of the atmosphere. The
invention of telegraph in 1843 allowed routine transmission of the weather observa-
tions and the observations installed across the globe. Using these data, weather
maps and tracks from the surface of the wind were roughly drawn, and with their
help storm systems could be identified and spatial scales could be studied for a
longer time. Among many other advances, mainly related to the progress in physical
science was the discovery of Robert Boil, the dependence of the volume of the gas
pressure, which led to the thermodynamics and experiments with lightning by
Benjamin Franklin. The first correct explanation essential to the global atmospheric
circulation, whether based on a study of trade winds of George Hadley (Fig. 3.4)
written in 1735, which contributed to the mean tropical cell zonal atmospheric cir-
culation is referred as “Hadley cell”. In 1835, physicist Gaspard-Gustave de Coriolis

Fig. 3.4  George Hadley

(1685–1768)
3.3  Modern Research Period 21

found that the rotation of Earth causes power to depend on the velocity of bodies in
a reference composition of non-rotating Earth. Synoptic observations at the time
showed that there were some difficulties for the establishment of certain character-
istics associated with weather, such as clouds or winds. These difficulties were over-
come when Luke Howard and Francis Beaufort introduced systems for cloud
classification (1803) and wind speeds (1806), respectively. A real milestone in that
time was the invention of the telegraph in 1843 which has provided exchange of
information within invaluable time speed.

3.3  Modern Research Period

At the beginning of the twentieth century, theoretical studies of atmospheric phe-

nomena were usually performed analytically, taking the basic equations of fluid
dynamics which govern atmospheric processes, simplifying them to the neglect of
more terms, and seeking solutions to these equations (Thaxter 1990). Vilhelm
Friman Koren Bjerknes (Fig. 3.5) is a pioneer in the modern practice of weather
forecasting. He was especially famous in his studies of hydrodynamics and thermo-
dynamics and their association with the atmospheric motion. For example, Bjerknes
developed the model that explains the formation, intensification, and dissipation,
i.e. the life cycle of cyclones at high latitudes, by introducing the idea of frontal
systems as closely defined boundaries between two air masses (Bjerknes 1921).
In 1922, an English mathematician, physicist, meteorologist, psychologist Lewis
Fry Richardson (Fig. 3.6) made a pioneering work in developing the first numerical
weather prediction experiment. He is also noted for his pioneering work developing
a method for solving a system of linear equations known as modified Richardson

Fig. 3.5  Vilhelm Bjerknes

(1862–1951). (Credit:
Bjerknes Family [CC
BY-SA 4.0 (https://
creativecommons.org/
licenses/by-sa/4.0)])
22 3  Historical Background

Fig. 3.6  Fry Lewis

Richardson (1881–1953)

iteration. Richardson was several decades ahead of his time in what he attempted to
do. At the time of the World War I, computational weather forecasting was impracti-
cal for several reasons (e.g. lack of available observations, instabilities of the algo-
rithms for solving the atmospheric equations, inadequate knowledge of the balance
of the atmosphere, and massive volume of computation required to advance the
numerical solution). Later, John von Neumann, Jule Charney, and Ragnar Fjørtoft
made the first numerical weather prediction by computation of a solution of a sim-
ple equation, the barotropic vorticity equation (BVE), on the only computer avail-
able, the ENIAC.  Starting in the 1950s of the nineteenth century, the numerical
experiments with computers became feasible and practical (Lindzen et al. 1990).
The first weather forecasts derived this way used bar tropic (single-vertical-level)
models, which could successfully predict the movement of Rossby waves in large
scale, a general model of atmospheric cyclones and anticyclones.
The theory of chaos, i.e. nonlinearity of atmospheric processes, has great signifi-
cance for the development of meteorology, especially in the description of the limi-
tations of the forecast period; that fact is an integral part of atmospheric modelling.
The chaotic nature of the atmosphere was first studied by Edward Lorenz.
In 1960, Lorenz reveals the theory of chaos and the well-known “butterfly effect”.
A plot of Lorenz’s strange is shown in Fig. 3.7. In his theory, Lorenz is linking the
1-min-long swings of the wings of a butterfly in a place with great disturbances
which later would be caused elsewhere. Faster technological development in the
1960s allows launching of the world’s first weather satellite (TIROS-1), which was
equipped with a camera. Today, weather satellites pass from pole to pole.
Geostationary satellites are positioned in a fixed position above Earth and constantly
monitor a part of the globe.
The development of advanced remote sensing techniques such as radars, satel-
lites, lidars, sodars, and other technology continues so that meteorological satellites
References 23

Fig. 3.7 Two
Lorentz orbits

of the second generation (MSG-2) are designed to monitor the advantage of the new
technology and to improve the already successful and proven design of the original
(METEOSAT) satellites. The development of modern satellite technology creates
tools that are applied in the monitoring the weather and climate, the atmospheric
phenomena, and processes that are manifested at different spatial and temporal
scales and which substantially affect our daily lives and our daily activities. Today,
automated weather stations (AWS) send balloons into the atmosphere that contain
so-called radiosondes. These instruments can measure atmospheric conditions
using the radio to return information back to the station. Of course, weather stations
now also use radars. New scientific and technological achievements in the twenty-­
first century allowed rapid progress in the development and application of computer
models for weather forecasting, water, climate, and environment. More detailed
description of the historical development of meteorology, early research period until
the modern period of development and application of meteorological science, can
be found in one of the few monographs which are a historical treasure for develop-
ment of meteorological practice and science.

References

Bjerknes, V. (1921). The meteorology of the temperate zone and the general atmospheric circula-
tion. Monthly Weather Review, 49, 1–3.
Ćurić, M. (2006). History of meteorology (monography) (pp. 563 (1, 2)). Belgrade: BIG Press.
Lindzen, R. S., Lorenz, E. N., & Platzman, G. W. (1990). The atmosphere – a challenge. The sci-
ence of Jule Gregory Charney (pp. 321 (3, 23)). Boston: American Meteorological Sociaty.
Lutgens, F. K., & Tarbuck, E. J. (2009). The atmosphere: An introduction to meteorology (12th
ed., 505 pp). Pearson.
Neves, D. Z. d. F., Gallardo, N. P., & Vecchia, F. A. (2017). Critical history on the development of
meteorology and climatology. Climate, 5, 23.
Spiridonov, V., & Ćurić, M. (2010). An introduction to meteorology. Skopje: ZP Print. 245 str.
Teague, K. A., & Gallicchio, N. (2017). The evolution of meteorology: A look into the past, pres-
ent, and future of weather forecasting (272 p). Wiley-Blackwell.
Thaxter, W. J. (1990). The history of weather. New York: Nova Scientific Pub.
Chapter 4
Structure and Composition
of the Atmosphere

4.1  Earth Spheres

Earth is a complex system, which covers four main spheres given below and shown
in Fig. 4.1:
• Atmosphere (gas layer)
• Lithosphere (solid Earth part)
• Hydrosphere (aqueous part)
• Biosphere (living world)
• Cryosphere (ice part)
Spheres are interrelated and constitute an integral system, which conducts a very
important process. The exchange of energy that constantly occurs between the
Earth’s surface and the atmosphere, and between the atmosphere and the surround-
ing space, creates effects that define the nature of weather. The Earth system covers
complex and continuous interaction between lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere,
and biosphere. The two main energy sources that operate this system are:
1. Solar energy, which is forcing the external processes that occur on or above
Earth’s surface
2. Thermal energy, which comes from the Earth’s interior, i.e. heat to be supplied at
the formation of the planet and heat that is released in radioactive decay.

4.2  Basic Characteristics of the Atmosphere

The atmosphere represents a thin layer of gases, around the Earth’s surface which is
retained by Earth’s gravity. Like the atmospheres of other planets, the Earth’s atmo-
sphere plays a key role in the exchange of energy between the Sun and the surface

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 25

V. Spiridonov, M. Ćurić, Fundamentals of Meteorology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-52655-9_4
26 4  Structure and Composition of the Atmosphere

Fig. 4.1  Earth as a

complex system. (Credit:
ESA/AOES Medialab [CC
BY-SA 3.0 (https://
creativecommons.org/
licenses/by-sa/3.0)])

of the planet itself, as well as between different areas of the planet. This energy
exchange maintains a thermal balance and determines the climate of the planet. The
Earth’s atmosphere, of course, is unique in that it is also directly supported by the
huge ocean surface, which, through appropriate processes, places this system in a
favourable environment for the living world. The atmosphere is a fluid medium in
which a variety of movements occur, from turbulent (in the area of about a few
meters) to circulations that have dimensions as far as the planet itself (Lutgens and
Tarbuck 2009). These air movements influence other components (water vapour,
ozone, clouds) that significantly change the global energy balance of the atmosphere.

4.3  Origin of the Atmosphere

The origin of the atmosphere is still subject to different interpretations (Mölders and
Kramm 2014). Many of the scientists, based on their knowledge of gases in the
universe, believe that Earth’s first atmosphere was composed of the following gases:
helium, hydrogen, ammonia, and methane. Others believe that the first atmosphere
was probably composed of gases released from volcanoes emitting warm inner
core. The following are included in this group of gases: nitrogen (N2), carbon diox-
ide (CO2), hydrogen (H2), carbon monoxide (CO), and water vapour (H20). It is antic-
ipated that the second Earth’s atmosphere is generated as a result of heating and
differentiation. It probably consisted of the same gases that are released today by
volcanoes: carbon dioxide, nitrogen, water vapour, hydrogen, and other gases that
are present in the form of tracers. Planetary differentiation caused the lighter ele-
ments to rise to the other top layers of the Earth and thus caused the outpouring of
the lighter gases from the interior of the planet. It is assumed that the lighter gases
form the atmosphere and the oceans.
4.4  Chemical Composition of the Atmosphere 27

4.4  Chemical Composition of the Atmosphere

The atmosphere is a mixture of solid, liquid, and gaseous constituents. Gases in the
atmosphere are classified as constant (the concentration remains constant) or vari-
able where the concentration changes with time (Schumann 2012). Permanent gases
include oxygen, nitrogen, neon, argon, helium, and hydrogen. Mostly present of the
permanent gases are nitrogen (78.1%) and oxygen (20.9%) and argon (0.934%).
Rest of atmospheric gases are known as tracers or trace gases, because they are
found in very small concentrations or benchmark (Fig.  4.2). Trace gases include
carbon dioxide, ozone, and specific gases such as argon, neon, helium, krypton, and
xenon, which are very inert and essentially involved in any chemical transformation
within the atmosphere. The atmosphere also contains sulphur, fluorocarbons, and
dust and ice particles.

Fig. 4.2 Chemical
composition of the
atmosphere. (Credit:
Cmglee [CC BY-SA 3.0
(https://creativecommons.
org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)])
28 4  Structure and Composition of the Atmosphere

4.5  Significant Atmospheric Gases

4.5.1  General Facts About the Atmosphere

The atmosphere consists of a dynamic mixture of gases surrounding the Earth. The
two main gases, nitrogen and oxygen, make up the largest volume part of the atmo-
sphere. They are important for the maintenance of life and functioning of many
processes near the Earth’s surface. In the atmosphere there also exist “secondary
gases” which play equally important role in the Earth’s system (Jacob 1999). The
gases which have a significant impact on heat budget and the availability of mois-
ture on Earth are called secondary gases.
The atmosphere has layer structure due to the presence of characteristic thermal
layers, which appear as a result of changes in air temperature with height. The fol-
lowing chapters will examine the importance of primary and secondary emissions
and describe the vertical thermal structure of Earth’s atmosphere. Atmospheric
gases are divided into permanent and variable gases. Permanent gases are nitrogen,
oxygen, argon, neon, and helium (Table 4.1). Variable gases include water vapour,
carbon dioxide, methane, nitric oxide, ozone, and matter chlorofluorocarbons
(Table 4.2).
Nitrogen: Nitrogen is the most abundant gas in the atmosphere. Large amounts of
nitrogen enter the atmosphere through volcanic eruptions, biomass burning, and
nitrification. Nitrogen is released from the atmosphere and deposits of the Earth’s
surface with nitrogen-retainer bacteria and lightning. Nitrogen serves as an
important nutrient for plants.

Table 4.1 Permanent gases Percent of air

in the atmosphere Gas Symbol (by volume)
Nitrogen N2 78.08
Oxygen O2 20.95
Argon Ar 0.93
Neon Ne 0.0018
Helium He 0.0005

Table 4.2 Variable gas Gas Symbol Percent of air (by volume)

emissions
Water H2O 0–4%
Carbon dioxide CO2 0.0380%
Methane CH4 0.00017%
Nitrous oxide N2O 0.00003%
Ozone O3 0.000004%
4.5  Significant Atmospheric Gases 29

Oxygen: Oxygen is the second dominant gas in the atmosphere. It is a two-atomic

molecule, which is released into the atmosphere as unproductive products in the
process of photosynthesis. During photosynthesis carbon dioxide and water react
with the help of sunlight, which form oxygen and glucose. Oxygen is consumed
during the process of chlorophyll assimilation (respiration). Oxygen chemically
combines with glucose to obtain ATP together with carbon dioxide and water as
waste products.
Water vapour: Water vapour represents the most important component of changing
emissions. It is a natural greenhouse gas. Greenhouse gas prevents the infrared
radiation coming from the Sun. Embedded infrared radiation heats the Earth. This
phenomenon is known as the greenhouse effect. Water vapour, absorbs heat radi-
ated from the earth’s surface in the lower atmosphere. In this way, water vapour
plays a significant role in the redistribution of energy in the atmosphere. Water
vapour is released from the atmosphere during precipitation and back into the atmo-
sphere through evapotranspiration. Water vapour concentration in the atmosphere
changes depending on the place and the time of the year. Larger values of water
vapour concentration are evidenced over the oceans, seas, and tropical wet forests.
Carbon dioxide: Carbon dioxide is the fifth most abundant gas in the atmosphere.
Carbon dioxide enters the atmosphere during volcanic eruptions, burning of bio-
mass and fossil fuels, cement, and cutting wood. Carbon dioxide from the atmo-
sphere is released during process of photosynthesis and absorption in the oceans.
In the oceans, part of the carbon dioxide reacts with water to form carbonic acid.
The concentration of carbon dioxide increased by about 25% in the last 300 years.
Ozone (О3): Ozone is a natural component of the atmosphere that consists of three
(3) oxygen atoms (Fig. 4.3). Ozone is an unstable molecule that quickly decays
into oxygen molecule and another atom of oxygen. Ozone in the stratosphere
protects the atmosphere from harmful ultraviolet radiation, known hazards to
plants and animals, including humans. Ozone destruction causes harmful effects
on people which include the risks of skin cancer, cataract, and adverse impacts
on the immune system. At lower heights, ozone has different effects. Ozone can
cause respiratory problems (smog contains significant gas ozone), and it is cor-
rosive and reactive with building materials. Recently, ozone has been appointed
as greenhouse gas. The percentage representation of nitrogen in unit volume is
78.08%. Oxygen is represented by 20.95% and argon 0.93%, while the smallest
quantity contains neon and helium.

Fig. 4.3  Ozone formation

30 4  Structure and Composition of the Atmosphere

Water vapour is the most important variable gas with volume presence in the air
that ranges from 0 to 4%. Percentage volume of carbon dioxide (greenhouse gas) is
0038% or 380 ppmv.
The remaining gases from Table  4.1 have much less volume presence in the
atmosphere.
The present-day carbon dioxide (CO2)  concentration  is about 365  parts per
million volume (ppmv) or 365x10−6 mol/mol (Jacob 1999). Stratospheric values of
CO2 at heights between 11 and 50 km are around 5–12 ppmv. The concentration of
variable gases changes over time. The gas field that surrounds the planet is divided
into several concentric layers. Some (99%) of the total weight of the atmosphere is
concentrated in the first 32 km above the Earth’s surface.

4.6  Atmospheric Structure

The Earth’s atmosphere is divided vertically into layers (e.g. Andrews 2010; Barry
and Chorley 2010; Borngraber 2018; Mcdougal 2004; Saha 2008). Each has spe-
cific features characterizing the atmospheric status and its future behaviour.
According to the vertical profile of temperature in the atmosphere, the following
atmospheric layers are distinguished: troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, ther-
mosphere, and exosphere (Fig. 4.4).
Troposphere. Troposphere is the layer of atmosphere closest to the planet
characterized by the largest percentage (80%) of weight of the overall atmosphere.
Temperature and water vapour content in the troposphere decrease rapidly with
height. Water vapour plays a major role in regulating air temperature because it

Fig. 4.4  Structure of the

atmosphere. (This SVG
image was created by
Medium69.Cette image
SVG a été créée par
Medium69.Please credit
this: William Crochot [CC
BY-SA 4.0 (https://
creativecommons.org/
licenses/by-sa/4.0)])
4.6  Atmospheric Structure 31

absorbs the incoming energy from the Sun and thermal radiation from the Earth’s
surface. The troposphere contains 99% of water vapour in the atmosphere.
Concentrations of water vapour change with geographical latitude.
They are greatest above the tropics, where they may be higher than 3%, and they
reduce in the Polar Regions. All weather phenomena occur within the troposphere,
although disturbances can be extended to these influences of the lower stratosphere.
The term “troposphere” means “region of mixing”. Inside the layers of this region,
there exist strong convective currents of air. The ceiling layer, known as tropopause,
is bordering from 8 km near the poles to 18 km above the equator. The height of
tropopause also changes with the seasons, highest in summer and lowest during
the winter.
Stratosphere. Stratosphere is the second major layer of air in the atmosphere.
Stretching over the tropopause to a height of about (50 km) from earth’s surface.
Since the air temperature in the stratosphere increases with height, the stratosphere
is stable, and there are no conditions for convection. Above the stratosphere, there
is a thin layer called stratopause, in which the temperature remains relatively con-
stant with height. Ozone plays a key role in regulating the heat regime of the strato-
sphere. The content of water vapour inside the layer is very low. The temperature
increases with the concentration of ozone. Solar energy is converted energy into
kinetic when ozone molecules absorb the ultraviolet rays, which result in heating of
the stratosphere. Ozone layer is located between the heights 15 and 25  km.
Approximately 90% of ozone in the atmosphere is in the stratosphere. Volume con-
centration of ozone in this region is 10  ppmv or 10 parts per million by volume
compared with the concentration of ozone in the troposphere, whose approximate
value is 0.04 ppmv. The pure ozone absorbs ultraviolet sun radiation in the range of
wavelengths 290–320 nm (UV-B) radiation, which is harmful to life. Increased lev-
els of ultraviolet radiation, which come from the Earth’s surface, also affect life of
plants negatively, with harmful consequences to the natural environment. Large val-
ues of sunlight, ultraviolet radiation would result in many biological effects and
infrequent occurrence of cancer.
Mesosphere. Mesosphere is the layer that extends approximately from 50 to 85
kilometres above Earth’s surface, and again it is characterized by decreasing tem-
peratures. The lowest temperatures of the Earth’s atmosphere appear at the top of
this layer, known as “mesopause”. This especially happens in summer near the
poles. The mesosphere is sometimes called “minority area” because the layer is
probably the least studied of the other atmospheric layers. The stratosphere and the
mesosphere are sometimes known as “middle atmosphere”.
Thermosphere lies above the mesosphere. The temperature in the thermosphere
generally increases with height, reaching 600–2000 K depending on the activity of
the Sun. This increase in temperature occurs as a result of absorption of intense
solar radiation by the limited amount of remaining molecular oxygen. Molecules of
gas, at this extreme height, are widely separated. Above this layer with a height of
100  km from Earth’s surface, the chemical composition of air becomes strongly
dependent on height. The atmosphere is enriched with lighter gases (atomic oxygen,
helium, and hydrogen). Going higher than 160  km, the main component of the
32 4  Structure and Composition of the Atmosphere

atmosphere, atomic oxygen, can be found. At very large heights, the residents begin
to be stratified according to molecular weight, due to gravitational separation.
Exosphere. Exosphere is the most distant atmospheric layer of the Earth’s
surface. In the exosphere, the molecules can go to space in the ascending path
(provided they are moving fast enough) or to divert back to Earth with the help of
gravity, with little probability of collision with other molecules.
The height of the lower boundary, known as “thermopause” or “exobase”, ranges
from about 250 to 500 km depending on solar activity. The upper level boundary
may theoretically be determined by the height (half distance to the Moon, approxi-
mately 205.680 km) and the impact of solar radiation pressure of the hydrogen atom
speeds exceeding the Earth’s force of gravity. Exosphere observed from space as
Earth’s corona is seen ranges about 102,840 km from the Earth’s surface. Exosphere
represents a transitional zone between Earth’s atmosphere and interplanetary space.

4.6.1  Thermal Structure of the Atmosphere

The layers of the atmosphere are characterized by changes in temperature. These

changes are primarily resulting from absorption of solar radiation, visible light at
the surface, near ultraviolet radiation in the middle part of the atmosphere, ultravio-
let radiation, and distance in the upper atmosphere. The vertical temperature distri-
bution (stratification curve) and the dew point temperature (moisture curve) at
several characteristic layers of the atmosphere are shown in Fig. 4.5.

4.7  Magneto-electronic Structure

Based on the behaviour and the number of free electrons and other charged particles,
the upper atmosphere is divided into regions: ionosphere, magnetosphere, and
plasmasphere.
Ionosphere. Ionosphere depends on the atmospheric effects of radiation
expansion which occurs as a result of the presence and the change in the concentration
of free electrons in the atmosphere.
The plasmasphere is not spherical but a doughnut-shaped region (a torus) with
the hole aligned with Earth’s magnetic axis. The Earth’s plasmasphere is made of
just that, a plasma, the fourth state of matter. This plasma is composed mostly of
hydrogen ions (protons) and electrons. It has a very sharp edge called the plasma-
pause. The outer edge of this doughnut over the equator is usually some 4–6 Earth
radii from the centre of the Earth or about 19,000–32,000 km above the surface. The
plasmasphere is essentially an extension of the ionosphere. Inside of the plasma-
pause, geomagnetic field lines rotate with the Earth. The inner edge of the plasma-
sphere is taken as the altitude at which protons replace oxygen as the dominant
4.7  Magneto-electronic Structure 33

Fig. 4.5  Standardized temperature profile

species in the ionosphere plasma which usually occurs at about 600 miles (1000 km)
in altitude. The plasmasphere can also be a structure within the magnetosphere.
Magnetosphere. Outside the plasmapause, magnetic field lines are unable to
corotate because they are strongly influenced by electric fields of solar wind origin.
Magnetosphere is a cavity in which Earth’s magnetic field is limited by the solar
wind and magnetic field interplanetary magnetic field (Fig. 4.6).
The outer boundary of the magnetosphere is called magnetopause. Actually, it is
the boundary between the planet’s magnetic field and the solar wind. The magneto-
pause is typically located at about 56,000 km above the Earth’s surface.
34 4  Structure and Composition of the Atmosphere

Fig. 4.6 Magnetosphere

References

Andrews, D.  G. (2010). An introduction to atmospheric physics (2nd ed., p.  237). Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Barry, R. G., & Chorley, R. J. (2010). Atmosphere, weather and climate (pp. 516 (24)). London:
Routledge.
Borngraber, E. (2018). The layers of Earth’s atmosphere (Spotlight on Weather and Natural
Disasters) (p. 24). PowerKids Press.
Jacob, D.  J. (1999). Introduction to atmospheric chemistry (p.  280). Princeton: Princeton
University Press.
Lutgens, F. K., & Tarbuck, E. J. (2009). The atmosphere: An introduction to meteorology (12th
ed., 505 pp). Pearson.
Mcdougal, L. (2004). LMcDougal littell science: Earth’s atmosphere: Unit assessment book
(p. 128). MCDOUGAL LITTLE.
Mölders, N., & Kramm, G. (2014). Lectures in meteorology (591 pp). Springer.
Saha, K. (2008). The Earth’s atmosphere-its physics and dynamics (p. 367). Berlin/Heidelberg:
Springer-Verlag.
Schumann, U. (2012). Atmospheric physics, background – methods – trends (p. 432). Springer.
Chapter 5
Energy and Radiation

5.1  Basic Features

The energy emitted by the Sun provides almost (99.9%) of the total energy that
heats the Earth’s surface. It warms the Earth and the surrounding atmosphere,
thereby supporting life. The main source of energy is solar energy that serves as a
main driving force of the atmospheric circulation and the physical processes on
planet Earth (Visconti 2016):
• Heating the atmosphere, water, and land of the Earth’s surface.
• Major mechanisms for the general atmospheric and ocean circulation.
• Formation of air masses and atmospheric systems.
• Generating the winds and ocean currents.
• Photosynthesis that affects the overall life of our planet.
• Changes the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere.
• It is the most important external factor in creating climate.
According to some estimates, the total amount of thermal energy is about 300
times lower than the quantity of solar energy that arrives daily in the upper limit of
the atmosphere. Heat that comes from the Earth’s interior to the surface of the Earth
is about 5000 times lower than the heat that arrives from the Sun. The large changes
in solar heat drive the winds in the atmosphere and currents in seas and oceans.
Therefore, first, it is necessary to understand the way the Sun heats the Earth, and
this warming is changing the geographical space and time. For this purpose, we
primarily study the heat and the temperature as variables and the mechanisms for
their transfer.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 35

V. Spiridonov, M. Ćurić, Fundamentals of Meteorology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-52655-9_5
36 5  Energy and Radiation

5.2  Radiation Laws

Black body radiation. Any substance (solid, liquid, or gas) emits radiation accord-
ing to its absolute temperature, measured in units of Kelvin (K = °C + 273.15). The
efficiency at which radiation is emitted varies with the substance. However, at any
temperature, there is an upper limit to how much radiation can be emitted. A black
body is a hypothetical body that:
1 . Emits radiation at the maximum intensity possible for every wavelength
2. Completely absorbs all incident radiation (hence the term “black”)
Planck’s law. Describes the amount of radiation emitted by a black body at each
wavelength as a function of temperature. Monochromatic irradiance is given with:

C1
E  (5.1)
   1
 5 exp  2
C

  T  

where we use the asterisk * to refer to black body radiation. λ is the wavelength in
metres, T is the absolute temperature in Kelvin (K), C1 = 3.74 10–16 W m2, and
C2 = 1.44 10–2 m k. Planck’s law shows the spectral dependence of energy emitted by
a black body at different absolute temperatures (see Fig. 5.1).
The sun has an effective radiative temperature of about 6000 K, but terrestrial
objects have temperatures only of the order of 300 K. At different radiative tempera-
tures, the area under the Planck curve changes, and the spectral quality of the radia-
tion shifts along the wavelength axis.

Fig. 5.1  Wien’s law.

(Credit: 4C [CC BY-SA
3.0 (http://
creativecommons.org/
licenses/by-sa/3.0/)])
5.3  Electromagnetic Radiation 37

Stefan-Boltzmann law. All bodies have certain temperature, emitted radiation

energy. The warmer objects emit a higher energy per unit area, compared to cold
objects. The total amount of radiant energy emitted by a black body is proportional
to the fourth power of the absolute temperature such that:

E  T 4  Stefan - Boltzmannlaw  (5.2)

Wien’s displacement law. The wavelength of the peak in the spectral curve is given
2897
by max   m , where T is the temperature in Kelvin. Wien’s displacement law
T
shows that there is a wide separation between solar radiation (shortwave) and ter-
restrial radiation (longwave):
Sun: T ~ 6000 K = > E ~ 74.000.000 W/cm2
Earth: T ~ 300 K = > E ~ 460 W/cm2
The maximum radiation emitted by warmer bodies is a shortwave length:

max  C / T  Wien’s Law  (5.3)

Sun, λmax = 0.44μm; Earth, λmax = 9.66μm (μm =10−6m)
Hence, the solar radiation is called shortwave radiation, and the Earth’s radiation
is called longwave radiation. The objects which are good absorbers of radiation are
also good emitters. A perfect absorber/emitter is called an absolute black body. The
Sun and the Earth absorb/emit approximately 100% and behave like absolute black
bodies. However, gases are selective absorbers/radiant, i.e. they only absorb or radi-
ate at certain wavelengths. So, the atmosphere is transparent (visible) at some wave-
lengths, but non-transparent (invisible) at others. Under the influence of the
atmosphere, or under the influence of the physical properties of gases that make the
air flow under the influence of the suspended particles, solar radiation touches the
Earth’s surface, and it weakens accordingly. This represents a direct, diffuse, and
global solar radiation.

5.3  Electromagnetic Radiation

The energy of the radiation travels through space in a series of electromagnetic

waves. Electromagnetic radiation (EM radiation) is defined as a form of energy that
is produced by the movement of electrically charged particles traveling through a
matter or vacuum or by oscillating magnetic and electric disturbance. The magnetic
and the electric fields (Fig. 5.2) each other come at 90°, and the combined waves
move perpendicular to both electric and magnetic oscillating fields, causing the dis-
turbance. All these rays belong to the spectrum of electromagnetic radiation
(Fig. 5.3). The spectrum of electromagnetic waves is characterized by wavelength,
38 5  Energy and Radiation

Fig. 5.2 Electromagnetic
wave. (Credit:
DECHAMMAKL [CC
BY-SA 4.0 (https://
creativecommons.org/
licenses/by-sa/4.0)])

Fig. 5.3  Electromagnetic spectrum. (Credit: Philip Ronan, Gringer [CC BY-SA 3.0 (https://cre-
ativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)])

from radio waves (103 m) to gamma rays (10–14 m). The Sun contains all forms of
radiation, but in different amounts.
The main part of the visible spectrum ranges from ultraviolet to infrared radia-
tion. Electromagnetic radiation means distribution of the solar energy at different
wavelengths. High-energy waves are short (billion part of the spectrum and less),
while low-energy waves are long waves (metres or kilometres). Shortest wave-
lengths are called gamma rays, while slightly longer ones are called X-rays. Out of
these, visible light can be felt through the eyes, and it can even be divided into
smaller parts: violet, blue, green, yellow, and red. In this array of colours, purple has
the shortest wavelength, while red is characterized by the longest wavelength, if
stating shortest wavelength is considered. These are the colours of the rainbow. All
wavelengths shorter than infrared are called shortwaves.
5.4  Solar Radiation 39

5.4  Solar Radiation

The energy released during atomic Sun activities is emitted through radiation, and
often this energy is called the solar energy (Thomas and Stamnes 2006; Zdunkowski
et al. 2007). This radiation has a very complex composition. Quite often in our daily
life, once thinking of the solar radiation means the sunlight, but unfortunately, such
an understanding is quite wrong, since sunlight is just one of the several types of
energy contained in the solar energy. For example, our body exposed to this radia-
tion primarily senses its thermal effect, from which it is concluded that it is the car-
rier of thermal energy.
If we are exposed to the effects of the solar radiation for a long time, some
changes (e.g. redness or darkness) will occur on our skin, which are caused by
energy that has a chemical effect. Solar radiation is radiant energy or particularly
electromagnetic energy emitted by the Sun that propagates in all directions in space
(Fig. 5.4). About half of the radiation belongs to the visible shortwave part of the
electromagnetic spectrum. The other half is mostly in the near-infrared part, with
some in the ultraviolet part of the spectrum. From the total emitted energy by the
Sun, approximately billion parts come at the Earth’s surface, which is quite enough
to warm the air and the temperature necessary for living. Under the influence of the
Sun, all processes and phenomena in the Earth’s atmosphere are driven.

5.4.1  Solar Constant

Earth receives just one small portion of the solar energy. We can quantitatively mea-
sure such energy, only in the upper part of the atmosphere. To determine the portion
of solar radiation that participates in atmospheric processes, it is necessary to deter-
mine the amount of solar radiation that comes to the Earth’s surface. But the solar
radiation is strongly influenced by the atmosphere. Therefore, the total solar radia-
tion can be determined in the upper part of the atmosphere or at the Earth’s surface,

Fig. 5.4  Solar radiation

40 5  Energy and Radiation

but without the influence of the atmosphere and assuming the average distance of
the Earth from the Sun. The total radiation energy received from the Sun per unit of
time per unit of area on a theoretical surface perpendicular to the Sun’s rays and at
Earth’s mean distance from the Sun is called solar constant. The solar constant is not
a true constant because the change of 2–5% depends on the distance between the
Sun and the Earth in the annual seasons, spring, summer, autumn, and winter, due
to the appearance of Sun spots and perturbations. In another term, solar constant is
the amount of energy potentially available for the Earth. Insolation is the amount of
solar radiation received on a given surface in each time period. Daily insolation is
the incident solar radiation on a horizontal surface per square metre integrated over
a day. Insolation varies seasonally and with daily variation in cloud cover. Namely,
there is always a difference between the solar constant and insolation, because inso-
lation, i.e. energy received on Earth, is less than 50%. This means that there is a loss
of about 50% of solar energy in the atmosphere.

5.4.2  Direct Solar Radiation

The solar radiation that covers our sky can be direct, diffused, or reflected radiation
(Fig.  5.5). The Sun always emits brightly when direct sunlight is falling on the
Earth’s surface. The sunlight that reaches the Earth’s surface unmodified by any of
the atmospheric processes is called direct or beam solar radiation. The intensity of
direct solar radiation depends on the height of the Sun above the horizon, the height
above sea level, cloudiness, transparency of the sky, the amount of water vapour in

Fig. 5.5  Direct, reflected, and diffused radiation

5.4  Solar Radiation 41

the air, and other factors. The sum of direct solar radiation (S) and diffused radiation
(D) gives the global radiation (G):

GSD

The intensity of global radiation depends on the same factors as the intensity of
direct radiation and it diffuses. Sunlight is falling on the Earth’s surface from a dif-
ferent angle and a different direction. Thus, it causes a different heat effect. For
example, the open solar radiation lasts all day long, from sunrise to sunset, and the
Sun reaches its maximum value in the afternoon. During the summer, solar radiation
has the smallest value in the afternoon and also in winter when the Sun has its low-
est position in relation to the horizon. Insolation value changes with the changing of
the angle of inclination of the Earth’s surface and changing of the geographic lati-
tude (Fig. 5.6).

5.4.3  Diffused Solar Radiation (D)

In addition to direct incoming solar radiation, there is also diffused radiation. It usu-
ally occurs by diffusive reflection of direct solar radiation, when it passes through
the atmosphere. In a collision with molecules of different gases, water vapour, tiny
mineral, or organic compounds present in the atmosphere, sunlight is reflected in
different directions. The phenomenon, in which the Sun’s rays change its direction
and wavelength, is called diffuse reflexivity. This type of radiation appears under the
clear sky conditions at the shortwave rays: blue, blue, violet, and ultraviolet rays.

Fig. 5.6  Effect of the Earth’s shape and atmosphere on incoming solar radiation. (Credit: Peter
Halasz |CC-BY-SA-2.5| https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.5/deed.en)
42 5  Energy and Radiation

Diffused radiation lasts from the moment of sunrise to the time of sunset. Diffused
intensity of radiation depends on the height above the sea at the place where it
appears from cloudiness, transparency of the atmosphere, and the location of the
Sun in the sky.

5.4.4  Solar Radiation Factors

Absorption. The atmosphere interacts with both incoming solar radiation and outgo-
ing terrestrial radiation. The strength of the interaction as a function of wavelength
is responsible for the heating of the lower atmosphere. A process in which atmo-
spheric gases and particles reduce the amount of solar or terrestrial radiation is
called absorption. Such process takes place through the transfer of energy that
occurs when increasing molecular movement. Due to the chemical composition of
the Earth’s atmosphere, most of the infrared radiation emitted by the warm surface
never reaches space. Instead, the radiation is reflected or absorbed by compounds
known as greenhouse gases. When these compounds absorb the infrared radiation
from the surface, the atmosphere heats up. The energy reflected towards the Earth
warms the surface further, causing the Earth to emit more infrared radiation. This
creates a cycle that keeps the atmosphere and the surface warm. As it is mentioned
above, this process results in the heating of the lower atmosphere, which mainly
consists of gases with different absorptivities. For example, N2 is a poor absorber,
but O2, O3, and H2O are effective absorbers, and they are responsible for most of the
absorption in the atmosphere.
Reflection. Reflection is a process of transfer of solar radiation at the surface of
the Earth. Reflected sunlight depends from albedo and incoming sunlight.
Albedo. Albedo is a measure of the ability of the surface to reflect solar radiation,
i.e. if it is a reflector or albedo = 1, it is an ideal reflector. In Table 5.1, albedo values
for different surfaces of the Earth are given.
The highest reflection of solar radiation (albedo) occurs in cases of freshly fallen
snow (75–95%), while the smallest value of albedo (5–10%) is noticed in dark

Table 5.1  Reflection of solar Object or surface Albedo (%)

radiation: albedo
Fresh snow 75–95
Old snow 40–60
Sand 20–30
Ground 15–25
Black street 5–10
Thick cloud 70–80
Thin cloud 25–30
5.4  Solar Radiation 43

backgrounds of the Earth’s surface (dark streets, bases, land, etc.). Albedo also
changes the angle of the Sun: albedo water changes from 5% at high Sun to 80% in
the occurrence of low Sun. The overall albedo of the Earth and the atmosphere is
approximately 30%, with the largest percentage of presence of clouds and less than
sea-land areas.
Scattering. Scattering means redirection of incoming solar radiation in all direc-
tions, not just back to space. Solar radiation travels through a straight line, and then
it is redirected (scattered) by gases (Rayleigh) or by aerosols (Mie). Scattering
changes the direction, but does not change the wavelength of light. Thereby, gases
and aerosols are more effective in scattering radiation with different wavelengths.
This causes a blue sky.
Rayleigh scattering is notable when the radius of the particles is about 1/10 times
the order of wavelength of electromagnetic radiation illustrated in the molecules of
the air and can be extended to scattering from particles up to about a tenth of the
wavelength of the light. It is Rayleigh scattering off the molecules of the air which
gives us the blue sky.
Mie scattering occurs when the particles have a larger diameter than electromag-
netic radiation. It is caused by pollen, dust, smoke, water droplets, and other parti-
cles in the lower portion of the atmosphere. It occurs when the particles causing the
scattering are larger than the wavelengths of radiation. Figure 5.7 shows a graphical
depiction of the three mechanisms of scattering:
1. Rayleigh scattering
2. Non-selective scattering (wavelength independent)
3. Mie scattering

Fig. 5.7 Graphical
illustration of three types
of scattering
44 5  Energy and Radiation

5.4.5  Temporal and Spatial Changes in Insolation

Earth’s energy balance refers to an arbitrarily 100  units of radiation taken. The
amount of insolation is not constant in time and space. Insolation changes with the
change of season and the change of geographical latitude. This change of incoming
solar radiation is manifested as latitudinal and seasonal change in temperature (T).
To understand these changes, it is necessary to know certain physical laws and
relations in the Earth-Sun system.
Earth’s movement. Earth’s rotation around its own axis affects the changes daily.
The movement of the Earth around the Sun is called revolution. The distance
between the Earth and the Sun changes, but it has a little role in seasonal changes.
For example, the Land of the Northern Hemisphere is closest to the Sun dur-
ing winter.
Seasonal and latitudinal change of insolation. An important factor for the sea-
sonal changes in latitudinal insolation represents the height of the Sun (i.e. the angle
that affects sunlight to the horizon). In summer, the midday Sun is high in the sky,
but in winter it is lower. The altitude of the Sun affects the energy that arrives at the
Earth’s surface. When the Sun is at a lower angle in relation to the horizon, the Sun
rays pass through most of the atmosphere, and escaping radiation has a greater
opportunity to absorb or reflect. The country has a spherical shape, so that the verti-
cal rays arrive only in places with a certain latitude (i.e. when the sun is at 90°, the
zenith). Moving north or south, the angle of the Sun and the length of the day are
changing. From here the amount of Sun, solar energy, and therefore the Earth’s
surface change with geographical latitude. The altitude of the Sun changes with the
season. The Earth’s axis is at an angle of 23.5° with flat orbit around the Sun (so-­
called angle of inclination). In this case, the Earth’s orientation to the Sun changes
with time and here in width. For example, in June, the Northern Hemisphere is lean-
ing on the side of the Sun, while the Southern Hemisphere is further away from it.
In December, the Northern Hemisphere is leaning towards the Southern Hemisphere
away from the Sun. Each year the 4 days are given special importance owing to the
annual shift of the direct rays of the Sun. These specific days are of importance to
the annual cycle of time and are shown in Fig. 5.8. Latitudes 23.5° N and 23.5° S
are known as tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, respectively. During summer sol-
stice, geographical latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere have longer days than the
Southern Hemisphere. The area above 66.5° N (Arctic Circle) has a constant day-
light, while below 66.5° N (Antarctic Circle) has a permanent night. Fully opposite
picture appears during the winter solstice. This resulted in the occurrence of higher
temperatures in summer than in winter. Seasonal changes in the amount of solar
energy are caused by migration of the vertical rays of the Sun, resulting in changes
in the angle of the Sun and the length of the day.
5.5  Optical Radiation 45

Fig. 5.8 Earth’s
revolution: equinox,
solstice, seasons,
perihelion, and aphelion

5.5  Optical Radiation

Optical radiation is a part of electromagnetic spectrum that covers wavelengths

ranging from 100 to 10,000  nm. This range of wavelengths can be divided into
three areas:
• (100–400 nm) – ultraviolet (UV) region
• (400–770 nm) – visible (VV) field
• (770–10,000 nm) – infrared (IR) area
The ultraviolet part of the spectrum is the radiation with the shortest wavelengths
that are not visible to the human eye, but with very high energy and harmful action.
Radiation from the visible part of the spectrum can be registered (it is visible) by the
human eye. This part of the spectrum consisted of six components with different
colours, purple, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red, arranged from the shortest to
the longest wavelength. The length of radiation waves belonging to the infrared part
of the optical spectrum is emitted by intensively warmed bodies, so this part of the
spectrum is often called heat radiation. Infrared radiation does not have a strongly
detrimental effect, which means that with increasing wavelength, the harmful solar
radiation is reduced. Ultraviolet radiation (UV). The ultraviolet radiation in the
optical part of the electromagnetic spectrum (Fig. 5.9) is covering an area with the
shortest wavelengths (see Vasquez and Hanslmeier 2006). There are three different
types of ultraviolet (UV) radiation, based on the wavelength of the radiation and
according to the biological activity and the effects it causes:
• UV-C radiation (100–290 nm)
• UV-B radiation (290–320 nm)
• UV-A radiation (320–400 nm)
46 5  Energy and Radiation

Fig. 5.9  Ozone levels at various altitudes (DU/km) and related blocking of several types of ultra-
violet radiation

UV-C radiation is completely absorbed in the upper atmosphere by the oxygen

and the ozone molecules. Most of the UV-B radiation is absorbed in the stratosphere
by ozone molecules, and only part of the radiation is coming to the Earth’s surface.
Given that ozone is the main absorber of UV-B radiation, the intensity of this
radiation at the Earth’s surface much depends on the total amount of ozone in the
atmosphere and beyond, from its amount in the depths of the ozone layer. It is
known that UV-B radiation is biologically very harmful. On the surface of the Earth,
the UV-A radiation comes in the largest amount. UV-A radiation is less harmful, but
it is possible to cause a dark tan skin in humans.
If the amount of UV is high enough, the ability of self-protection of individual
biological units is not enough, and the individual may be damaged. It refers to the
human body, especially the skin and the eyes.

5.5.1  UV Index

To avoid damage when exposed to UV, the UV index should be made public in order
to warn and inform people about the harmfulness of UV and the ways to take certain
precautions. UV radiation can be measured as radiation or irradiation energy
received at unit area in units (W/m2) or radiation (radiating exposure) or dose of
energy per unit area summarized in a specific time interval in units (W/m2). The
global solar UV index (UVI) shown in Fig. 5.10 describes the level of solar UV
radiation at the Earth’s surface. The values of the index range from zero upwards –
the higher the index value, the greater the potential for damage to the skin and eye
and the less time it takes for harm to occur.
5.5  Optical Radiation 47

Fig. 5.10  Global UV index distribution

5.5.2  UV Index Factors

The intensity of UV radiation depends on the following factors: the amount of Sun,
altitude, atmospheric scattering, cloudiness, and reflection from the ground (soil).
Height of the Sun. It represents a Sun elevation angle below which the amount of
Sun in relation to the direction of horizon can be seen. The solar zenith angle is
often used instead of the amount of the Sun. It is the zenith angle and direction of
the Sun. Elevation has great value when the Sun is high, because the way through
the absorption layer of the atmosphere is the longest and then most photons come to
the surface of the Earth. Solar elevation is highest in the middle of the day in sum-
mer. At the equator, the angle of the sunlight that falls on the Earth’s surface has the
greatest value. In this case, the intensity of UV in places with 0-degree latitude will
be larger in terms of areas with higher latitudes. Equality intensity of UV is the
greatest since the value of elevation is minimal. UV is strongest in tropical areas, in
summer at noon.
Elevation height. UV increases with height above the sea, because of the smaller
number of absorption components in the atmosphere. Measurements show that UV
increases by 6–8%, with increasing height above the sea from 1000 metres.
Atmospheric scattering. Solar radiation, which goes to the Earth’s surface, is
divided into direct and diffused. On its way to the Earth, the radiation is scattered by
molecules of gas and other particles present in the atmosphere: aerosols, water
droplets, particles, and dust (Coakley and Yang 2014). Direct radiation is the radia-
tion which passes directly through the atmosphere, without scattering or absorption.
48 5  Energy and Radiation

Diffused radiation is the radiation that is, at least once, being scattered in the atmo-
sphere before reaching the ground. Scattering depends on the wavelength. The sky
looks blue because blue light is much stronger and scattered than other wavelengths
of visible light. UV radiation is scattered even more, so that the Earth’s surface
UV-B radiation is comprised of approximately equal scale (1:1), of direct and dif-
fused radiation.
Clouds and atmospheric haze. UV is more intense in the open sky without
clouds. Clouds basically reduce UV radiation. The type of the clouds and their
thickness changes and impacts UV. Partial cloudiness (presence of thin or broken
clouds) has only little influence of UV on the Earth’s surface. In certain conditions
and for a short period of time, small cloudiness at some places may even enhance
UV radiation, compared to a completely open sky. In terms of atmospheric haze,
UV is absorbed by water and dispersed particles and aerosols, and this leads to a
reduction in UV.
Reflection of the Earth’s surface. One part of UV that reaches the Earth’s surface
is absorbed by the Earth’s surface, while another part is reflected to space. Reflected
amount of radiation depends on the properties of the Earth’s surface. Most natural
surfaces, such as grass, ground, and water, reflect less than 10% of the received UV
radiation. Fresh snow can reflect up to 80% of the received UV radiation. During the
spring, in the open sky, reflection in the snow can increase UV radiation of declined
surfaces, even to the summer values. It is important for the heights above the higher
latitudes. Sand can reflect about 25% of UV and can increase the UV exposure of
the beach. Up to 95% of UV can penetrate the water and about 50% can penetrate
up to 3 m in depth (in the clean oceanic water). The intensity of the UV increases to
6% for each kilometre altitude. Sky without clouds passes ~100% (UV-C), low
clouds ~89%, middle clouds ~73%, and complete cloudiness around 31% of UV.

5.6  Ozone Layer

Ozone is very rare in the atmosphere. Every ten million molecules of air are used for
about three molecules of ozone. Despite this small amount, ozone plays a crucial
role in the atmosphere. Ozone is mainly located in two regions of the atmosphere.
Approximately 90% is in the ozone layer that begins at 10 and 17 km above the
Earth’s surface and extends to about 50 km. This region of the atmosphere is called
stratosphere. This layer is known as the ozone layer or ozonosphere, because of the
presence of ozone.
Residual ozone can be found in the lower part of the atmosphere, which is popu-
larly called troposphere. Molecules of ozone in the upper atmosphere (stratosphere)
and the lower layer of the atmosphere (troposphere) are chemically identical,
because they all consist of three atoms of oxygen and have the same chemical for-
mula, O3. However, they have very different roles in the atmosphere and very differ-
ent effects on humans and on other living beings. Stratospheric ozone has a beneficial
role, because it absorbs most of the biologically harmful solar ultraviolet (UV-B),
5.7  Earth Longwave Radiation 49

allowing only a small amount to reach the surface of the Earth. Absorption of ultra-
violet radiation by ozone creates a source of heat, which forms the stratosphere
(region in which temperature increases with height). Ozone also plays a key role in
the temperature structure of the Earth’s atmosphere. Since there is no protective
effect of the ozone layer, a greater amount of sunlight (UV-B) radiation enters the
atmosphere and reaches the surface of the Earth. With the help of many experimen-
tal studies of plants and animals, as well as through clinical studies on humans, the
harmful effects of excessive exposure to (UV-B) radiation have been shown. The
dual role of ozone leads to two separate environmental issues. Near the Earth’s sur-
face, ozone is a key component of photochemical “smog”, a well-known problem in
the atmosphere of many cities in the world, but there is a trend of increasing surface
ozone in rural areas. Also, there is a widespread scientific and public interest and
concern over the reduction of ozone in the stratosphere and the appearance of the
ozone hole. The amount of reduction of stratospheric ozone in the atmosphere is
measured using modern instruments and satellites. Over some parts of Antarctica,
up to 60% of the total amount of ozone which lies in the column was exhausted dur-
ing spring (September to November). This phenomenon is known as the Antarctic
ozone hole. A NASA instrument has detected an Antarctic ozone “hole” or ozone
depletion region expanded to largest dimension of about 11 million square miles on
September 3, 2000 (Fig. 5.11). The minimum amount of ozone for about 85 Dobson
units is registered on October 8, 2006. However, the ozone hole’s size currently has
stabilized, but the low levels in its interior continue to fall. Based on scientific evi-
dence obtained in the last two decades, certain chemicals produced by man are
responsible for the depletion of the ozone layer. Compounds that deplete the ozone
layer contain various combinations of chemical elements like chlorine, fluorine,
bromine, carbon, hydrogen, and so-called halocarbons. Compounds containing only
chlorine, fluorine, and carbon are called chlorofluorocarbons, usually abbreviated as
CFCs. Chlorofluorocarbons, carbon tetrachloride, chloroform, and methyl are
important gases produced by humans, which affect and cause harmful ozone deple-
tion, and are used in many applications, including refrigeration, air conditioning,
cleaning of electronic components, as well as solvents.

5.7  Earth Longwave Radiation

While the Sun emits energy in the shortwave spectrum, the Earth emits energy from
the surface to the atmosphere in a longer wavelength (Herbin and Dubuisson 2015).
This longwave Earth’s radiation is known as terrestrial radiation (TR). The Earth’s
surface is heated to 20  °C approximately on average by the absorption of solar
radiation. As a result, it emits backward thermal infrared radiation (IR) with wave-
length of 5–50 μm up to 50 μm. There is so-called atmospheric window in which
band the atmosphere is transparent, allowing infrared radiation to escape to space.
On both sides of this narrow band, there are absorption bands due to the presence of
atmospheric gases.
50 5  Energy and Radiation

Fig. 5.11  Ozone hole. (Image of the largest area of Antarctic ozone thinning ever recorded in
September 2000. Data taken by the Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS) instrument
aboard NASA’s Earth Probe satellite)

The distribution of 1979–1995 global mean outgoing longwave radiation in

W/m2 is shown in Fig. 5.12. While the atmosphere is only a weak absorber of solar
radiation (insolation), it is an effective absorber of terrestrial radiation or Earth
longwave radiation. It means that gases within the atmosphere absorb wavelengths
in longwave radiation spectrum of the Earth, unlike the solar radiation. The amount
of solar radiation reaching the Earth’s surface depends on the latitude, season, and
time of day, cloudiness, aerosol backscatter, surface topography, and its roughness.
Water vapour (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2) are the main absorbers; ozone (O3),
methane (CH4), and other gases also have absorption abilities; and H2O absorbs five
times more than other gases. The reason for the high temperatures (T) in the lower
troposphere, and the decline in air temperature with height (the atmosphere is heated
from the ground floor layer up), is because the atmosphere is transparent to insola-
tion, but the Earth absorbs radiation. When the gases absorb the Earth’s radiation,
they are heated and emit energy in all directions. Part of this energy is returned to
the Earth’s surface and further heated. This is called “greenhouse effect”. Gases that
absorb the Earth’s longwave radiation (TR) are called “greenhouse gases”. The total
5.7  Earth Longwave Radiation 51

Fig. 5.12  Outgoing longwave radiation. (Credit: Giorgiogp2 [CC BY-SA 3.0 (https://creative-
commons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)])

radiation of the Earth may be a different energy, i.e. with a different frequency or
wavelength. What is common to all forms of electromagnetic radiation is their
nature. Radiation at all wavelengths together constitutes the electromagnetic spec-
trum. All bodies warmed to a temperature emit electromagnetic radiation. At tem-
peratures typical of the atmosphere, bodies emit radiation of wavelengths from the
infrared part of the spectrum, while at higher temperatures, bodies emit radiation
from the visible part of the spectrum. Emitted radiation of these bodies occurs
because of transformation of their internal energies in the electromagnetic radiation,
and the spectrum of radiation depends on the temperature to which the body is
heated. The distribution of electromagnetic radiation that is emitted from the sur-
face of the Sun and which touches the upper layer of the atmosphere, a function of
wavelength, is called solar spectrum.

5.7.1  Earth’s Annual and Global Mean Energy Budget

The Earth’s energy budget accounts for the balance between the energy the Earth
receives from the Sun and the energy the Earth radiates back into outer space after
having been distributed throughout the five components of the Earth’s climate sys-
tem and having thus powered the so-called Earth’s heat engine (Melnikova and
Vasilyev 2005; Hewitt and Jackson 2003). Partitioning of the radiative energy
throughout the atmosphere is achieved using detailed radiation models for both the
longwave and shortwave spectral regions. Here is a great chart (Fig. 5.13) that very
nicely shows the key heat flows that determine the Earth’s surface temperature, the
52 5  Energy and Radiation

Fig. 5.13  Earth’s energy budget

Earth’s energy budget diagram. Incoming sunlight is on the left; outgoing infrared
or “longwave” radiation is on the right. The values illustrate the relative magnitude
of each term, contributing in the energy budget. The following is a description of a
simple model based on the energy budget of radiation. It contains the basic elements
of energy fluxes which depend on climate. Values in squares are inflows of energy
or flux in units of watts per square metre (W m−2). The energy that is emitted by the
Sun, taking into account the averaged Earth’s surface, is 342 W m−2. Out of this
amount of energy, 77 units are reflected back and thrown into space from the atmo-
sphere, including clouds and aerosols. The clouds are a special case of aerosols, i.e.
particular matters with dimensions much larger than those of the molecules.
Other aerosols include drops of sulphuric acid formed by oxidation in the atmo-
sphere of volatile sulphur compounds. With the passage of solar radiation through
the atmosphere, a different amount of energy (67 W cm−2) is absorbed by green-
house gases. Ten of these 67 units absorbed in the stratosphere, mainly from mole-
cules of oxygen, under the influence of high-energy ultraviolet photons are split into
two oxygen atoms. Reactive atoms of oxygen unite with oxygen molecules O2 → 2O
when they get ozone: O + O2 → O3. This reaction is vital for life, because ozone
absorbs most of incoming ultraviolet radiation, the remaining part of the solar radia-
tion which is transferred from the atmosphere, undergoing yet another reflection of
the amount of surface area of 30 W cm−2, and only 168 W cm−2 is absorbed by the
Earth’s surface. Consequently, the surface is heated by infrared radiation which is
5.7  Earth Longwave Radiation 53

sent downwards by the atmosphere. The Earth’s energy budget shows the distribu-
tion of incoming radiation received from the Sun and the outgoing radiation which
is emitted by the Earth over the entire planet Earth. It is obvious that there is some
distortion of the balance in latitudinal distribution of radiation. The energy shortage
exists in the northern latitudes of both hemispheres. This leads to the cooling of the
atmosphere, while the excess energy that exists in the equatorial area implies heat-
ing of the atmosphere. As a result of differences in the latitudinal distribution of
energies, transfers (transfer) of heat from the equatorial towards the polar
regions appear.

5.7.2  Earth’s Heat Balance

The annual balance that exists between incoming and outcoming radiation, called
the Earth’s heat balance, contributes to the mean temperature on the Earth and is
maintained relatively constant despite seasonal penetration of cold and warm
waves. Although the balance between incoming and outgoing radiation is main-
tained throughout the planet, it does not happen at every latitude. During the year,
the belt on the Earth’s surface between 36° N and 36° S latitude, on average, receives
a larger amount of solar radiation than it loses in space. Conversely, at higher lati-
tudes, greater amount of radiation is left by the longwave Earth’s radiation com-
pared to the amount that the Earth receives. As a result of energy imbalance
between the low and high latitudes, global winds and ocean currents raise, which
is a way to transfer excess heat from the tropics towards the poles. Tables 5–7 give
a schematic representation of the overall energy budget for the Earth’s surface,
atmosphere, and the entire planet. Tables are global annual means expressed as a
percentage of the rate per unit area at which solar radiation is intercepted by the
Earth; i.e. 100 units is equivalent to 342 W m−2. Table 5.2 clearly illustrates that the
Sun arrives directly on the surface of the Earth, unit 51, while the atmosphere radi-
ates 95 units, or a total of 146 units. Earth longwave radiation is 116 units. Through
evaporation and convection from the Earth’s surface, 30 units or 146 units in total
are released, so obviously there is a balance between incoming and outgoing radia-
tion of heat in the Earth’s surface. The heat budget of the atmosphere is shown in
Table 5.3. Most of the incoming radiation is received by the atmosphere from the
Earth’s longwave radiation of 110 units, and only 19 units are received from direct
solar radiation.

Table 5.2  The heat budget of the Earth’s surface

Input Output
Solar radiation 51 Earth radiation 116
Atmospheric radiation 95 Evaporation 23
Convection 7
146 146
54 5  Energy and Radiation

Table 5.3  Heat budget in the atmosphere

Input Output
Solar radiation 19 Radiation to space 64
Condensation 23 Radiation to the surface 95
Convection 7
Earth radiation 110
159 159

Table 5.4  Heat budget of the entire planet

Input Output
Solar radiation 100 Reflected/scattered radiation from clouds or gases 30
Atmospheric radiation to space 64
Earth to space longwave radiation 6
100 100

Most of the output radiation from the atmosphere is directed towards the Earth’s
surface. It is evident that there is a balance between incoming and outgoing radia-
tion of the atmosphere, in which there are 159 units of input radiation in relation to
159 units of output radiation.
Heat budget of the entire planet (Table 5.4) is considered as a balance between
incoming shortwave radiation of the Sun, which is 100 units, and outgoing radia-
tion, which consists of the Earth’s longwave radiation to space of 6 units, atmo-
spheric radiation to space of 64 units and reflected or scattered radiation from clouds
or gases of 30 units or a total of 100 units.
It is obvious that there is some distortion of the balance in latitudinal distribution
of radiation. The energy shortage exists in the northern latitudes of both hemi-
spheres. This leads to the cooling of the atmosphere, while the excess energy that
exists in the equatorial area implies heating of the atmosphere. As a result of differ-
ences in the latitudinal distribution of energies, transfers (transfer) of heat from the
equatorial towards the polar regions appear.

5.7.3  Earth Radiation Budget and the Planetary Temperature

As it is described in the previous topic, the flux of solar energy arriving at the Earth
(see Fig. 5.14) is called the solar constant:

Q
S0   1367 Wm 2
4 r 2
The amount of radiative energy a body emits and the wavelength at which it is
emitted, according to Wien’s law, depend on temperature. The total radiation energy
5.7  Earth Longwave Radiation 55

Fig. 5.14  Solar and terrestrial flux

emitted is σT4 where T is the absolute temperature and σ is Stefan-Boltzmann con-

stant is 5.67 × 10−8Wm−2K−4.
Hence, the incoming shortwave solar radiation is:

Esolar  S0 a 2 (5.4)

If the fraction of incident solar energy that is reflected is denoted as (α), which rep-
resents albedo (planetary albedo = 0.3), the absorbed shortwave solar radiation is:

Esolar _ absorbed  1    S0 a 2 (5.5)

If the Earth emits like a black body of uniform temperature, Te, then the emitted
radiation per unit area is given as:

Eearth   Te4 (5.6)

Or the total emitted radiation by the Earth is:

Eearth _ tot  4 a 2 Te4 (5.7)

Since the absorbed solar radiation is equal to emitted radiation, it follows that the
planetary emission temperature is:
1
 S 1     4
Te   0   255K (5.8)
 4 
Atmosphere is transparent in the visible, at the peak of the solar spectrum. It is
non-­transparent in the UV spectrum and with variable transparency across the infra-
red spectrum (i.e. it is completely opaque at some wavelengths, yet completely
transparent at others). Figure  5.15 shows the absorption bands in the Earth’s
56 5  Energy and Radiation

Fig. 5.15  Radiation transmitted by the atmosphere and the absorption in the Earth’s atmosphere.
(Credit: Robert A.  Rohde for the Global Warming Art project https://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en)

atmosphere (middle panel) and the effect that this has on both incoming solar radia-
tion and outgoing thermal radiation (top panel).
The absorption spectrum for major greenhouse gases including the Rayleigh
scattering is depicted in the lower panel. Both the Earth and the Sun emit electro-
magnetic radiation (e.g. light) that closely follows a black body spectrum. For the
Sun, these emissions peak in the visible region and correspond to a temperature of
~5500 K. Emissions from the Earth vary following variations in temperature across
different locations and altitudes, but always peak in the infrared. The position and
number of absorption bands are determined by the chemical properties of the gases
present. In the present atmosphere, water vapour is the most significant of these
greenhouse gases, followed by carbon dioxide and various other minor greenhouse
gases. In addition, Rayleigh scattering, the physical process that makes the sky blue,
also disperses some incoming sunlight. Collectively, these processes capture and
redistribute 25–30% of the energy in direct sunlight passing through the atmo-
sphere. By contrast, the greenhouse gases capture 70–85% of the energy in upgoing
thermal radiation emitted from the Earth’s surface. Dominant components of the
5.7  Earth Longwave Radiation 57

atmosphere are incredibly transparent across the important spectral range. Nitrogen
doesn’t absorb at all and oxygen absorbs only in the far UV (where there is a little
solar flux). Absorption of terrestrial radiation is dominated by triatomic molecules
(O3, H20, and CO2) which have rotational and vibrational modes that can be easily
excited by infrared radiation. These atmospheric constituents present in tiny con-
centrations, so-called greenhouse gases, play a significant role in the Earth-­
climate system.

5.7.4  The Simple Greenhouse Model

Figure 5.16 shows a simple greenhouse gas model. We start from the estimation of
the averaged incoming solar energy Esolar per unit area:

Esolar S0 a 2 S0
Esolar _ mean   
4 a 2 4 a 2 4

If we take into account absorptivity (εatm) as fraction of the longwave radiation

absorbed, and emissivity (εearth) as fraction of black body radiation emitted by the
Earth, then we can calculate the net radiative flux:

S0
Enetsolar _ top  1     1   atm   Ts4   atm Ta4 (5.9)
4

Fig. 5.16  Greenhouse gas model

58 5  Energy and Radiation

(The top of the atmosphere)

S0
Enetsolar _ ground  1      atm Ta4   earth Ts4 (5.10)
4
that must vanish. Hence, it follows that the mean surface temperature is:

 S 1    
1/ 4 1/ 4
 2 
Ts   0    Te (5.11)
 2  2  earth    2  earth 

And the mean atmospheric temperature is:

1/ 4
1
Ts    Ts (5.12)
2
If the average emissivity, ε = 0.8, then Ts = 290 K and Ta = 244 K. This is close to
the global mean surface temperature of 288 K.

References

Coakley, J.  A., & Yang, P. (2014). Atmospheric radiation: A primer with illustrative solutions
(Wiley Series in Atmospheric Physics and Remote Sensing) (p. 256).
Herbin, H., & Dubuisson, P. (2015). Infrared observation of Earth’s atmosphere (p.  244).
Wiley ISTE.
Hewitt, C. N., & Jackson, A. W. (2003). Handbook of atmospheric science (633 pp). Blackwell.
Melnikova, I. N., & Vasilyev, A. V. (2005). Short-wave solar radiation in the Earth’s atmosphere,
calculation, observation, interpretation (p. 303). Springer.
Thomas, G. E., & Stamnes, K. (2006). Radiative transfer in the atmosphere and ocean (517 pp).
Cambridge University Press.
Vasquez, M., & Hanslmeier, A. (2006). Ultraviolet radiation in the solar system (380 pp). Springer.
Visconti, G. (2016). Fundamentals of physics and chemistry of the atmospheres (2nd ed., 803 pp).
Springer.
Zdunkowski, W., Trautmann, T., & Bott, A. (2007). Radiation in the atmosphere: A course in theo-
retical meteorology (p. 496). University Press Cambridge.
Chapter 6
Atmospheric Thermodynamics

6.1  Definition

Thermodynamics represents a branch of physics which deals with the energy and
work of the system and the energy transfer from one place to another. Thus, thermo-
dynamics is defined as the study of equilibrium states of a system which has been
subjected to some energy transformation. The main task of atmospheric thermody-
namics is to interpret the average properties of macroscopic properties of a system
in equilibrium, and related to proportionally slow movements, utilizing
mathematical-­ physical concept (Bohren and Albrecht 1998; Tsonis 2002;
Zdunkowski and Bott 2004; Curry and Webster 2005; North and Erukhimova 2009;
Hantel 2013; Khvorostyanov and Curry 2014). Atmospheric thermodynamics deals
with the transformations of the energy in a system and between the system and its
environment. The system is a typical example of the matter. The equilibrium state
of the system can be fully determined by a small number of properties such as pres-
sure, temperature, and volume. These properties are known as state variables, or
thermodynamic variables. It can be applied in many scientific disciplines, including
physics, chemistry, and biology. Thermodynamics plays an important role in our
quantitative understanding of atmospheric processes in a wide range, from the
smallest cloud microphysics process to the global atmospheric circulation (Iribarne
and Godson 1973). The purpose of this chapter is to introduce the basic elements
and relationships that exist in the thermodynamics. We first discuss about the ideal
gas equation and its application in dry air, water vapour, and moist air. Then a brief
description of a thermodynamic system is given. The following section concentrates
on the relationship between the mechanical work performed by the system and the
heat that gets in the system, as expressed in the first law of thermodynamics. Then
several sections follow, pertaining to apply previously mentioned in the atmosphere.
Finally, in this section, we focused on the second law of thermodynamics and the
concept of entropy, laws that constitute the basis for derivation of some important
relations in the field of atmospheric science.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 59

V. Spiridonov, M. Curic, Fundamentals of Meteorology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-52655-9_6
60 6  Atmospheric Thermodynamics

6.1.1  Thermodynamic System

In general, a system is a specific sample of matter. In the atmosphere, a parcel of air

is a system. A thermodynamic system is a component or element of interest that we
separate from the rest of the universe by “boundaries”, called the environment. The
sum of the system and environment is the universe. There are three types of system:
1. Isolated: a system that exchanges neither matter nor energy with the environment.
2. Closed: a system that does not exchange matter with the environment but which
may exchange energy.
3. Open: a system that exchanges both matter and energy with its environment (see
Fig. 6.1).
In an open system, mass and energy can be exchanged with its environment. A
system is defined as closed when it exchanges energy but not matter with its envi-
ronment and as isolated if it exchanges neither mass nor energy. In atmospheric
thermodynamics, we assume that most systems are closed. It is justified when there
is no interaction between the system and its environment.
This is approximately true when:
• The system is large enough to ignore mixing with its surroundings
• The system is part of large homogeneous system
A set of physical quantities that are used to describe the conditions of the system
is referred to as a “state”. Under the term “thermodynamic condition”, we can spec-
ify the following variables, pressure, temperature, density, volume, entropy, etc.,
which we called the state variables.

Fig. 6.1  Thermodynamic system

6.2  An Ideal Gas Law 61

6.2  An Ideal Gas Law

Laboratory experiments show that pressure, volume, and temperature of a substance

can be connected via the equation of state in a wide range of conditions. We require
that all emissions approximately follow the same equation of state, which is called
the equation of ideal gas. For many practical purposes, it can be assumed that atmo-
spheric gases, whether they are considered as individual or as a mixture of gases,
obey the following equation for ideal gas:

pV  nRT (6.1)

where p is the pressure (Pa = kg m−1 s−2), V is the volume (m3), n is the chemical

amount (in moles) which is equal to the total mass of the gas (m) (in grams) divided
by the molar mass (M) (in grams per mole), R* is the gas constant (8.314  J  K−1
mole−1), and T is the temperature in K, respectively. Usually, in the atmosphere, we
do not know the exact volume of an air parcel or air mass. To solve this problem, we
can rewrite the ideal gas law in a different useful form if we divide n by V and then
multiply by the average mass per mole of air to get the mass density:

nM
 (6.2)
V

where M is the molar mass (kg mole−1). Density has SI units of kg m−3. The value
of R∗ depends on the individual gas that is considered. Thus, from Eq. 6.1, the equa-
tion for ideal gas per unit mass (m = 1) is given by:

R
p   RT   T (6.3)
M

while R = cp − cV is a specific gas constant of the observed ideal gas, which is related
with the universal gas constant R∗ through R = R∗/M, where M is the mass of one
kilo mole of substance into SI system or one mole substance (molar mass).
If the density is expressed through the specific volume of gas ρ = 1/α, then the
following form of the ideal gas law is obtained:

p  RT (6.4)

If the temperature is constant, Eq. 6.4 is reduced to Boyle’s law, which says: if the
temperature of a mass of gas is constant, the volume of gas is vice versa with pres-
sure. Changes in the physical condition of the body that occur at a constant tempera-
ture are called isotherms. Also, implicit in Eq. 6.4, both Charles laws are given. The
first of these laws is the constant mass of gas at constant pressure; the volume of gas
is directly proportional to its absolute temperature. The second law is the constant
62 6  Atmospheric Thermodynamics

Fig. 6.2 Graphical
illustration of the second
law of thermodynamics.
(Credot: BlyumJ [CC
BY-SA 4.0 (https://
creativecommons.org/
licenses/by-sa/4.0)])

mass of gas contained in constant volume; the pressure of gas is proportional to its
absolute temperature (Fig. 6.2).

6.2.1  The Equation of State of Dry Air

Often in meteorology we use mass-specific gas laws so that we must specify the gas
that we are talking about, usually only dry air (N2 + O2 + Ar + CO2 + …) or water
vapour (gaseous H2O). We can divide R* by M to get a mass-specific gas constant, such
as Rd = R*/Mdry air. Thus, we will use the following form of the ideal gas law for dry air:

pd   d Rd T (6.5)

where Rd = R*/Mdry air = 8.314 J K−1 mole−1/0.02897 kg mole−1 = 287 m2 s−2 K−1 
= 287 J kg−1 K−1.

6.2.2  The Equation of State of Moist Air

The same procedure can be applied to water vapour:

pv  e   v Rv T (6.6)

6.3  First Principle of Thermodynamics 63

where Rd = R*/Mwater vapour = 8.314 J K−1 mole−1/0.01802 kg mole−1 = 461 m2s−2 K−1 

= 461 J kg−1 K−1. Typically, e is used to denote the water vapour pressure, which is
also called the partial pressure of water vapour.

6.3  First Principle of Thermodynamics

Atmospheric thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states of the system. It basi-

cally states that the total energy of the system will remain constant if no energy is
added or subtracted from the system. If we imagine a closed system in which the
total amount of mass (either in the form of gas, liquid, or solid state or a mixture of
phases) does not change, such thermodynamic system contains an internal energy
due to kinetic and potential energy of its molecules or atoms. In this case, the system
of unit mass has a certain amount of thermal energy (Q) which the system can
obtain through thermal conductivity and/or radiation. Consequently, the system can
carry out external work (W). The excess energy which the body obtains as the result
of the external work is the difference between the thermal energy and the work that
should be done by the system itself (Q − W). Following the principle of conserva-
tion of energy, the internal energy of the system must increase (Q − W), i.e.

Q  W  U1  U 2 (6.7)

where U1 and U2 are internal energies of the system before and after the change. In
differential form Eq. 6.7 becomes:

dQ  dW  dU (6.8)

dQ  dW   E2  E1   dW  dE (6.9)

where dQ is the differential change of heat added to the system, dW is the differen-
tial change of the work carried out by the system, and dU represents the differential
change in internal energy of the system. Equations 6.7 and 6.8 express the first
principle of thermodynamics, whose graphical illustration is shown in Fig.  6.3.

Fig. 6.3  Entropy of

the system
64 6  Atmospheric Thermodynamics

Actually, Eq.  6.8 defines the change of internal energy of the system where dU
depends only on the initial and final states of the system and does not depend on the
way in which the system is transferred between these two states. Such parameters
are known as state functions. The first principle of thermodynamics is an expression
for maintaining the energy of the system. The first law of thermodynamics provides
the basic definition of internal energy, associated with all thermodynamic systems,
and states the rule of conservation of energy.

6.3.1  The First Principle of Thermodynamics for an Ideal Gas

For an ideal gas, internal energy is a function of temperature only, because the
energy added by heating at constant volume only increases the accidental molecular
movement, which is proportional to the temperature and is expressed as:

dU = CV dT (6.10)

1
After replacing dW = pdV in Eq. 6.8, where α  is the specific volume of gas,
we obtain: 

CV dT  dQ  pd (6.11)

Or by some arrangement:

dQ  CV dT  pd (6.12)

Thereby, we can use the equation of state for an ideal gas, to write the alternative
form of the first principle of thermodynamics. The equation of state is the following:

pd   dp  RdT (6.13)

Using the above relation, the first principle of thermodynamics (6.8) becomes:

dQ   CV  R  dT   dp (6.14)

For isobaric process:

dQ   CV  R  dT (6.15)

From the definition of heat capacity of air at constant pressure Cp, dQ = CpdT with
replacement CV  +  R  =  Cp, we get the alternative form of the first principle of
thermodynamics:
6.3  First Principle of Thermodynamics 65

dQ  C p dT   dp (6.16)

Or if Q = H, where H is a new quantity called enthalpy, then:

dH  c p dT   dp (6.17)

Enthalpy of the ideal gas as internal energy of gas is only a function of temperature.
The other form is specific enthalpy:

dH = c p dT (6.18)

In meteorology, quantity CVdT is also called latent heat. It is the energy transferred
to the heating system during isobaric process.

6.3.2  Enthalpy

The internal energy U and the volume V are not the only state variables that we can
use to characterize a thermodynamic system. We can choose other quantities that
can be closely related to U and V, such as the temperature T, pressure p, and enthalpy
H. One commonly used state variable is called enthalpy and is defined as:

H  U  pV (6.19)

The differential of H is given as dH = dU + pdV + Vdp. This makes it possible to
write the first law of thermodynamics as:

dH  dQ  Vdp (6.20)

From the first form of the thermodynamics law, dU = dQ − pdV, we see that at con-
stant volume, dU = dQ. Enthalpy of the ideal gas, as an internal energy of gas, is
only a function of temperature. It is worth repeating the following:
1 . For constant pressure processes, heat and enthalpy change are equivalent.
2. For constant volume processes, heat and internal energy change are equivalent.

6.3.3  Poisson Equations

Even though energy in the atmosphere/ocean system ultimately comes from radia-
tive heating, adiabatic processes in the atmosphere are of interest for several rea-
sons. Often it is because real atmospheric processes occur quickly in comparison
with the time scale for heat transfer and so may be approximately adiabatic.
66 6  Atmospheric Thermodynamics

Alternatively, we may wish to make the adiabatic assumption simply because we

are ignorant of the heat transfer and consequently must ignore it or give up. Poisson’s
equations describe relationships between the state variables T, p, and ρ for the adia-
batic processes. When dB = 0 (adiabatic process), the first principle of thermody-
namics can be written as:

cv dT  pdV  0 (6.21)

Substituting for p from the ideal gas law, dividing by CVT, and using R = Cp − CV,
we have, after some replacements:

 
d ln TV  1  0

(6.22)

where γ = Cp/Cv (which is equal to 7/5 for an ideal gas). This implies that, for an
ideal gas undergoing an adiabatic process:

TV  1  const. (6.23)

Equation 6.22 is one of the three Poisson’s equations. Eq. (6.22) can be used to
explain several atmospheric phenomena. Starting with the second version of the first
law of thermodynamics, dQ = CVdT + pdα, and following a similar replacement, one
may arrive at the second Poisson’s equation for an adiabatic process in an ideal gas:

Tp  k  const. (6.24)

where k  =  R/Cp (which for an ideal gas is equal to 2/7). Finally, by combining
Eqs. 6.22 and 6.23, we arrive at the third Poisson’s equation

pV   const. (6.25)

Cp
where    7 / 5 . Equation 6.24 is the most familiar of Poisson’s equations,
CV are all equivalent.
although they

6.3.4  Potential Temperature

Meteorologists use Eq. 6.24 to define a quantity known as potential temperature (a

thermodynamic concept that seems to be unique to meteorology). Suppose we start
with a parcel of air in some arbitrary initial state specified by T, p. Let us move the
air parcel adiabatically to a pressure of 100 kPa and call the temperature which it
achieves the potential temperature, θ. By using Eq. 6.24 in the initial and final states,
it can be easily shown that:
6.3  First Principle of Thermodynamics 67

k
 100 
  T  (6.26)
 p 

where p must be expressed in kPa (since we have used 100 kPa in the numerator).
Because the potential temperature of an air parcel is conserved under dry adiabatic
processes, it may be used as a tracer for air parcels.

6.3.5  I mplementation of the First Principle

of Thermodynamics

We will calculate the specific energy added by heating (q), the specific work carried
out (W), changes in internal energy (dU), and changes in enthalpy (dH), for iso-
therm, isobaric, and esoteric processes (constant volume) of an ideal gas.
Isotherm process: For dT = 0 at isothermal process, expressions of changes in
specific internal energy of ideal gas (dU  =  CVdT) and enthalpy (dH  =  CpdT) are
equal to zero. Since (dU = 0) for this process, the first principle of thermodynamics
(6.8) simply becomes:
2
2
Q  W   pd  RT ln (6.27)
1 1

The total energy is transformed in the system by heating during isothermal expan-
sion of ideal gas, and it is used by the system to perform work in the area.
Isobaric process: In isobaric expansion of the gas, because the change in tem-
perature dT  >  0, changes in specific internal energy (dU  =  CVdT) and enthalpy
(dH = CpdT) are also positive. The specific work carried out by the system is:

W  p  2   1  (6.28)

To calculate the energy delivered to the heating system, an alternative form of the
first principle of thermodynamics is used:

dQ  c p dT   dp (6.29)

Since dp = 0 during isobaric process, the first principle of thermodynamics simply
becomes Q = dH. The whole energy passing through the heating system during the
isobaric process is used to increase the specific enthalpy of the system:

dQ  c p dT   dp  c p dT  dH (6.30)

68 6  Atmospheric Thermodynamics

Isosteric process  Since dT > 0 for isosteric process (constant volume), in which the
pressure increases, changes in specific internal energy dU  =  CVdT and enthalpy
dH = cpdT are also positive. The specific work carried out by the system is equal to
zero, because (dα = 0) during the isosteric process. The first principle of thermody-
namics (6.8) simply becomes:

dQ  dU  pdV  dU (6.31)

The overall amount of energy transferred through the heating system at isosteric
process is used to increase the specific internal energy of the system.

6.4  The Second Principle of Thermodynamics

While the first principle of thermodynamics says that energy is conserved in all
thermodynamic processes, the second principle of thermodynamics is concerned
with the direction of natural processes and definition of a new variable to the state
called “entropy”. The second law claims that a natural process runs only in one
sense and is not reversible. For example, heat always flows spontaneously from hot-
ter to colder bodies, and never the reverse, unless external work is performed on the
system (see Fig.  6.2). The explanation of the phenomena was given in terms of
entropy. Total entropy (S) can never decrease over time for an isolated system
because the entropy of an isolated system spontaneously evolves towards thermody-
namic equilibrium: the entropy should stay the same or increase.

6.4.1  Definition of Entropy

Entropy has different physical interpretations, including statistical disorder (chaos)

of the system (see Fig. 6.3) but for our purposes to consider the entropy as another
feature of the system, as enthalpy or temperature. The second law says that there is
a useful variable in the state called entropy (S). The change of entropy dS is equal to
the transfer of heat dQ divided by temperature (T) which follows that the change of
entropy is then the inverse of temperature:

dS = dQ / T (6.32)

For a given physical process, the entropy of the system and the environment
remains unchanged if the process is the return (reversible). If you mark the initial
and final states of the system (i) and (f), then there is a balance between these
situations:
6.4  The Second Principle of Thermodynamics 69

Sf  Si  reversible process  (6.33)

Example of feedback process is ideally forcing the air flow through the narrowed
tube. Ideally, that means no loss in the border layer. As the fluid flows and moves
through the narrowing, the pressure, temperature, and speed are changing, but these
variables returned to their original values downstream of the narrowing. The state of
the gas returns to its original conditions and the change of entropy of the system is
zero. This process is called isentropic process, i.e. the entropy of the system is con-
stant. In order to calculate the change in entropy, we use the first principle of
thermodynamics:

dU  dQ  dW or dQ  dU  pdV (6.34)

Changing the definition of term which expresses the work of gas:

dQ  dU  dVc p dT   dp (6.35)

where

c p dT = dH . (6.36)

In the above expression, (p) is the pressure and (V) is the volume of gas. If we use
the definition of the enthalpy of the gas (H):

dH  dU  pdV  Vdp (6.37)

Enthalpy change for the next expression is obtained. By replacing in Eq. 6.8, an
alternative way of presenting the first principle of thermodynamics is obtained:

dQ  dH  Vdp  pdV  pdV  dH  Vdp (6.38)

For the ideal gas, the equation of state is written as pV = RT, where (R) is the gas
constant. The transfer of heat of gas is equal to the heat capacity multiplied by the
change of temperature, which in differential form is expressed as

dQ = CV dT (6.39)

If we consider the process of constant volume, the first principle of thermodynam-
ics, the following expression is obtained:

= dQ
dE = CV dT (6.40)

Similarly, for the process of constant pressure, the formulation of the first principle
of thermodynamics gives:
70 6  Atmospheric Thermodynamics

= dQ
dH = CV dT (6.41)

If we assume that the heat capacity is constant with temperature, we can use these
two equations to define the change of enthalpy and internal energy. If we replace the
value of pressure (p) in the equation of state of ideal gas and the definition of dE in
the first equation of energy, we get:

dQ  cV dT  RT dV / V (6.42)

With the replacement value (V), the equation of state, and the definition of change
of enthalpy (dH), the first principle of thermodynamics is recorded by the expression:

dQ  c p dT  RT dp / p (6.43)

By replacing dQ in the form of differential equation for entropy, we obtain:

CV dT
dQ   R dV / V (6.44)
T
and

dS  C p dT / T  RT dp / p (6.45)

These equations can be integrated by the condition “1” to that “2” as follows:

T   V2 
S2  S1  CV ln  2   R ln   (6.46)
 T1   V1 

and

T   p2 
S2  S1  c p ln  2   R ln   (6.47)
 T1   p1 

where CV and Cp are the heat capacity at constant volume and pressure, and (ln) is a
symbol for a logarithmic function. Depending on the type of process, the change of
entropy of the gas may be determined. From Eq. 6.46, the process at constant vol-
ume, the second term in the equation is zero, because v2/v1 = 1. Then you can deter-
mine the value of specific heat at constant volume process. The first term of the
equation can be considered as a contribution to the constant volume process and the
second term as an additional shift caused by the change of volume.
References 71

6.4.2  Summary on Reversible and Irreversible Processes

As a summary, “reversible process” is the one performed in such way that the sys-
tem and the local environment may be restored to their initial states, without pro-
ducing any changes in the rest of the “universe”. A little thought should convince
you that no real process is reversible. The abstraction of reversible processes pro-
vides a clean theoretical foundation for the description of real-world, irreversible
processes. The logical question arises “What real-world processes” make things
irreversible? Dissipative effects (e.g. viscosity, friction, inelasticity), i.e. processes
for which the thermodynamic equilibrium for mechanical, thermal, or chemical
equilibrium, are not satisfied. In atmospheric and ocean sciences, it is common to
assume no dissipative effects (particularly for large-scale flows) and that motion of
the atmosphere and oceans is isentropic. Viscous and frictional dissipation of course
occur, but a good understanding of the dynamics can be obtained from invis-
cid theory.

References

Bohren, G. F., & Albrecht, B. A. (1998). Atmospheric thermodynamics (p. 416). Oxford University
Press Inc.
Curry, J.  A., & Webster, P.  J. (2005). Thermodynamics of atmospheres & oceans (467 pp).
Academic Press.
Hantel, M. (2013). Einfuhrung Theretische Meteorologie (p. 430). Springer Spektrum.
Iribarne, J.  V., & Godson, W.  L. (1973). Atmospheric themodynamics (pp.  260 (6)).
Dordrecht: Reidel.
Khvorostyanov, V. I., & Curry, J. A. (2014). Thermodynamics, kinetics, and microphysics of clouds
(777 pp). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
North, G.  R., & Erukhimova, T.  L. (2009). Atmospheric thermodynamics (p.  267). Cambridge
University Press.
Tsonis, A.  A. (2002). An introduction to atmospheric thermodynamics (172 pp). Cambridge
University Press.
Zdunkowski, W., & Bott, A. (2004). Thermodynamics of the atmosphere: A course in the theoreti-
cal meteorology (p. xiii + 251). Cambridge University Press.
Chapter 7
Air Temperature

7.1  Air Temperature Definition

Air temperature is one of the most important elements of weather and climate (Saha
2008). By definition, temperature is a physical quantity which characterizes the
degree of heating a physical body, which occurs as a result of accidental secondary
movement of molecules in the body. In a physical sense, temperature is a measure
of the mean velocity of the level of kinetic energy of molecules. In other terms air
temperature is characterized by the relationship of two bodies that are in mutual
thermal contact tending to reach the same temperatures. More significant, air tem-
perature is a measure of the atmospheric heat content as a response to combined
effects of absorbed solar radiation by the Earth’s surfaces, the vertical fluxes of
sensible and latent heat released to the air by the process of convection, and horizon-
tal advection (movement) of warm and cold air masses (Ambaum 2010; Lutgens
and Tarbuck 2009). Thus, the temperature is a thermodynamic condition of the
body, and its value is determined by the total flow of heat between bodies. In such
systems, the overall body loses heat in relation to another body in case of a higher
temperature. To define temperature as a physical quantity which is related to the
state of the body is hard. For this purpose, an internationally accepted temperature
scale is defined, based on universal freezing and the triple point of water. The tem-
perature of the atmosphere is controlled by a complex system of interactions
between biosphere, atmosphere, and lithosphere (Fig. 7.1). Energy is continuously
exchanged between the surface and the air over the place and the circulation of air
around the globe.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 73

V. Spiridonov, M. Ćurić, Fundamentals of Meteorology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-52655-9_7
74 7  Air Temperature

Fig. 7.1  Heat transfer in the atmosphere

7.2  Heat and Temperature

Heat is a measure of energy of matter. Matter consists of atoms and molecules

which are constantly oscillating. Heat is the total kinetic energy of atoms and mol-
ecules. Unlike heat, temperature is a measure of the intensity or the mean kinetic
energy of individual atoms and molecules. Heat and temperature are variables that
are closely related to each other. By adding heat, the molecules are moving faster,
and this contributes to increasing temperature. Conversely, by subtracting the heat,
the molecules move more slowly, i.e. we say that the temperature decreases. The
quantity of heat depends on the mass of matter (as total energy), but on the other
hand, the temperature does not depend on it.

7.2.1  Heat Transfer

The second known principle of thermodynamics claims that all systems tend to cre-
ate some disorder. Where the temperature gradient exists (change of temperature
with a given distance), heat will flow in the direction of reducing the gradient (and
of course speed will increase with the gradient). Therefore, heat is always trans-
ferred from the body with higher temperature to the body with lower temperature.
There are three primary mechanisms of heat transfer: conductivity, convection, and
radiation (Lutgens et al. 2018).
7.3  Temperature Factors 75

Table 7.1 Thermal conduc­ (cal/sec)/

tivity of certain media Material (cm2 C/cm) (W/mK)
Copper 0.99 385.0
Water (20 °C) 0.0014 0.6
Air at (0 °C) 0.000057 0.024

• Conductivity
• Convection
• Radiation
Conductivity  Conductivity means transfer of thermal energy in unit time and per
unit area of matter per unit temperature gradient (temperature difference). The abil-
ity to transfer heat through conductivity changes dramatically between substances
and is expressed as the transfer of heat through the middle of a unit temperature
gradient. For example, different media have different thermal conductivity. For
example, water has greater thermal conductivity than air (Table 7.1).
The air is very low conductor of heat. Heat conductivity is measured in (cal/sec)/
(cm2 C/cm) or (W/m K).
Convection  Convection is by definition the transfer of heat by movement within
the fluid, whether a liquid or gas. When the fluid is heated, it expands and becomes
less dense and more buoyant, and as such is lifting. At the same time, cooler fluid is
denser and starts sinking. Heated air rises and cold air descends. Convection is a
very important process that occurs in the lower part of the atmosphere. It plays a
crucial role in small-scale currents, the formation of thermals, which create turbu-
lent movements in the air.

Radiation  Radiation means heat transfer which does need a medium. Radiation
is a form of energy transport consisting of electromagnetic waves traveling at the
speed of light. Radiation is the mechanism in which heat is transferred through
space in a vacuum from the Sun to the Earth. Radiation is the transfer of electro-
magnetic energy through an electric or magnetic wave. When this energy is
absorbed by the object, it appears to increase the molecular movement and
temperature.

7.3  Temperature Factors

The primary factors (controllers) that affect the distribution of heat and therefore
energy and cause the air temperature change from place to place (Ahrens and
Henson 2016; Spiridonov and Ćurić 2010) are the following:
• Radiative transfer (different heating land and water)
• The movement of air masses
76 7  Air Temperature

Fig. 7.2  Temperature factors (controllers)

• Geographical location
• Ocean currents
• Cloud cover
• Height above sea
• Albedo
A graphic illustration of air temperature factors (controllers) is shown in Fig. 7.2.
Solar radiation is the main source of heating of the Earth’s surface. On the other
hand, longwave Earth radiation is heating the air. While daily insolation and net
radiation show similar daily patterns, they differ in magnitude. Air temperatures
respond by generally increasing, while net radiation is positive and decreasing when
net radiation is negative. Daily insolation tends to peak at noon, as does net radia-
tion. Net radiation is positive for the entire 24 h period in the summer, while it is
negative in the winter. Daily insolation is much greater in summer because the Sun
is higher in the sky and the daylight period is much longer than in the winter.
The movement of air masses and geographical location are very important factors
that affect the air temperature. Temperature decreases from the equator polewards.
Isotherms suffer latitudinal departure with the seasons. The highest and lowest air
temperatures appear on land.
Clouds are good absorbers of Earth terrestrial radiation. Air temperature depends
on the coverage of the atmosphere with clouds and presence of emissions. Greater
cloud cover (cloudiness) means less incoming solar radiation and consequently
reduces the air temperature.
7.3  Temperature Factors 77

Land cover elevation is heated faster than water. Great heat capacity of water
(oceans, seas, and lakes), which constitute about 2/3 of the Earth, provides them to
accumulate greater quantities of heat and affects the heat balance of Earth. The
surface of the land versus water absorbs less, but again, faster and re-emitted heat.
The water absorbs more heat and pays more slowly, so that land quickly loses heat
and cools quickly at night. Water loses heat very slowly, so that in areas where large
water bodies are present, there are no sudden changes in temperature. The other key
factor in determining surface temperature is elevation. Surface temperature declines
~1 °C for every 220 m in elevation above sea level. The coldest portions of Earth are
the Greenland and Antarctic Ice Sheets, which combine both very high latitude and
high elevation.
Geographical location is also an important factor that affects temperature.
Temperature decreases from the equator to the poles. Isotherms suffer latitudinal
deviation with the seasons. The highest and lowest temperatures of the air can be
noticed on the mainland. With increasing height above the sea level, the temperature
decreases. The vertical temperature gradient is greater than the horizontal tempera-
ture gradient.
Albedo is important temperature controller in the degree of reflection of short-
wave solar radiation that reaches the Earth’s surface. Earth’s albedo is one of the
elements that determine the surface temperature, but also determine the climate.
Albedo is a function of different elements that make up Earth’s surface and atmo-
sphere: clouds, deserts, glaciers, oceans, forests, and others. For example, forests or
oceans reflect 5 to 15% of received radiation, desert sand 30%, and glaciers 50%,
but the fresh snow reflects up to 98% of solar radiation. By increasing height above
the sea, temperature is decreasing. The vertical temperature gradient is larger than
the horizontal temperature gradient.

7.3.1  Heat Advection

According to standard definition, thermal (or heat) advection is the transport of

latent heat by a moving fluid (bulk motion), such as air. When the wind blows from
a warmer to a colder region, there is warm advection. The heat advection depends
on wind and the temperature gradient. Figure 7.3 shows an example of heat advec-
tion illustrated through the clouds, which is manifested through the penetration of
cold air (blue colour) in the region with higher air temperature (red). A state of the
atmosphere in which density depends only upon pressure, that is, a state such that
surfaces of constant pressure and constant density coincide, so that the geostrophic
wind is independent of height.
The advection occurs as the result of some external forcing such as wind that
causes horizontal air particle displacement. Depending on the air mass distribution
and the atmospheric systems movement, the warm or cold advection occurs. For
example, a warm frontal system is associated with a warm heat advection over the
surface towards a cold air mass. Oppositely, cold front moves a cold air mass into a
78 7  Air Temperature

Fig. 7.3  Cold and warm advection

(a) The thick solid lines are 42  hPa. The geostrophic wind (which is shown by arrows) at the
Southern Hemisphere blows along these contours. The length of the arrows is a measure of the
wind speed. The dashed lines are isotherms (°C). Blue shading indicates cold advection; red shad-
ing is warm advection. (b) A cold front extends from a low towards the north. The density of the
shading is proportional to the amount of advection, i.e. the darkest area experiences the strongest
advection (Source: http://www-das.uwyo.edu/~geerts/cwx/notes/chap03/advection.html)

warmer region. There is also heat advection into the ocean water as means of energy
exchange between atmosphere and ocean due to the external forcing as radiation or
wind-driven vortex currents.

7.4  Temperature Changes

Rotation of the Earth is a major factor for the daily changes of temperature. The
magnitude of these changes depends on local factors, i.e. local weather conditions.
Because of heating the Earth’s atmosphere, the months with highest and lowest
temperatures here do not coincide with periods of maximum and minimum incom-
ing solar radiation. Although the largest intensity of solar radiation occurs during
the summer solstice, the Northern Hemisphere is usually the warmest in July and
August. Conversely, the Northern Hemisphere, with the minimum solar radiation
arriving in December during the winter solstice, January and February are usu-
ally colder.
7.4  Temperature Changes 79

7.4.1  Daily Insolation and Pure Radiation

Although daily insolation and net radiation showed similar daily distribution, they
differ in amount. Insolation is strictly determined by net radiation. Air temperatures
increase when net radiation is positive and decrease when it is negative. In both
cases, in high latitudes, insolation and net radiation are related to season and length
of day, as opposed to night-time. Daily insolation aims to reach a maximum at noon,
as the net radiation (Fig. 7.4). Net radiation is positive for all 24 h period in the sum-
mer, while it is negative in winter. Daily insolation is much higher in summer
because the Sun is high in the sky and the day is much longer than in winter.

7.4.2  Daily Air Temperature Distribution

Incoming solar radiation significantly changes as a result of the rotation of the

Earth. During the day, the total radiation is positive, and the Earth’s surface receives
heat. During the night radiation is negative, and the surface loses heat through the
Earth’s longwave radiation in the atmosphere and space. This results in the appear-
ance of the daily cycle of increasing and decreasing the temperature in the air (Ćurić
and Janc 2016). Daily minimum air temperature usually occurs about half an hour
after the sunrise. When pure radiation becomes positive, the surface is quickly
heated and transferred to heat in the air that lies above it.
Air temperature increases sharply in the morning and extends the same pace after
the midday maximum solar radiation. This natural temperature interval, to a certain
extent, appears to violate the convection (transport of warm air in the upper atmo-
sphere), in the afternoon in the warm part of the year. When the Sun sets, the tem-
perature decreases rapidly and continues to decline with some reduced rate through
the night. Daily mean air temperature is determined by averaging the 24 h measure-
ments (readings) or by collecting the maximum and minimum temperature for the
24 h averaged period. Daily temperature range is calculated by finding the differ-
ence between maximum and minimum air temperature. Data from the daily hour
measurements of temperature are saved (stored) and are used for further processing.
Depending on the nature of the temperature and the statistical treatment period
(month or year), the following established definitions of temperature is applied:
(a) Monthly mean temperature (sum of the average daily temperatures for each day
of the month, divided by the number of days in the month)
(b) Annual mean temperature (the average of 12 monthly mean temperatures)
(c) The annual air temperature amplitude (the difference between the warmest and
coldest monthly mean temperature)
80 7  Air Temperature

Fig. 7.4  Daily cycle of solar radiation and temperature

7.4.3  Vertical Temperature Change

In the standard atmospheric conditions, the air temperature decreases with height
in the lower layer of the atmosphere. Figure  7.5 shows the vertical profile of
temperature in standard atmosphere. The troposphere is the layer of the atmo-
sphere closest to the Earth’s surface where the weather takes place. The warmest
temperatures in the troposphere are near the surface with the coldest tempera-
tures being at the top of the troposphere. Although the sunlight comes from the
top to the bottom of the atmosphere, the troposphere is primarily heated from the
bottom. This is because the surface is much better at absorbing a wide range of
solar radiation as compared to the air. The surface is warmed by the Sun, and
then this energy is distributed upwards into the troposphere through a mixing of
the air.
Since the Earth’s surface is the primary heat source, temperatures will be warm-
est at the surface and decrease away from the surface. The average temperature
profile of the troposphere will show a decrease in temperature with height. A verti-
cal temperature gradient is a physical quantity that describes the rate at which tem-
perature changes the most rapidly in vertical direction. The temperature gradients in
7.4  Temperature Changes 81

Fig. 7.5  Vertical temperature profile

the troposphere change with the geographic latitude, the climate zone, and season.
The exact rate at which the temperature decreases with height – the environmental
lapse rate varies with location and daily conditions. The changes are generally
smaller than the interval (0 °C/100 m) during winter than half, reaching more than
−0.8 °C/100 m over the summer subtropical ocean. In the middle latitudes, the ver-
tical gradient of temperature has different amounts, but its average is decreasing
about −0.65 °C/100 m. In the troposphere temperature decreases with height due to
radiation cooling. On the other hand, the surface is heated as a result of solar radia-
tion. Temperature changes slowly with altitude in the clouds, because of the process
of condensation and the release of latent heat. In the stratosphere, temperature
increases by about −0.2 °C/100 m with an increasing altitude. This occurs due to
radiation heating which occurs because of the reaction of ozone with ultraviolet
radiation, whereby heat is released. Under certain atmospheric conditions inside
each tropospheric layer, air temperature may rise with an increasing altitude. This
reverse condition is called temperature inversion. The vertical temperature gradient
in this case is negative. In the mesosphere again exists the process of radiation cool-
ing where the temperature is reduced by about −0.2 °C/100 m. When the air tem-
perature in the layer remains constant with height, then there is an isothermal layer.
During the night, especially when the sky is clear, the intervention significantly
cools down in the air layer, but longwave radiation from higher layers is weak, and
the air cools down to only about 1 °C. Consequently, a nocturnal inversion layer
above the mixing is established.
82 7  Air Temperature

7.4.4  Adiabatic Changes of Temperature

As air is heated, it expands becoming less dense and starts rising upwards above the
cooler air. This process occurs without exchange of heat with the surrounding air
(Barry and Chorley 2003). The lapse rate at which air temperature changes is called
adiabatic change of temperature. The rate of cooling or heating of unsaturated “dry”
air, moving vertically upwards, is (−1.0 °C/100 m) and is called “dry adiabatic gra-
dient”. At the condensation level of air rising (height at which the air achieves satu-
ration and the formation of clouds begins), latent heat is released, and the rate of
cooling is reduced. Slower rate of cooling, known as wet adiabatic gradient (“wet”
because the air is saturated), changes from 0.5 °C/100 m of air with high moisture
content up to 0.9 °C/100 m for air with low moisture content.

7.4.5  Temperature Inversion

Under normal conditions, in the troposphere in the near surface layer, the air tem-
perature decreases with increasing height. Conversely, the temperature inversion is
a thin layer of the atmosphere, where the temperature rises with altitude. Inversion,
also called “stable” atmospheric layer, occurs under stable atmospheric conditions
and the negative vertical temperature gradient. Inversions play an important role in
determining cloud formation, precipitation, and visibility. An inversion acts as a cap
on the upward movement of air from the layers below. Inversions also affect diurnal
variations in air temperature. The principal heating of air during the day is produced
by its contact with a land surface that has been heated by the Sun’s radiation. The
graphic illustration of the phenomenon of temperature inversion in winter is shown
in Fig. 7.6. In terms of temperature inversion during winter in valleys, the appear-
ance of fog is usually typical. Above the level of inversion, the weather is sunny,
shining, and relatively warmer, with luminous atmosphere.

7.4.6  Global Distributions of Temperature

Analysis of global maps shows decrease in the average air temperature at sea level,
from the equator towards the poles. Maximum temperature is evidenced on the
south of the equator in January and July in the north. The coldest and warmest
regions are those over land. Minor change in temperature distribution  along the
geographic longitude exists in the Southern Hemisphere. Isotherms also affect the
ocean currents. The difference between the 2 months shows less seasonal change in
temperature near the equator. Farther from the tropics, there is a more pronounced
seasonal change of air temperature on the Earth’s surface than above the ocean.
7.4  Temperature Changes 83

Fig. 7.6 Thermal
inversion during winter

7.4.7  Surface Temperatures

The near surface temperatures are on average more extreme than air temperatures at
a large distance from the surface. There is an evident difference between urban and
rural temperatures. In rural areas, transpiration of plants removes large quantities of
heat from the surface. Evapotranspiration of water from moist soil surfaces also
cools the surface much more than in the average city. Urban areas are covered with
a different infrastructure, buildings, and other objects. Much less vegetation is pres-
ent, so transpiration occurs at a much lower rate. City surfaces are also darker and
more absorbent than rural surfaces. Heat absorption is enhanced by the many verti-
cal surfaces in cities, which reflect radiation from one surface to another. Concrete,
stone, and asphalt conduct and hold heat better than soil, even when the soil is dry.
Fuel consumption and waste heat also contribute to increased temperatures.

7.4.8  Urban Heat Island

As a result of these effects, air temperatures in the central region of a city are typi-
cally several degrees warmer than those of the surrounding, countryside, and rural
areas. This has important economic and environmental consequences; higher
84 7  Air Temperature

temperatures demand more air conditioning and power consumption, and higher
temperatures enhance smog formation.

7.5  Temperature Scales

Temperature scales are the basic units for the quantitative extent (determining the
values) of temperature. Temperature scales use different reference points, some-
times known as fixed points. There are three main temperature scales used (Fig. 7.7):
1. Fahrenheit scale, which is determined using the point of ice (32°) and the water
vapour point (212°)
2. Celsius scale, decimal scale at which the melting point of ice is set to 0 °C and
boiling point of water at 100 °C

Fig. 7.7  Basic temperature scales

7.7  Latitudinal Heat Balance 85

3. Kelvin scale (is an absolute temperature scale). Absolute zero, or 0 °K, is the

temperature at which molecular motion is a minimum. Absolute zero  corre-
sponds to a temperature of −273.15° on the Celsius temperature scale.  The
ice point in the Kelvin scale is set at 273 K, while the boiling point is the 373 K

7.6  Isotherms

Isotherms are lines connecting points with the same value of temperature. For
example, drawn isotherms on the maps illustrate the distribution of the temperature
of the globe, with a general line’s direction, east and west. Furthermore, isotherms
illustrate the displacement of temperatures in latitude, as a result of seasonal move-
ment of the vertical rays of the Sun. The global averaged isotherm distribution for
January and July clearly shows the displacement of temperatures in latitude, as a
result of seasonal movement of the Sun radiation. They also indicate the presence of
ocean currents. The displacement of isotherms from north to south is more pro-
nounced over continents, because the temperature deviation is higher over continent
than over the water.

7.7  Latitudinal Heat Balance

The tropics have the most direct sunlight and highest temperatures. While the sea-
sonal contrasts in surface temperature are due to the tilt of the Earth axis, there is
relatively little variation in the annual average sunlight received throughout these
entire tropics, and hence the entire band has similar temperatures. The other key
factor in determining surface temperature is elevation. Surface temperature declines
~1 °C for every 220 m in elevation above sea level. The coldest portions of Earth are
the Greenland and Antarctic Ice Sheets, which combine both very high latitude and
high elevation. The shift to vertical rays means that in an average year, tropical lati-
tudes receive more solar insolation than polar latitudes. At the same time, the Earth’s
radiation changes with the latitude due to temperature (T) variations. Specific lati-
tudes have no global balance between incoming and outgoing radiation. Incoming
radiation is higher than the output radiation at lower latitudes (see Fig. 7.8), while
the outgoing radiation is greater than input at higher latitudes. This should mean
that tropics continue heating until the pole is cooling. But that does not happen
because the atmosphere and the oceans are machines that transfer heat from the
tropics to the poles. Alternatively, latitudinal heat balance raises the atmospheric
and the oceanic circulation or manages them. Coldest and warmest regions are those
over the land. There are minor changes in geographical latitude in the Southern
Hemisphere. Isotherms affect the ocean’s currents. Also, the difference between the
2 months shows less seasonal changes near the equator and outside the tropics and
more seasonal changes over the land than over the ocean.
86 7  Air Temperature

Fig. 7.8  A global map of the annually averaged near surface air temperature from 1961 to 1990.
(Credit: Robert A. Rohde https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Dragons_flight)

References

Ahrens, C. D., & Henson, R. (2016). Meteorology today, an introduction to weather, climate and
the environment (11th ed., 662 pp). Boston: Cengage Learning.
Ambaum, M. H. P. (2010). Thermal physics of the atmosphere (239 pp). Wiley-Blackwell.
Barry, R. G., & Chorley, R. J. (2003). Atmosphere, weather and climate (8th ed., p. 421). Routledge
Taylor & Francis Group.
Ćurić, M., & Janc, D. (2016). Meteorology (p. 581). Belgrade-Zemun: AGM book d.o.o.
Lutgens, F. K., & Tarbuck, E. J. (2009). The atmosphere: An introduction to meteorology (12th
ed., p. 505). Pearson.
Lutgens, F. K., Tarbuck, E. J., Herman, R., & Tasa, D. G. (2018). The atmosphere: An introduction
to meteorology (14th ed., p. 528). Pearson.
Saha, K. (2008). The Earth’s atmosphere: Its physics and dynamics. Springer. 367 str.
Spiridonov, V., & Ćurić, M. (2010). An introduction to meteorology (p. 245). Skopje: ZP Print.
Chapter 8
Atmospheric Pressure and Wind

Atmospheric pressure is the weight of the air column that lies above the unit sur-
face. This pressure is only partly influenced by the air velocity of the column. The
value of air pressure changes both in space and in time. Pressure changes are great-
est in the vertical direction, and close to sea level, they are about 1 mb every 10 m.
In the horizontal direction, the typical pressure change is about 1–2 mb per 100 km.
Despite the horizontal pressure changes are far less than vertical (at moderate lati-
tudes about ten thousand times), they are of great importance for the dynamics of
the atmosphere (e.g. Ackerman and Knox 2007; Markowski and Richardson 2010;
Ćurić and Janc 2016; Houghton 2002; Lindzen 2005; Lutgens et al. 2018; Sanchez-
Lavega 2011; Spiridonov and Ćurić 2011). Changes in atmospheric pressure in the
horizontal direction and time can occur for both thermal and dynamic reasons. The
cooling of the air causes the atmospheric pressure to rise, because the cooler air is
denser and therefore heavier, while the value of the ground pressure decreases as the
air warms, as it becomes less frequent and lighter. The air in the atmosphere is in
constant motion. The penetration of cold or warm air causes changes in the atmo-
spheric pressure in the observed area. In areas with upward air motion, the surface
pressure decreases, while in areas downstream pressure increases. Atmospheric
pressure is an indicator of weather. When a low-pressure system moves into an area,
it usually leads to cloudiness, wind, and precipitation. High-pressure systems usu-
ally lead to fair, calm weather. If a barometre shows low barometric pressure ten-
dency and shows air pressure tendency increase, it suggests that a high-pressure
system is taking over and fair weather conditions are expected.

8.1  Mass of the Atmosphere

One of the possible ways to determine the mass of the atmosphere (ma) is to utilize
the basic physical definition of air pressure as force (F), which acts on unit area (S)
on the Earth’s surface:

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 87

V. Spiridonov, M. Ćurić, Fundamentals of Meteorology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-52655-9_8
88 8  Atmospheric Pressure and Wind

F
p= (8.1)
S

and the expression of the weight of the surrounding atmosphere, which is:

G = ma g (8.2)

In the case when (F) is equal to the weight of the atmosphere (G), it follows that:

psfc S = ma g (8.3)

Pressure (p), mass   (m), and the acceleration due to gravity (g) are related by
F
=
p = mg / S . Atmospheric pressure is thus proportional to the weight per unit
S
area of the atmospheric mass above that location. Here, if the Earth’s surface is
replaced (S = 4πR2), where (R = 6378 km) is the radius of the Earth and the average
pressure on the Earth’s surface is psfc = 984 hPa, the following expression is obtained
for the mass of the atmosphere:

4 R 2 psfc
ma   5.129  1018 kg (8.4)
g

8.2  Definition of Atmospheric Pressure

The air pressure is the force per unit area exerted on a surface by the weight of air
above it. Or more simplified definition, the air pressure is the weight exerted by the
overhead atmosphere on a unit area of surface. Air pressure that is exerted by the
atmosphere found in rest indicates the weight of column of air that lies above it. It
is usually called as “barometric pressure”, which refers to the pressure within the
atmosphere of Earth (see Fig. 8.1).

Fig. 8.1  An example of

atmospheric pressure
8.3 Geopotential 89

Therefore, pressure decreases with altitude as there is less overlying weight of

air. There are three ways in which pressure decreases with height:
1. Air rising
2. Decreasing the air density
3. Decreasing the air mass (i.e. upper level divergence)
The standard atmosphere (symbol, atm) is a unit of pressure mainly used as a
reference value for the average atmospheric pressure at sea level. On average, the
atmosphere of each (m2) of the sea surface presses with an average force of about 10
tons or 10,000 kg/m2, while the total pressure of the atmosphere is about 100,000 N/
m2 or the average pressure at mean sea level (MSL) in the International Standard
Atmosphere (ISA) is 1013.25  hPa, or 1 atmosphere (atm), or equivalent to
760.001 mmHg, at 0 °C. In most conditions atmospheric pressure is closely approx-
imated by the hydrostatic pressure, caused by the weight of air above the measure-
ment point. As elevation increases, there is less overlying atmospheric mass, so that
atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing elevation. Atmospheric pressure is
caused by the gravitational attraction of the planet on the atmospheric gases above
the surface and is a function of the mass of the planet, the radius of the surface, and
the amount and composition of the gases and their vertical distribution in the atmo-
sphere. It is modified by the planetary rotation and local effects such as wind veloc-
ity, density variations due to temperature, and variations in composition. In
meteorology atmospheric pressure is expressed in millibars or Pascals. Surface
pressure is approximately 1000 mb (1013.25 mb); the total pressure is expressed
through Dalton’s law as a sum of partial pressures made by individual gases. The
pressure is exerted equally in all directions, not just downwards, and always
decreases with height. Additionally, the pressure is a function of density and tem-
perature of the air. Atmospheric movements appear to equalize pressure
differences.

8.3  Geopotential

The atmosphere is in the force field of Earth’s gravity. Therefore each individual air
particle in the atmosphere has potential energy. In order to raise some of the air to
some height, work must be done, which in nature is usually done by the atmosphere,
reducing its own amount of energy. The potential energy of air mass m at elevation
h relative to the mean sea level is called geopotential Φ that is given with the follow-
ing relation:
h
  h    g  ,z  dz (8.5)
0
90 8  Atmospheric Pressure and Wind

where g(ϕ, z) is acceleration due to gravity, ϕ latitude, and z geometric height. It

represents the potential energy of a unit mass relative to the mean sea level, and its
unit in the SI system is m2s−2 or a potential of Earth’s gravity. It is a scalar quantity
independent of air mass, which depends primarily on the height and latitude of the
air parcel. Geopotential height is:

 h   0
Zg h  (8.6)
g0

where g0 is standard gravity at mean sea level. Geopotential increases with height,
and in each direction where gz is constant, its value does not change. The surface
where it is:

  gz  const (8.7)

is called the equipotential surface. If the geopotential changes by 1 m2s−2 (∆Φ = 1),
using the standard value of gravitational acceleration, the change of height will be:

1
Z   1dm
g0

This fact imposes the need to introduce a new unit for the height of the equipo-
tential surfaces. Since these are horizontal surfaces, the gravity of Earth does not
perform the work. Under these conditions, a unit of height is introduced in
meteorology, called a  geopotential meter (gpm). The geopotential height is
g
connected to meters via a relation ∆Z = −
g0 ∆z, where ∆Z and ∆z are heights expressed
in geopotential metres and geometric (dynamic) metres, respectively. When g > g0,
the geopotential metre (∆Z = 1 gpm) is larger than the ordinary metre and vice versa,
while they are the same for the standard value of the acceleration of the Earth’s
gravity. Thus, in horizontal air movement, the height expressed in (gpm) will not
change following the equipotential surface, while those expressed in unique metres
will change, except in the west-east direction. This fact is illustrated in Fig.  8.2.
Values of geometric height, height in geopotential metres, and acceleration due to
Earth’s gravity (g) at 40° are shown in Table 8.1.

8.4  Barometric Pressure Distribution

In the weather analysis and forecast, it is very important to display the pressure field
for the selected period (synoptic term) at both mid-sea and at upper levels. At the
mid-sea level, the pressure field is represented by the so-called isobaric charts,
while at altitude it is plotted by isohypses of a certain isobaric surface.
8.4 Barometric Pressure Distribution 91

Fig. 8.2  Mutual positions

of equipotential lines in the
meridional plane

Table 8.1  Values of z (km) Z (km) g = ms−2

geometric height (z), height
0 0 9802
in Geopotential metre (Z),
and the acceleration due to 1 1000 9798
the gravity of Earth 10 9986 9771
denoted (g) at 40° latitude 20 19,941 9741
30 29,864 9710
60 59,449 9620
90 88,758 9531
120 117,795 9443
160 156,096 9327
200 193,928 9214
300 286,620 8940
400 376,370 8677
500 463,597 8427

The maps show areas of high- and low-pressure gradients as well as different
types of pressure systems. Steep pressure gradients indicate closely distributed iso-
bars, while widely deployed isobar is an indication of weak gradients. The speed of
the air flow is proportional to pressure gradients.

8.4.1  Pressure Gradient

The value of air pressure changes both in space and in time. Pressure changes are
greatest in the vertical direction, and close to sea level, they amount to about 1 mb
every 10 m. In the horizontal direction, the typical pressure change is about 1–2 mb
per 100 km. Despite the horizontal pressure changes are far less than vertical (at
moderate latitudes about ten thousand times), they are of great importance for the
dynamics of the atmosphere. Changes in atmospheric pressure in the horizontal
92 8  Atmospheric Pressure and Wind

direction and time can occur for both thermal and dynamic reasons. The cooling of
the air causes an increase in surface atmospheric pressure, as the cooler air is denser
and therefore heavier, while the value of the surface pressure decreases as the air is
heated, as it becomes less dense and lighter. The air in the atmosphere is in constant
motion. The penetration of cold or warm air causes changes in the atmospheric pres-
sure in the observed area. In areas where upward air movements exist, the pressure
on the ground floor decreases, and in the downstream areas, the pressure increases.

8.4.2  Isobars

In meteorological practice, especially for the weather forecast, usually a field of

pressure over a specific area of horizontal surface can be displayed using the isobar.
Isobar lines are connecting points of equal atmospheric pressure or lines that join,
on a weather map, areas of equal barometric pressure (Fig.  8.3). These lines are
drawn on the map at intervals of 4 hPa (mb), above and below the value of 1000 hPa
(mb). When the isobars are drawn in, they form definite patterns. They never cross
but form roughly concentric circles and form themselves into distinct areas of high
and low pressure. They have the same meaning as the height of the contours which
show the geographical map. In synoptic meteorology isobars usually draw in differ-
ent intervals (2, 4, or 5 hPa) depending on the size of the analysed area, the type of
chart (surface or upper level), and the need for closer synoptic display field pressure.
By definition, isobars cannot intersect each other. The map from which isobars are

Fig. 8.3  Distribution of the field of atmospheric pressure at ground level that shows the isobar
interval is 4 mb
8.4 Barometric Pressure Distribution 93

drawn is called isobaric chart. Isobaric area is the area with a uniformed or a con-
stant value of pressure.
Drawn isobars usually have some standard patterns. A system of curved isobars,
covering an area of low-pressure depression, shows depression or cyclone. Isobars
can also be considered as lines where individual isobar surfaces (points in space
where the pressure is the same) intersect the horizontal surface (in this case the
mean sea level), as shown in Fig. 8.4. From the figure it can be seen that the cyclone,
i.e. the area of closed isobars in which pressure decreases from the periphery
towards the center, in fact represents a valley which indicates low-pressure area,
while areas with high pressure represents a high-pressure ridge, as it is shown in a
topographic map. When isobaric fields are filled with information collected from
meteorological stations in the form of weather symbols, forecasters can use their
skill in order to provide a weather forecast over the next few hours or days.

8.4.3  Isohypses

The geopotential assumes that the Earth is perfectly flat and ideally spherical.
Geopotential height is the distance above the surface of the Earth, if it is perfectly
flat and in the shape of the sphere. Field of air pressure over a given area can be
represented with lines where one certain isobaric surface cuts the horizontal surface
with equal mutual distances (Fig. 8.5). Isohypses are showing the surface with con-
stant pressure. For example, when looking at 850  hPa graphics, all isohypses,

Fig. 8.4  Location of isobar surfaces in space (one section) and their intersection with mean sea
level. The depictions drawn on ground-level weather maps are the projection of these cross-­
sections onto a horizontal plane
94 8  Atmospheric Pressure and Wind

Fig. 8.5  Cross-section of isobaric surface with equidistant surfaces of equal height (geopotential
surfaces). The vertical projection of these sections into the horizontal plane of the mid-sea level
gives the isohypses of a given isobaric surface expressed in geopotential decametres

regardless of their value, are located at 850 hPa. Regions with low values of iso-
hypses are correlated with low air pressure (valley), while isohypses with high val-
ues are correlated with high air pressure (ridge). Because air pressure decreases
with the height of a horizontal surface, it is the greatest where the isobaric area is the
largest (smallest). Such topographic maps are used to show the distribution of the
field of air pressure over larger areas and height. In practice, synoptic isohypses are
usually drawn every 40 geopotential metres (gpm). For the purposes of meteorology
and synoptic aerology, the notion of standard isobaric area is introduced. This is an
area which shows the value of uniformed pressure. Defined standard isobaric sur-
faces 1000, 850, 700, 500, 400, 300, 250, 200, 150, and 100 hPa, which depend on
the vertical stratification of the atmosphere, are the different geopotential heights.

8.4.4  Hydrostatic Balance

Hydrostatic equilibrium implies that they are vertical in equilibrium component of

the pressure gradient force and the gravity force of the Earth, and therefore there are
no vertical accelerations. This condition is fulfilled for motions of meso-, synoptic,
and planetary scales, so they can be considered quasi-horizontal. But where down-
ward and upward movements occur, this balance can be disturbed. When the air
layer is warm, the pressure decreases more slowly with height, which means that the
distance of adjacent isobar surfaces in the vertical direction is larger (the vertical
component of the pressure gradient decreases, and when the air layer is cold, it
increases). Both processes in individual areas can cause the hydrostatic balance to
be disturbed. Isobar surfaces in colder air will have a lower elevation and in warmer
higher ones.
8.5 Pressure Systems 95

8.5  Pressure Systems

Pressure systems are areas that indicate a certain distribution of atmospheric pres-
sure expressed in numerous values. High- and low-pressure systems develop as the
result of different atmospheric processes (e.g. temperature differences between
atmosphere, water, and land, differential heating, upper-level disturbances, solar
heating or cooling). Based on a pressure systems distribution, we experience local
weather in a given area. Figure  8.6 shows a graphical illustration of the general
types of the pressure patterns (e.g. lows, highs, troughs, ridges). However there are
another specific pressure distribution patterns such as cold and warm core lows or
highs discussed below and their schematics shown in Fig. 8.7.
Low-pressure system causes weather to be generally unsettled with occurrence of
clouds, winds, and precipitation that minimize daily temperature variation.
High-pressure system is associated with a stable, dry, and clear-sky weather con-
ditions, with larger diurnal temperature changes due to increased solar radiation.
The pressure readings that are taken at various weather reporting stations all over
the world are transmitted to forecast offices and are plotted on specially pre-
pared maps.
A trough is an extended region of low atmospheric pressure at the surface or
aloft. A trough forms as the result of the atmospheric disturbance in the upper part
of the atmosphere after cold air breakdown from higher latitudes in a warmer region
creating a frontal baroclinic zone and thus increasing a jet stream that plunges the
cold air towards the equator and warm air towards the poles. The near surface forces
lifting of moist air behind the trough line. A trough is usually associated with clouds,
thunderstorms, precipitation, winds, particularly after the passage of the trough. At
the surface, lifting air under positive vorticity advection is reflected by the forma-
tion of depressions and troughs.
A ridge represents an elongated area of a high atmospheric pressure with anticy-
clonic curvature of wind flow. Opposite from trough, a ridge originates in the centre
of a high-pressure system and extends between two low-pressure areas. Given the

Fig. 8.6  Pressure patterns. (a) Lows and high at the Northern Hemisphere; (b) Vertical profile of
a trough and ridge
96 8  Atmospheric Pressure and Wind

Fig. 8.7  High and low core pressure patterns: (a) cold core low; (b) warm core low; (c) cold core
high; and (d) warm core high

direction of winds around anticyclonic circulation, in front of an upper ridge, the air
flow from polar regions brings cold air, while behind the upper ridge line, the flow
that moves from low latitudes brings mild air. The position (spot) that is associated
with the maximum curvature is called the ridge line. Ridges can be recognized on a
surface and upper weather charts drawn with the contour lines (isobars/isohypses),
respectively, where the maximum pressure is found along the axis of the ridge.
Wind convergence and the negative vorticity advection are main ingredients for
development of a surface ridge ahead of the upper level ridge. The vertical down-
drafts then give rise to divergence of the winds near the surface. The sinking air
causes a warming in the atmospheric column and a drying, which has the effect of
clearing the sky. An important atmospheric ridge is the subtropical ridge near the
30° latitude characterized by high atmospheric pressure causing blocking of west-
ern air flow associated with calm winds and stagnant air.
A shortwave trough is a mesoscale or synoptic-scale atmospheric disturbance in
the mid or upper portion in the atmosphere. In general shortwave represents an
8.5 Pressure Systems 97

embedded curve in a trough/ridge pattern that enhances baroclinity and induces

upward air movement due to divergence from positive vorticity advection (PVA). It
moves faster than longwave trough and influences the weather above the area of its
extension and is always accompanied by precipitation.
Cold core low is pressure pattern that covers a relatively small synoptic-scale
area with a rising air in all levels of atmosphere tilting to the northwest with height
with low temperatures at centre of low. The air is cooled by adiabatic expansion and
evaporation cooling of rain and/or snow. Most mid-latitude cyclones are cold core
lows which cause widespread precipitation. Initially, cold core lows develop due to
jet streaks, synoptic thermal gradient zones or vorticity spin-up that increases baro-
clinity and frontogenesis.
Warm core low appears as “thermal low” or “tropical cyclone”. Thermal low is
shallow and most intense at surface. It usually develops over land due to strong
surface heating due to positive buoyancy at the surface. In this pressure pattern, the
mid and upper levels are stable with a lack of rain as the result of PBL dryness.
Another type of warm core law that  develops in tropical cyclones over water
is deeper than thermal law, although it weakens at the upper levels. Air subsidence
in centre causes compressional warming and air rising around edges of tropical
cyclone eyewall. While strong cold low tilts with altitude, oppositely warm core low
is strongest when there is a vertical adjustment of locations of upper- and low-level
trough. A strong wind shear will weaken warm core low.
Cold core highs develop over land in high latitudes. They cover a large spatial
area, with surface air sinking where polar air masses dominate with cold and dense
air features. Consequently they are most intense at the surface and weakening with
altitude and deepening near their source regions. When polar air mass moves into
mid-latitudes, the upper-level highs will show a deep trough. Precipitation is gener-
ally lacking near cold core high centre.
Warm core highs represent deep highs with warm temperature at the surface and
lack of precipitation that covers a larger spatial area and extend through large depth
of atmosphere. The air subsidence generates a high pressure, despite the fact that
less dense air is rising due to surface warming.
The pressure patterns on the weather map are very like contour lines on a topo-
graphic map; the high-pressure areas correspond to hills and the low-pressure areas
to valleys. It is important to recognize that the pressure systems are relative to the
pressure around them. A high-pressure area, in the centre of which the pressure
reading is, for example, 1000 hPa (mb), is classified a high because the surrounding
pressure is less than 1000 hPa. A pressure area with the same pressure reading of
1000 hPa at the centre would be classified as a low if the surrounding pressure is
higher than 1000 hPa. These pressure systems are constantly moving or changing in
appearance. Lows may deepen or till and highs may build or weaken. Most systems
move in a general west to east direction. If we put down on a map, beside the
barometre readings and wind arrows, the state of the weather, we shall see that, in
the high-pressure areas, it is usually fine and clear, probably cooler, while in the
low-pressure areas, it is generally rainy and cloudy on the east side and probably
fine on the west side. The weather, in fact, relates to the shape of the isobars.
98 8  Atmospheric Pressure and Wind

8.6  Daily Pressure Distribution

Air pressure has a very regular daily and annual flow in the absence of atmospheric
disturbances leading to non-periodic pressure changes. The daily distribution of air
pressure is characterized by two waves with a period of 12  h and thus with two
maxima and two minima (Fig. 8.8). The minimum air pressure during the day occurs
at 4 and 16 h and the maximum at 10 and 22 h. The daily maximum and minimum
pressure (10 and 16 h) is more pronounced than the night extreme values (22 and
4 h). The daily amplitude of the air pressure decreases with latitude. It is the largest
in the tropics and is several millibars (Jakarta). In temperate and higher latitudes,
with stable weather, the daily amplitude is much smaller (Belgrade and Stockholm
in Fig. 8.6). The daily fluctuation of pressure seems to be related to the daily fluctua-
tion of the air temperature at the soil which is highest in the tropics and then
decreases towards the north. It is also thought that a possible cause of this phenom-
enon is temperature fluctuations in high atmospheric layers and above all in the
thermosphere, which is carried downwards. At moderate latitudes, atmospheric dis-
turbances often occur which disrupt the regularity of the daily flow and lead to non-­
periodic changes in air pressure of up to 10 mb.

Fig. 8.8  Daily pressure distribution in 1. Jakarta, 2. Belgrade, and 3. Stockholm

8.8 Hydrostatic Equilibrium (Approximation) 99

8.7  R
 eduction of the Surface Pressure to Mean Sea Level
Pressure (MSL)

One important application of the static equation is to reduce the pressure at sea
level. In order to be able to analyse the horizontal pressure distribution, it is neces-
sary to reduce the atmospheric pressure values measured at the meteorological sta-
tion (surface pressure) to the same reference level. The sea level was chosen as the
reference level. The surface pressure measured by the mercury barometre includes
instrumental repair, temperature t = 0 °C, and Earth’s gravity acceleration at latitude
φ  =  45°. Special tables designed for each weather station are used to reduce the
pressure at sea level. In Fig. 8.9 it is given illustration of the process of reducing the
pressure to sea level.

8.8  Hydrostatic Equilibrium (Approximation)

Hydrostatics is fundamental to meteorology and other related disciplines and is

applied in many different fields (Hewitt and Jackson 2003; Spiridonov 2010; Ćurić
and Janc 2016). Hydrostatics offers physical explanations of the atmospheric

Fig. 8.9  Reduction of pressure to mean sea level (MSL)

100 8  Atmospheric Pressure and Wind

stability and how the state variables as pressure, temperature, and density of air
change with altitude. While the real atmosphere is never found in rest, under some
atmospheric conditions when there is a balance between forces, almost complete
calm happens. It often happens at night, when there is stable, anticyclonic weather,
during the occurrence of inversion in valleys, but in the free atmosphere, where the
horizontal pressure gradient is equal to zero, or in other terms when isobaric sur-
faces are placed horizontally. At calm atmospheric conditions, air temperature and
density do not change in the horizontal direction. In atmosphere of motion, in which
there are winds, it doesn’t happen, and hence the difference between the atmosphere
in rest and atmosphere in motion occurs. As it was mentioned earlier, the individual
particle is found in the hydrostatic balance, when the vertical force of the pressure
gradient is in balance with the force of gravity (Etling 2008). Since it is known that
the temperature and the density of the air are related via the equation of state, we can
determine how quickly the pressure will decline at a given temperature. Of course,
you must assume the existence of hydrostatic atmosphere, in order to determine this
relation. This is very important when it comes to atmospheric stability. There are
several important elements that we need to know of, concerning the occurrence of
hydrostatic balance. First, it is a good approximation of the real atmosphere in huge
proportions, at the frontal zones. However, in each region where there is a signifi-
cant vertical acceleration (frontal areas), hydrostatic equation does not apply when
the forces set out above are not balanced. This also applies for smaller scale, such as
local storms. Because the expressed turbulence cannot be assumed without hydro-
static condition, it is significantly outside of reality. In thunderstorms there is a typi-
cal movement of air lifting, and hence hydrostatic approximation is inaccurate.
Hydrostatics is the science of fluids with no motion. Air pressure occurs at any
height in the atmosphere, due to the force which acts on the unit area and due to the
weight of air that lies above that height. Consequently, atmospheric pressure
decreases with increasing the altitude above Earth’s surface. The total force is
directed upwards, which operates on a thin horizontal column air as a result of the
decline in pressure with height, generally located in close balance with the force
directed downwards, which occurs as a result of gravitational attraction. Let’s derive
the hydrostatic equation mathematically. The static atmosphere of the elementary
particles of air is influenced by two forces: the gravitation and the pressure gradient.
From the equation of motion, in this case we obtain:

1
 p  G  0 (8.8)

i.e., in orthogonal (x, y, and z) system, we have the following three scalar equations:

p p p
 0,  0,    g (8.9)
x y z

8.8 Hydrostatic Equilibrium (Approximation) 101

The last equation is called the hydrostatic equation. Negative sign in the equation
means that the pressure decreases with height. Equation 8.9 can be represented in
another form:

dp    gdz (8.10)

or as dΦ = gdz follows that:

dp    d  where  is geopotential. (8.11)

It is evident that in a static atmosphere, at the surface Φ = const. also surface pres-
sure p = const. if the density ρ = const. Hydrostatic equation gives a strong relation-
ship of air pressure by height in real (not only in the static atmosphere). Only in the
areas with intense small-scale atmospheric processes (such as the cumulonimbus
clouds with tornadoes, squall lines), it is necessary to take a pressure difference
from that, which corresponds to the hydrostatic equilibrium. By integrating this
equation from the height (z) and pressure p(z), the infinite height above a fixed point
on Earth, we have:

p  
 
p z 
dp  g  dz
z
(8.12)

or, since p∞ = 0, it follows:

p  z   g  dz (8.13)
z

This means that the amount of pressure at height (z) is equal to the weight of air
in the vertical column, a single cross-section, the area which lies above that level. If
the mass of the Earth’s atmosphere would be deployed in uniform globe, the pres-
sure of sea level would be 1013 hPa, or 1.013 × 105 Pa, or an equivalent pressure of
pM d
one atmosphere (1  atm). From the ideal gas law  d  after substitution in
RT
(Eq. 8.13):

dp M g
 d (8.14)
p RT

Assuming that T = const. and by integration of (Eq. 8.14), it is obtained:

Md g z
p z   
ln p p 0   e RT
or p  z   p  0 e H
(8.15)

RT
with a scale height H   7.4 km  T  250 K  .
Md g
102 8  Atmospheric Pressure and Wind

The formula (8.17) is known as barometric height formula used for determining
the atmospheric pressure at a certain height in the hydrostatic atmosphere (Houghton
2002; Ćurić 2000; Helmis and Nastos 2012). The pressure of any amount is equal to
the weight of air above that point. The gradient of pressure is much higher near the
Earth’s surface, and it decreases with height. “Normal” decrease in pressure with
height is observed in a standard atmosphere, which shows an idealized vertical dis-
tribution of atmospheric pressure. It is useful if the hydrostatic equation is written
in terms of geopotential instead of the geometric height. Since dΦ  =  gdz and
1
ρ = p/RT, the hydrostatic equation gdz    dp could be written in the form:

 RT 
d     dp   RTd ln p (8.16)
 p 
It is evident that the change in geopotential by pressure depends only on tem-
perature. If the former relation is integrating by height, we obtain the hypsometric
formula:
p2

  z2     z1    R Td ln p (8.17)
p1

Meteorologists often express Φ(z) with aid of geopotential height, which is
defined by Z = Φ(z)/g0, where g0 = 9.80665 m/s2 is the free average Earth’s gravita-
tional acceleration, at the mean sea level. It is seen that by numerical value, Z is
almost equal to the geometric height z in the troposphere and lower stratosphere.
Figure 8.10 shows the relative position of surfaces z = const and Φ = const. as a
function of latitude.
Hypsometric equation can be also expressed using Z, so that:
p
R 1
g0 p2
Z T  Z 2  Z1  Td ln p (8.18)

where ZT represents atmospheric layer depth which is found between the surface
with pressure p1 and p2. If the middle temperature of the layer is defined:

1
p1
 p1 
T  Td ln p   d ln p  (8.19)
p2  p2 

and the mean scale layer height, H = RT / g0 , then the layer depth can be written:

p 
ZT  Z  H ln  1  . (8.20)
 p2 
8.9 Standard Atmosphere 103

Fig. 8.10  Mutual position

of z = const and Φ = const.
surface as a function of
latitude

It is evident that layer depth between two isobaric surfaces is proportional with the
layer temperature. Hence, it is also seen that pressure is decreasing rapidly by height
in cold than in warm air. We also note that in an isothermal atmosphere, the geopo-
tential height is proportional to logarithm of relationship between pressures at
height z, with the surface pressure:

p 
Z   H ln  1  (8.21)
 p2 

where p0 is pressure at Z = 0. Hence it is seen that pressure decreases exponentially

with geopotential height by factor 1/e by scale height:

p  z   p  0  e z / H . (8.22)

8.9  Standard Atmosphere

The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) is a referent model of atmosphere

which is approved by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) as
the international standard. In general ISA contains standard distribution of the
104 8  Atmospheric Pressure and Wind

pressure, temperature, density, and viscosity of the Earth’s atmosphere. Other stan-
dard organizations such as the  International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO),
for their specific needs, issued an additional subset to the referent model. The pres-
ent standard atmosphere is adopted in 1976 by the International Civil
Aviation  Organization (ICAO), which succeeded US Standard Atmosphere, pre-
pared in 1925. It assumes sea level values as follows:
• Air temperature 288.15 K (15 °C)
• Ar pressure 101,325 Pa (1013.25 mb, 760 mm of Hg, or 29.92 in. of Hg)
• Air density 1225 g m−2 (1.225 g L−1)
• Mean molar mass — 28.964 g mole−1
For the purposes of aviation, it is important to know the exact basis of data which
determine the scale of altimetre as a tool for determining the height using the atmo-
spheric pressure. To achieve uniformity, the International Organization for Aviation
Organization (ICAO) has assigned the following international standard atmosphere:

• The ICAO Standard Atmosphere, does not contain water vapor, i.e. the air
is dry and chemical composition of all heights is equal.
• The acceleration  of gravity is the same everywhere and it equals to
(9.8062 m/s2).
• The standard mean sea-level  temperature is 15  °C, and the mean sea-­
level pressure is (1013.25 mb).
• At any height z (m) measured above the mean sea-level and between 0 and
11.000 m, air temperature is T = 15–0.0065 z (°C).
• For altitude above 11.000 metres, the air temperature is constant, and it
equals to (−56.5 °C).

8.10  Barotropic vs Baroclinic Atmosphere

A state of the atmosphere in which air density ρ depends only upon pressure p, i.e.
ρ = ρ(p) is reffered to us as barotropic atmosphere (Hantel 2013). That is actually
the state a state such that surfaces of constant pressure and constant density coin-
cide, so that the geostrophic wind is independent of height as it is shown in
Fig. 8.11a. The blue portion of the surface denotes a cold region, while the orange
portion denotes a warm region. In barotropic atmosphere temperature difference is
restricted to the boundary. The dotted lines enclose isobaric surfaces which remain
at constant slope with increasing height. Atmospheric state in which density depends
upon both temperature and pressure and in which the geostrophic wind varies with
height and is related to the horizontal temperature gradient via the thermal wind
equation is called baroclinic atmosphere. In baroclinic atmosphere temperature
8.12 Stream Field 105

Fig. 8.11  Barotropic atmosphere (a) vs baroclinic atmosphere (b)

difference extends through the region. The isobaric surfaces increase in slope with
height as it is shown in Fig.  8.11b. This causes thermal wind to occur only in a
baroclinic atmosphere.

8.11  R
 eduction on Atmospheric Pressure to Mean Sea
Level Pressure

Barometric pressure is the pressure exerted by the atmosphere at a point as a result

of gravity acting upon the “column” of air that lies directly above the point. To have
a consistent pressure values, meteorologists recalculate the barometric pressure
measured at weather stations to mean sea level conditions. Higher elevations above
sea level experience lower pressure since there is less column of atmosphere on
which gravity can act. At higher altitude the air pressure decreases. Since air pres-
sure decrease due to height above sea level is equivalent around the world, baromet-
ric pressure readings from weather stations located at any altitude can be equivalently
converted into mean sea level pressure. The basic equation of statics expresses the
law of change of atmospheric pressure with height in a static atmosphere. The pur-
pose of the weather forecast is to regularly draw surface isobaric maps that show the
pressure distribution above the mean sea level. The barometric height formula
allows calculation of barometric pressure (p) measured at the station and reduction
to the mean sea-level pressure p0, at the mean sea level height (z = 0).

8.12  Stream Field

Air blows over area only when there is a pressure gradient. As it was explained
above, the air will flow from a region of high pressure to a region of low pressure.
The greater the difference in pressure, the faster the air flow (wind). Atmospheric air
varies according to the laws of dynamics in different ways. For example, in large
106 8  Atmospheric Pressure and Wind

Fig. 8.12  Basic streamflows: (a) translation, (b) rotation, (c) divergence, and (d)  deformation
rotation

systems with an organized circulation such as cyclones and anticyclones, air rotates,
i.e. it has a circular flow. At other places the air flows at a straight line; sometimes it
rises and in certain atmospheric conditions, it descends; the volume of fluid increases
or decreases.
Stream field. Stream field in any significant small area can be considered as a set
of four basic elementary stream areas: translation, rotation, divergence, and defor-
mation (Fig. 8.12). If a thin layer of atmosphere that surrounds Earth’s surface is
considered, horizontal processes are important for the movement of air masses and
weather phenomena which are manifested in this layer, in relation to vertical pro-
cesses. Because of this, two-dimensional elementary stream fields are briefly con-
sidered; horizontal processes are important for the movement of air masses and
weather phenomena which are manifested in this layer, in relation to vertical pro-
cesses. Because of this, two-dimensional elementary stream fields are briefly
described.
Streamlines. Line represents the linear curve which is tangential with the local
vector current speed.
Translator field. Because the speed of flow is the vector size, translator field
represents movement through the displacement vector field for translation. The air
moves around the same speed and direction and intensity. Streamlines that lie in the
8.12 Stream Field 107

direction of flow are the parallel lines (Fig. 8.12a). That stream field does not change
the volume or shape of the fluid.
Rotation field. In this linear field, streamlines are concentric circles. The air
rotates around a common centre of stream field  (Fig. 8.12b). The speed of flow
increases linearly with increasing distance of streamlines from the centre of rota-
tion. During the rotation, individual air particles do not change its shape or volume.
Divergence and convergence field. Streamlines are straight and pass through the
centre of the field as a joint stream point. When air flows towards the centre, flow is
convergent, and that the point is called convergent point (Fig. 8.12c). If the flow is
done from the center to the field, it is called the point of divergence. The conver-
gence of an air particle does not alter its shape, while both the rate of flow and vol-
ume of particle are going to reduce the convergence point. In contrast, in the
divergence, flow is from the centre towards the outer area. Then, this point is called
the point of divergence. In a departure from this point, the flow increases its velocity
and volume, but particles in this case do not change their shape.
Deformation field. In deformation field, streamlines are concentric equilateral
hyperbolas and their velocity increases linearly in any direction from the center to
the field (Fig. 8.12d). In this field, linear speed of the centre field linearly increases.
Movement does not change the volume of an air particle, but it changes its shape.
When approaching the common center of the hyperbola (center of the field), the
dimensions of the particles decrease in the direction of flow, and when moving away
from the center, the dimensions of the particles increase in the direction of flow.
The axis to which air flows from one and the other side is called axis of stretching.
Normally, this axis is set to tightening axis which also passes through the centre.
Laminar and Turbulent Flow  The flow of air is laminar when the flow of the fluid
(gas or liquid) is smoothed or regular, as opposed to turbulent flow, which is sub-
jected to irregular deviations and mixing (Fig.  8.13). In laminar flow, sometimes
known as the voltage flow, speed, pressure, and other properties of the flow in any
point of the fluid remain constant. Laminar flow is presumed to consist of thin layers
which are parallel to each other. When air flows at higher speeds, the flow is basi-
cally disorganized, even chaotic, and tends to form eddies. This is called turbulence
or turbulent flow. In order to maintain the turbulent flow, a relatively large effect on
the pressure gradient is required.

Fig. 8.13  Laminar (a) vs

turbulent flow (b)
108 8  Atmospheric Pressure and Wind

8.13  Definition of Wind

Air motion which manifests as wind is given its initial impulse by horizontal pres-
sure gradient that results from differential heating and air density. If there is no
Earth rotation and there is no friction, air flows directly from areas of high pressure
towards lower pressure to transfer mass. Wind velocity is a vector quantity compris-
ing the wind direction, where 360° is a north wind, 90° is an east wind, and so on,
referring to the direction from which wind is blowing and the wind speed at a stan-
dard height of 10 m above the ground. The direction of the wind is therefore marked
according to which side of the horizon air blows, and it is graphically represented
with a rose in the wind. Rose in the wind has 8–16 routes. Duration of calm at the
time of observation without wind is recorded in the centre of the rose. Direction is
determined with the help of Wild’s weathervane that is set up at the height of
6–12 cm. The speed of the wind is the flow of air particles. Wind is measured with
anemometre and expressed in m/s. Wind speed depends of relief, vegetation, and
other objects on the ground. The wind potential is significant for production of
renewable wind energy, especially in the windy areas, as an alternate source of
energy in the era of climate change (Landberg 2016).

8.14  Classification of the Winds

The winds are classified into the following groups: regular, periodic, and local winds.

8.14.1  Permanent Wind

Persistent winds are participating in the general atmospheric circulation. They are
called planetary winds as they are blowing continuously through the Earth’s sur-
face. There are trade winds, antitrade winds, western winds, and eastern polar winds.

8.14.2  Trade Winds

Trade winds are surface winds blowing in the layer of the troposphere to a height of
2000 metres. They come from subtropical areas with high air pressure, 30° latitude
north and south, and are directed towards the equator (Fig. 8.14). Because of the
Earth’s rotation, they turn to the west and thus receive a north-eastern direction (the
northern hemisphere) or south direction (the southern hemisphere). Above the equa-
tor, where the trade winds from north and south collided, there is a belt of equatorial
calm, which lies between 2° and 8° north latitude (Galvin 2015).
8.14 Classification of the Winds 109

Fig. 8.14  Trade winds

Fig. 8.15  Western winds

8.14.3  Anti-trade Winds

Anti-trade winds represent upper-level winds, which are blowing over trade winds
from the equator towards the subtropical areas. Under the influence of the Earth’s
rotation, they return to the east and thus become southwest and northwest winds,
respectively. The air masses in the subtropical areas are mainly down to the Earth’s
surface. Due to the presence of the prevailing descendent air currents, there is no
wind occurrence. Thus, the two hemispheres form a zone of subtropical calms,
where clear and dry weather conditions exist. Western winds are blowing between
40° and 65° latitude (Fig. 8.15). Air masses come from the area of subtropical anti-
cyclone and, because of the Earth’s rotation, turn to east or west direction with the
110 8  Atmospheric Pressure and Wind

Fig. 8.16  Eastern

polar winds

movement. These prevailing winds are more dominant in high latitudes during win-
ter than during summer. Eastern polar winds occur because of the air flow from the
polar regions of high air pressure to depressions (low-pressure centres) around the
pole (Fig. 8.16).
Under the influence of the Earth’s rotation, they turn to west and east in nearly
the same direction. Around 60° Latitude, they collide with western winds, lifting in
height and blowing towards the poles.

8.14.4  Periodic Winds

Periodic winds are monsoons and daily winds. Seasonal changes of atmospheric
pressure at the same place cause air flow over a period in one direction and during
the following period in another direction. These are known as periodic winds or
monsoons.
These winds are divided into winter winds, which blow from land to sea, and
summer monsoons which are manifested from the sea to the mainland. The most
8.14 Classification of the Winds 111

Fig. 8.17 Periodical
winds: monsoon

famous is the East Asian summer monsoon (Clift and Plumb 2008). During this
characteristic wind pattern, a humid monsoon winds can be noticed that produce
heavy rains since blowing from the sea (higher air pressure) to the mainland (lower
air pressure) (Fig. 8.17). Such winds blow from June to September. Winter mon-
soons are very dry winds blowing from the mainland (high air pressure) to the sea
(low air pressure) and are manifested in the period from September to March. All
winds have almost the same reason of occurrence. Differences in pressure resulting
from temperature differences, caused by no equal heating of the Earth’s surface, are
essential factors for the occurrence of air flow into the atmosphere, called “wind”.

8.14.5  Local Winds

Local winds are typical for certain areas of the Earth. Local scale circulation gener-
ally operates over 10 to 100 kilometres. Many local scale winds are created by
unequal heating of the Earth. Their occurrences are related to the influence of local
natural conditions and always have the same direction and support the same weather
conditions. In many locations, wind patterns exist that is not easily explained by the
general principles outlined above. In most cases, unusual topographic or geographic
features are responsible for such winds, known as local winds.

8.14.6  Land and Sea Breezes

Winds from the land and the sea are caused by differences in daily temperature that
occur between land and water (Fig. 8.18). The atmosphere is warm when spread
over the land, increasing the scale height (z) and reducing the amount of the decline
112 8  Atmospheric Pressure and Wind

Fig. 8.18  Land and sea breezes

in pressure with height. At the height, the pressure is higher over the land than over
the adjacent sea, causing a mass transport of air column above the sea. Therefore,
the pressure above the sea surface increases, causing growth of the distribution of
pressure, as shown in the same figure. Illustration of the sea wind shows the circula-
tion and relative pressures in the horizontal direction, near the Earth and at the
height. The Earth, unlike the sea, is heated during the day. As a result of higher
temperature, the atmosphere over the land has lower density and large-scale height
(z) than the atmosphere over the sea. Smaller density makes the air above the main-
land suppressed, in terms of air over the sea, and it rises. Greater scale height makes
the pressure higher over the land than over the sea, causing the mass to be trans-
ported from land to sea in height. The accompanying influx of mass air column
above the sea increases the pressure at sea surface, placing the distribution of high
and low pressure, which is shown in the picture, and it creates the shown circulation.
Land or sea breezes are winds that blow from a large body of water towards or onto
a landmass. They form as the result of the differences in air pressure created by dif-
ferential heating capacities of water and dry land. As such, sea breezes are more
localized than prevailing winds. Because water heats up and cools down more
slowly than does dry land, the air along a shoreline is alternately warmer over the
water and cooler over the land, and vice versa. These differences account for the fact
that winds tend to blow offshore during the evening and onshore during the day.

8.14.7  Mountain and Valley Winds

The traditional components of the cycle are upslope (anabatic) winds, the daytime
up valley wind, downslope (katabatic) winds, and the night-time down valley wind.
In this view, each component has corresponding compensatory currents aloft, pre-
sumably to form a closed circulation.
References 113

Fig. 8.19  Mountain and valley winds

A system of diurnal winds along the axis of a valley is blowing uphill and up
valley by day and downhill and down valley by night; they prevail mostly in calm,
clear weather. These winds develop when the air along the mountain slopes is heated
more intensely than at the same elevation above the bottom of the valley. Chinook
are hot, dry winds sometimes blowing on the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains
(Fig. 8.19). In the Alps, the winds are like Chinook and are called Fen. Fen is also a
strong and slope warm mountain wind. Fen brings clear and hot weather. In winter
it causes avalanches and sudden melting of snow. In summer, if it is present for a
long time in dry air, it may cause forest fires.

8.14.8  Katabatic Winds

This type of winds is formed when cold air, which lies above plateau area (e.g. ice
sheets in Greenland and Antarctica), is set in motion under the influence of gravity.
Surrounding winds associated with large urban areas, where the circulation pattern
is characterized by weak wind, are blowing from the surrounding space to the city.

References

Ackerman, S. A., & Knox, J. A. (2007). Meteorology: Understanding the atmosphere (2nd ed.,
528 pp). Brooks/Cole.
114 8  Atmospheric Pressure and Wind

Clift, P. D., & Plumb, R. A. (2008). The Asian monsoon – Causes, history and effects. Cambridge
University Press. 270 str.
Ćurić, M. (2000). Selected chapters in dynamic meteorology (pp.  244 (11, 12)). Belgrade:
University Press.
Ćurić, M., & Janc, D. (2016). Meteorology (p. 581). Belgrade-Zemun: AGM book d.o.o.
Etling, D. (2008). Theoretische Meteorologie – Eine Einführung (3. Auflage) (p. 376). Springer.
Galvin, J. P. F. (2015). An introduction to the meteorology and climate of the tropics (328 pp).
Wiley-Blackwell.
Hantel, M. (2013). Einfuhrung theretische meteorologie (p. 430). Springer Spektrum.
Helmis, C. G., & Nastos, P. T. (Eds.). (2012). Advances in meteorology, climatology (1278 pp).
Springer.
Hewitt, C. N., & Jackson, A. W. (2003). Handbook of atmospheric science (633 pp). Blackwell.
Houghton, J. T. (2002). Physics of atmospheres (pp. 320 (1, 2, 4)). Cambridge University Press.
Landberg, L. (2016). Meteorology for wind energy (p. 204). Wiley.
Lindzen, R. S. (2005). Dynamics in atmospheric physics (310 pp). Cambridge University Press.
Lutgens, F. K., Tarbuck, E. J., Herman, R., & Tasa, D. G. (2018). The atmosphere: An introduction
to meteorology (14th ed., p. 528). Pearson.
Markowski, P., & Richardson, Y. (2010). Mesoscale meteorology in midlatitudes (pp.  407 (12,
13)). Wiley.
Sanchez-Lavega, A. (2011). An introduction to planetary atmospheres (588 pp). CRC Press
(Taylor & Francis Group).
Spiridonov, V. (2010). Meteorology. ISBN 976-9989-57-642-331, COBBIS.MK-ID 79389450,
pp. 317.
Spiridonov, V., & Ćurić, M. (2011). An introduction to meteorology (pp. 241 (1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 10, 11,
12, 16, 17, 18)). ISBN 978-608-65175-0-2 COBISS.MK-ID 83607306.
Chapter 9
Atmospheric Stability

9.1  Air Stability

Atmospheric stability is a measure of atmospheric status which determines whether

or not air will rise, sink, or be neutral. In general stability refers to air tendency to
rise or to resist vertical motion (Salby 1996; Houghton 2002; Hewitt and Jackson
2003; Lutgens and Tarbuck 2009; Hantel 2013). As the air parcel rises, it will
expand and cool adiabatically to its dew point (i.e. the level of condensation) at
which clouds are formed. There are four mechanisms that trigger air rising
(Markowski and Richardson 2010):
1. Orographic lifting, which occurs when air cannot move through a mountain, and
it is forcing to flow over a mountain barrier.
2. Frontal lifting happens when a warmer, less dense air is forced to rise over
cooler, denser air along the front line.
3. Convergence is an atmospheric condition that exists when there is a horizontal
net inflow of air into the region, resulting in an upward flow. When air converges
along the Earth’s surface, it is forced to be raised, because it can go down.
4. Updraft, local convective rising, as the result of unstable atmosphere and vertical
transport of heat and moisture through the convection (Fig. 9.1).
When air encounters an obstacle, it is forced to lift upwards across the slope. On
the upwind side of obstacle, air cools adiabatically, while at the downwind side, it
heats adiabatically. Hence, a more increasing humidity occurs at the upwind side
than that of the downwind side. Another possible way of lifting the air is the conver-
gence of the flow of air at Earth’s surface, which forms a low pressure and increased
vertical velocity, and the air begins to rise. In this case, divergence of the wind
occurs in the upper layer. Occurrence of vertical (ascendant) flow of air is noted in
the boundary areas, which exist in the frontal surfaces warm and cold fronts, out-
flow boundary surfaces (thunderstorms), and dry lines. Individual air particle may
be obtained by taking convection or lifting by heating the surface (diabatic). Particles

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 115

V. Spiridonov, M. Ćurić, Fundamentals of Meteorology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-52655-9_9
116 9  Atmospheric Stability

Fig. 9.1  Air rising caused

by convection

Fig. 9.2  Adiabatic and environmental vertical temperature gradient

with hot air can be collected from the surface and mixed with ambient air. The con-
vection mechanism is responsible for development of clouds with vertical develop-
ment (cumulus clouds), as precursors of thunderstorm clouds, known as
cumulonimbus. The stability of the layer of the atmosphere can be estimated by
comparing the vertical stratification of the atmosphere (Lutgens and Tarbuck 2009).
It is obtained by upper air sounding measurements and analysis of dry and wet adia-
batic rates (Fig. 9.2).

9.2  Static Atmospheric Stability

Static atmospheric stability (hereinafter referred to as atmospheric stability) is

determined by comparing the vertical temperature gradient of the part of the air (or
air) that is assumed to rise (or descend) dry adiabatically or moist adiabatically and
the vertical temperature gradient of the surrounding air (Ćurić 2000; Ćurić and Janc
2016). Depending on the value of the temperature gradient, the atmosphere can be
9.3  Stability Due to Air Movement 117

stable, neutral, and unstable. The value of the lapse rate is strongly dependent on the
amount of water vapour in the air. Dry air cools at about 1 °C/100 m (the “dry adia-
batic lapse rate”), while moist air usually cools at less than 0.6 °C/100 m (“moist
adiabatic lapse rate”). The word adiabatic means that no outside heat is involved in
the warming or cooling of the air parcels. To define the stability of the atmosphere,
according to the vertical temperature gradient, there are three possible conditions:
Absolutely stable. The atmosphere is absolutely stable when the air at the surface is
either cooler than the air aloft (an inversion) or the temperature difference
between the warmer surface air and the air aloft is not very great (i.e. the
­environmental lapse rate is less than the moist adiabatic rate and it is positioned
over the wet and dry adiabat).
Absolutely unstable. The atmosphere is unstable when the surface air is much
warmer than the air aloft (i.e., the environmental lapse rate is greater than the dry
adiabatic rate, and it lies under the wet and dry adiabat).
Conditionally unstable. The atmosphere is conditionally unstable when unsaturated
air can be lifted to a point where condensation occurs, and the rising air becomes
warmer than the air around it. This takes place when the environmental lapse rate
lies between the moist adiabatic rate and the dry adiabatic rate.

9.3  Stability Due to Air Movement

It is of great importance to know how vertical displacements of air layers affect the
change in static stability. This mechanism of vertical displacement of air layers is
most often due to the divergence of the ground level (divergence) in the high-­
pressure system (anticyclone) or due to the near surface layer air flow (convergence)
in a cyclone. Observe a layer of air in the form of a square which, when lifted,
remains unsaturated (Fig. 9.3). If the cross-sectional area of the air is assumed to

Fig. 9.3  The variation of

air stability due to the
displacement of the
air layer
118 9  Atmospheric Stability

Fig. 9.4  Illustration of the

mechanism of convective
instability in the air layer.
Line AA1 represents wet
adiabat and line BB1
dry adiabat

remain unchanged, the air layer will occasionally lift to become thicker as it climbs
into an area of lower pressure and less density, where the same mass of air is distrib-
uted in a larger volume. It’s a layer where the air is statically stable (temperature
inversion). It is evident by observing the change of temperature between points A
and B on the lower and upper boundaries of the air layer, which do not change their
relative position when lifting the layer. As the air layer rises, the temperatures of
points A and B change dry adiabatically (lines of constant potential temperature θ)
at altitude; there will be an increase in the instability in the layer, when the tempera-
ture between the points A1 and B1 declines. One can also observe the opposite case,
when, e.g. in the anticyclone the air goes down. In this case, the static stability of the
air increases, forming a subsidence inversion (sinking air) in that layer (Fig. 9.4).
This often happens in the area of subtropical high pressure centres where significant
air pollution can occur in large urban areas because inversion prevents the ventila-
tion of air above such areas.

9.4  Convective Instability

In the mornings in summer, it often happens that the lower part of the ground layer
of air (Fig. 9.4. lower position) is saturated with water vapour and in the upper part
is unsaturated. Such a layer is stable, because it can also cause ground-level night
inversion of temperature. Under the influence of intense heating, such a layer rises
(Fig. 9.4, upper position). As it rises, the air layer becomes absolutely unstable. This
occurs because the air temperature of the lower air layers changes moist adiabati-
cally, by line AA1, which is slower than the temperature rate  of the upper air lay-
ers. Air temperature of the upper-unsaturated air layers changes dry adiabatically,
along line BB1. In such cases, the rising air layer is said to be convectively unstable.
The mechanism described is responsible for the appearance of the most developed
convective clouds, cumulonimbus, in the tropics and temperate latitudes. This
mechanism of instability apparently occurs in the lower layers of the troposphere.
9.5  Low-Level Inversions 119

9.5  Low-Level Inversions

Inversions play an important role in determining cloud forms, precipitation, and

visibility. An inversion acts as a cap on the upward movement of air from the layers
below. As a result, convection produced by the heating of air from below is limited
to levels below the inversion. A weather situation typical for occurrence of low-level
temperature inversion is shown in Fig. 9.5.
During winter period at the Northern Hemisphere (or summer period at Southern
Hemisphere), the solar radiation is weaker, so less heating comes to the Earth’s
surface. In addition, if there is a snow cover, the ground becomes colder due to the
process of radiation cooling, and rapid heat and near surface temperature decrease.
The persistent high-pressure system with stable atmospheric conditions, mainly
calm or weak horizontal winds, suppresses air mixing near the surface, and clear
skies increase the rate of cooling at the Earth’s surface. The absence of vertical and
horizontal mixing near the Earth’s surface favours the development of a low-level
temperature inversion, where the positive vertical temperature gradient exists in
each atmospheric layer. In such stable atmospheric stratification, the portion of the
column atmosphere acts as an energy barrier that does not allow vertical transport
and mixing of ground air with the environment. The specific topography of the ter-
rain (the landscape) especially in urban areas and valleys plays also significant role
in the formation and intensity of temperature inversion. During the day, surface
inversions normally weaken or disappear when the Sun warms the ground. Inversions
play an important role in determining cloud forms, precipitation, and visibility. An
inversion acts as a cap on the upward movement of air from the layers below. As a
result, convection produced by the heating of air from below is limited to levels

Fig. 9.5  Specific weather situation during temperature inversion

120 9  Atmospheric Stability

below the inversion. A weather situation typical for occurrence of low-level tem-
perature inversion is shown in Fig. 8.5. The formation of low-level inversions and
their persistence for a longer period accelerates the pollution accumulation and con-
tributes to formation of extreme pollution episodes with a poor air quality
(Spiridonov 2010). There are four types of inversions: radiation, turbulence, subsid-
ence, and frontal.
Radiation (night-time) or ground inversion develops when air is cooled by
contact with a colder surface until it becomes cooler than the overlying atmosphere;
this occurs most often on clear nights, when the Earth’s surface cools off rapidly by
radiation (see Fig. 8.4). If the temperature of surface air drops below its dew point,
fog may result. Topography largely affects the magnitude of ground inversions. If
the land is rolling or hilly, the cold air formed on the higher land surfaces tends to
drain into the hollows, producing a larger and thicker inversion above low ground
and little or none above higher elevations.
A turbulence inversion often forms in lower layer of the planetary boundary layer
(PBL) at the near surface layer, when calm air overlies turbulent air. Within the
turbulent layer, vertical mixing carries heat downwards and cools the upper part of
the layer. The unmixed air above is not cooled and eventually is warmer than the air
below; an inversion then exists.
A frontal inversion occurs when a cold air mass undercuts a warm air mass and
lifts it aloft; the front between the two air masses then has warm air above and cold
air below. This kind of inversion has considerable slope, whereas other inversions
are nearly horizontal. In addition, humidity may be high, and clouds may be present
immediately above it.
A subsidence inversion develops when a widespread layer of air is sinking. The
layer is compressed and heated by the resulting increase in atmospheric pressure,
and as a result the lapse rate of temperature is reduced. If the air mass sinks low
enough, the air at higher altitudes becomes warmer than at lower altitudes, produc-
ing a temperature inversion. Slow descent air in areas with a high pressure is an
important factor in the modification of air mass. This slow descent air is responsible
for the development of inversions formed in the free atmosphere – a layer lying high
above the Earth’s surface. These inversions of subsidence form slow descent air that
is heated by adiabatic compression. Air subsidence almost never goes down below
the Earth’s surface. Near the Earth’s surface, there is always some weak turbulent
mixing. This poorly downs the air intercepts by turbulent mixing.

References

Ćurić, M. (2000). Selected chapters in dynamic meteorology (pp.  244 (11, 12)). Belgrade:
University Press.
Ćurić, M., & Janc, D. (2016). Meteorology (p. 581). Belgrade-Zemun: AGM book d.o.o.
Hantel, M. (2013). Einfuhrung theretische meteorologie (p. 430). Springer Spektrum.
Hewitt, C. N., & Jackson, A. W. (2003). Handbook of atmospheric science (633 pp). Blackwell.
Houghton, J. T. (2002). Physiscs of atmospheres (pp. 320 (1, 2, 4)). Cambridge University Press.
References 121

Lutgens, F. K., & Tarbuck, E. J. (2009). The atmosphere: An introduction to meteorology (12th
ed., 505 pp). Pearson.
Markowski, P., & Richardson, Y. (2010). Mesoscale meteorology in midlatitudes (pp.  407 (12,
13)). Wiley.
Salby, M.  L. (1996). Fundamentals of atmospheric physics (pp.  627 (4,5 11, 14)). San Diego:
Academic.
Spiridonov, V. (2010). Meteorology. ISBN 976-9989-57-642-331, COBBIS.MK-ID 79389450,
pp. 317.
Chapter 10
Atmospheric Moisture

10.1  Water Vapour in the Atmosphere

Water vapour is present in the atmosphere primarily due to the evaporation of water
from the Earth’s surface. In the atmosphere, it is distributed by large-scale atmo-
spheric disturbances, convection, turbulent mixing, and diffusion. The water vapour
content decreases rapidly from the ground moving upwards into the atmosphere. It
declines faster in the free atmosphere than above the mountain slopes, because in
this case, water vapour is in direct contact with the evaporating soil. In contrast, in
temperature inversions, the water vapour content can increase with height. The air
is moist due to the presence of water vapour. Humidity is one of the most important
meteorological elements. The water vapour content of the atmosphere is quantita-
tively represented by the quantities that determine the amount of water vapour in the
air, as well as those that show the degree of saturation of water vapour in the air.
Moisture processes in the atmosphere have a significant importance in hydro-
logical cycle, the atmospheric boundary layer processes, condensation, evaporation,
formation of clouds and precipitation, and Earth’s energy balance (Smith 1996;
Pruppacher and Klettt 2004; Anthes 1996; Straka 2009; Allaby 2007). Water cycle
driven by solar radiation is called hydrological cycle (see Fig. 10.1). It is a continu-
ous movement of water from the Earth’s surface to the atmosphere and back to the
surface.
This water cycle encompasses the atmosphere, Earth’s surface, surface water,
and groundwater (Spiridonov 2010; Saha 2008). As water moves through this cycle,
it changes its aggregate state into liquid, solid, and gas. The cycle shows a steady
water flow from the ocean to the atmosphere, from the atmosphere to land, and from
land back to the seas. Basic water cycle involves the physical processes (e.g. evapo-
ration, transpiration, evapotranspiration, condensation, precipitation, infiltration,
and runoff). The quantitative view of the hydrological cycle is known as water bal-
ance. The quantitative measure of the amount of humidity found in air varies
because of several factors. Two important factors are evaporation and condensation.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 123

V. Spiridonov, M. Curic, Fundamentals of Meteorology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-52655-9_10
124 10  Atmospheric Moisture

Fig. 10.1 Hydro­
logical cycle

Humidity indicates a general term used to describe the amount of water vapour in
the air.

10.2  Air Moisture Quantities

The amount of water vapour in the air is determined through absolute humidity,
specific humidity, mixing ratio, and water vapour pressure.
The absolute humidity or water vapour density is defined as the mass of water
vapour in a unit of air volume. It is most commonly denoted with (a), expressed in
gm−3 or kgm−3, and it is not often used to characterize humidity.
Specific humidity (q) is defined as the mass of water vapour in unit mass of moist
air. Although it is a dimensionless quantity, it is most commonly expressed in g/kg.
The mixing ratio is defined as the mass of water vapour in a unit mass of dry air.
Both quantities change in the individual air parcel, if water vapour or dry air is
added or removed from it.
The mixing ratio is defined as the mass of water vapour in a unit of mass of dry
air. Both sizes change in a fraction of the air if water vapour or dry air is added to or
subtracted from it.
Water vapour pressure, (e), is the partial pressure in any gas mixture that is found
in thermodynamic equilibrium with liquid water or with its condensate state. As
water vapour in the air increases, so does its pressure. It is expressed in pressure
units, usually in millibars. The actual water vapour pressure is not measured by
direct measurements but is calculated based on indirect measurements by a psycho-
metric method, using dry and wet-bulb temperature data. The maximum water
vapour pressure, (ew), is the saturated water vapour pressure. The value of this pres-
sure indicates the total amount of water vapour in the air at a given temperature.
Water vapour saturation occurs in that moment when saturated vapour pressure of a
system has attained equilibrium with its condensate. More specifically, the
10.2  Air Moisture Quantities 125

maximum water vapour pressure over the flat surface of pure water is discussed
here. The maximum water vapour pressure is only a function of temperature
(Figs. 10.2 and 10.3). At a temperature of T = 0°C, the maximum water vapour pres-
sure is ew = 6, 11 mb. Below T = 0°C, water vapour pressure in respect to ice is less
than that in relation to water. Their difference is greatest at T  =    −  12°C and is
approximately 0, 28 mb (Fig. 10.2). Many relations are used in practice to calculate
the maximum water vapour pressure of varying degrees of accuracy. One is the
Tetens formula:

17, 269388 x  T  273.16  /  T  35,86 

ew  6,1078e (10.1)

The relation between specific moisture (mixing ratio) and water vapour
pressure is:

mv
q (10.2)
mv  ms

where mv and ms are water vapour masses of dry and moist air. The specific volume
could be expressed with aim of a water vapour density for dry air:

Fig. 10.2  The maximum

water vapour pressure over
flat surface of pure water
(ice) as a function of
temperature
126 10  Atmospheric Moisture

Fig. 10.3  The difference between the maximum water vapour pressure in respect to water and ice,
and the same in respect to water, as a function of temperature

v
q (10.3)
v  s

By making use of the equation of state for a dry air and water vapour, and Dalton’s
law, the following relation is obtained for the specific moisture:

e
q  0, 622 (10.4)
p  0, 378e

and the mixing ratio (r):

e
r = 0, 622 (10.5)
ps

The quantities which determine the water vapour saturation rate are the relative
humidity, moisture deficit, dew point temperature, and wet-bulb temperature.
10.3  The Relative Humidity 127

10.3  The Relative Humidity

Actually, the relative humidity is a measure of the amount of water vapour in the air,
compared to the maximum amount of water vapour, expressed in (%) percentages.
Relative humidity according to the American Society Glossary (AMS Glossary)
represents the ratio of the vapour pressure to the saturation vapour pressure with
respect to water. This quantity is alternatively defined by the World Meteorological
Organization (WMO) as the ratio of the mixing ratio to the saturation mixing ratio.
These two definitions yield almost identical numerical values. Relative humidity is
usually expressed in percents and can be computed from psychrometric data. When
the air cannot absorb the additional amount of moisture (when fully saturated), its
relative humidity is around 100%. Relative humidity can be changed in two ways
(Ćurić 2001):
1 . By changing the amount of moisture in the air
2. By change in air temperature
With the addition of moisture in the air at a constant temperature, relative humidity
increases. With the removal of moisture, relative humidity decreases. When the
water vapour content remains constant, air cooling results in an increase of relative
humidity. Oppositely, air warming decreases its relative humidity. There are three
ways in which the change of temperature causes additional changes in relative
humidity:
1. Daily (versus night-time) changes in temperature
2. Temperature changes as a result of air moving horizontally from one to
another place
3. Changes caused by vertical movement of air in the atmosphere
Relative humidity (U) is defined as the ratio of actual and maximum water vapour
pressure expressed as a percentage:

e
U= x100 (10.6)
ew

Actual and the maximal vapour pressure could also be expressed through the equa-
tion of state for water vapour as:

e   v Rv Tv , ew   w Rw Tw (10.7)

where ρv and ρw are corresponding water vapour density and maximum water vapour
density in the air at given temperature. Thus, the relative humidity is given in the
following form:
128 10  Atmospheric Moisture

v r
U x100; U  x100, (10.8)
w rw

Relative humidity is most commonly used to describe humidity. One responds to
changes in the relative humidity of the air rather than changes in the content of water
vapour in the air. When the relative humidity is low at high temperatures, the person
sweats and the water evaporate from the skin, subtracting heat in the amount of
latent evaporation heat mainly from the human body and partly from the surround-
ing air. One then has a subjective feeling of being temperature air lower than it is. At
high air temperatures and high relative humidity values, the person sweats, and the
sweating persist on the skin because its evaporation is less and thus the cooling of
the air with the body is less. Daily and annual changes in water vapour pressure and
relative humidity of air depend on the surface and air temperature, since the inten-
sity of evaporation depends on these meteorological parameters. Evaporation also
depends on the wind speed, so the analysis of daily and annual changes can be most
easily described in the case of stable weather, when the observed area is not affected
by any atmospheric disturbance. Above water surfaces or lands that accumulate a lot
of water available for evaporation, one maximum and one minimum of water vapour
pressure occur during the day. It follows the daily distribution of air temperature. In
winter, a similar flow of water vapour pressure can occur above land, because of the
low temperatures and small amounts of water vapour are enough for saturation. In
the warmer months of the year, above the land surface, water vapour pressure daily
has two maximums, at 9 and 9 pm, as well as two minimums, at 4 and 3 pm. First,
the main daily maximum comes from the warming of the soil after sunrise when the
water from the surface evaporates more rapidly. The second maximum is related to
the night characterized by weak vertical movements, while the soil is still warm and
allows evaporation. The main minimum occurs before sunrise, because then the soil
is coldest due to terrestrial radiation. As a result, water vapour condensation on the
ground can sometimes occur. The second minimum occurs in the afternoon shortly
after the maximum of the soil temperature, as the pronounced convective and turbu-
lent motions transport water vapour from the ground upwards. In mountainous
areas, the daily flow of water vapour pressure has only one maximum (in the warm-
est hours) and one minimum (at night) because during the day, the valley wind
transports additional amounts of water vapour to higher altitudes. By contrast, at
night the mountain breeze drives water vapour towards the valley. Relative humidity
generally has an opposite daily flow of air temperature as the maximum water
vapour pressure decreases with decreasing temperature. Therefore, relative humid-
ity reaches a maximum before sunrise and a minimum in the afternoon, between 3
pm and 4 pm local time. The daily flow of relative humidity above the mountain
peaks is completely opposite. That is where the minimum occurs in the early morn-
ing, a maximum in the afternoon, when convective movements are most pronounced.
This daily flow is caused by the mountain and valley winds that alternate during the
day. Unlike the air above land, the relative humidity changes very little during the
day over large water areas due to the small daily fluctuation of the surface water
10.5  A Dew Point Temperature 129

temperature and high evaporation. Going from the pole to the Equator, the average
relative humidity has highs in the tropics and near the poles, due to low tempera-
tures and low water vapour content. The minimum relative humidity occurs at lati-
tudes of 30 ° due to vast desert areas.

10.4  The Moisture Deficit

The moisture deficit D is defined as a difference between the maximum and actual
water vapour pressure and is expressed in mb, i.e.

D  ew  e. (10.9)

The dew point, Td, is the temperature at which the air must be cooled to reach satura-
tion, without changing the water vapour content and atmospheric pressure. Then the
actual water vapour pressure becomes equal to the saturated water vapour pressure.
When the ground air cools during quiet and clear nights and at sufficiently high rela-
tive humidity, dew or fog forms on the ground. In such situations, further cooling of
the air slows down as latent heat is released by condensation of water vapour.

10.5  A Dew Point Temperature

The dew point is equal to the air temperature only if the air is saturated with water
vapour and in all other cases, it is lower. It has great application in meteorology. For
example, it is used when forecasting frost. If the dew point is above = 0°C, the risk
of frost is low. At temperatures below T = 0°C, a frost point is defined in addition to
the dew point temperature. It is analogously defined as the dew point by observing
the pressure of saturated water vapour with respect to ice. Frost is formed by the
deposition of water vapour at temperatures below = 0°C. The dew point is lower
than the frost point, because at the same temperature, the maximum water vapour
pressure with respect to ice is lower than that with respect to water (Fig. 10.3). By
definition, frost is not produced by freezing dew. Sometimes it happens that dew
first forms and the droplets freeze upon further cooling. This is called frozen or
white dew. The wet-bulb temperature, Tw, is the temperature that a particle of air
would have if it had evaporated water until the water vapour became saturated,
whereby the latent heat required to evaporate the water is taken from the particle.
Using the first principle of thermodynamics, it can be written as:

 ms  mv  c p T  Tw   L  mw Tw   mv  , (10.10)
130 10  Atmospheric Moisture

where mw is the mass of saturated water vapour at a wet-bulb temperature. The wet-­
bulb temperature is higher than the dew point and less than the dry-bulb temperature
for unsaturated water vapour. It is higher than the dew point because water vapour
saturation is achieved at its higher content, which corresponds to higher temperature
(Fig. 10.3).

10.6  The Phase Changes

Even in natural conditions, water can be found in all three aggregates (Fig. 10.4).
The diagram is divided into three areas with the corresponding aggregate state of
water: ice, water, and vapour. These areas are separated by lines along which the
two-aggregate water (phase) states are in equilibrium. The Earth’s atmosphere con-
tains water vapour which is found in gaseous state. It is a variable, invisible, odour-
less, gaseous constituent in the atmosphere that can change its aggregate state
(liquid, solid, and gas). Processes which contribute in changing the state of water
vapour are referred to us as phase changes:
• Evaporation (liquid to gas)
• Condensation (gas to liquid)
• Melting (solid to liquid substance)
• Freezing (liquid to solid matter)
• Sublimation (solid to gas matter)
• Deposition (gas to solid)

Fig. 10.4  Phase diagram of water

10.7  Condensation and Evaporation 131

Water vapour is extremely important to the weather and climate. Without water
vapour, there would be no formation of clouds and precipitation. All the water
vapour that evaporates from the surface of the Earth eventually returns as precipita-
tion – rain or snow. Water vapour is also the Earth’s most important greenhouse gas,
accounting for about 90% of the Earth’s natural greenhouse effect, which helps keep
the Earth warm enough to support life. When liquid water is evaporated to form
water vapour, heat is absorbed. This helps to cool the surface of the Earth. This
“latent heat of condensation” is released again when the water vapour condenses to
form cloud water. This source of heat helps drive the updrafts in clouds and precipi-
tation systems, which then causes even more water vapour to condense into cloud
and more cloud water and ice to form precipitation. The phase diagram of water is
presented in Fig. 10.4. It shows the dependence of water vapour pressure from the
temperature. When it is separated, the three phases can be noticed, solid state of
water, liquid, and gas. The diagram shows that at low temperature (solid state), the
ice is in a stable condition. With moderate temperatures and high water vapour pres-
sures, the liquid state of water in the stable phase at high temperature and low water
vapour pressure (gas condition) is vapour found in a stable phase. The sublimation
curve distinguishes a solid from gas state of water. This line shows the dependence
of water vapour pressure from ice as a function of temperature. The axes correspond
to the pressure and temperature. The phase diagram shows, in pressure-temperature
space, the lines of equilibrium or phase boundaries between the three phases of
solid, liquid, and gas. At the interface between air and liquid water, water molecules
are either evaporating, which means changing phase from liquid to gas, or condens-
ing as changing phase from gas to liquid. When the vapour pressure in the atmo-
sphere is in equilibrium with the vapour pressure of a water or ice surface, there is
no net exchange of water molecules in both directions, and the atmosphere is said to
be saturated. When liquid water condenses, more water molecules are changing
phase from gas to liquid than changing phase from liquid to gas. If the rate of evapo-
ration is lower relative to the rate of condensation, the air is said to be supersaturated
with respect to water vapour. The amount of liquid water doesn’t change. This con-
dition doesn’t last too long. Oppositely, when liquid water evaporates, in that case
more water molecules are changing phase from liquid to gas than changing phase
from gas to liquid. If the rate of evaporation is lower than rate of condensation, the
air is said to be unsaturated with respect to water vapour. The amount of liquid water
decreases.

10.7  Condensation and Evaporation

The process of condensation occurs when water vapour is transformed into liquid.
For condensation to occur, air must be saturated with water vapour, and there must
be a presence of surface where it could condensate. Additionally, at the ground layer
of the atmosphere, small (minor) hygroscopic (water absorbent) particles are pres-
ent, known as condensation cores (nucleus), which serve as surfaces on which water
132 10  Atmospheric Moisture

vapour can condense. The evaporation is a reverse process of condensation of a

water vapour. Water evaporation is a significant process in the atmosphere and is
one of the basic components of the water cycle in nature (commonly referred to as
the hydrological cycle) as well as the heat balance (via the latent evaporation heat
flux). In meteorology, evaporation is expressed in mm of evaporated water over a
period (1 mm of evaporated water corresponds to 1 l of water evaporating from an
area of 1 m2). The intensity or rate of evaporation of water is defined as the amount
of water that evaporates from a unit surface in a unit of time. The evaporation of
water on the Earth’s surface takes place from the free surface water in liquid and
solid (ice and snow) or from the ground, including vegetation. This complex process
depends on the temperature of the evaporating surface, the saturation of water
vapour in the air above the evaporating surface, the horizontal and vertical move-
ments of the air above the evaporating surface, the air pressure, the amount of the
precipitation, the relief and the position of the place towards the sides of the world,
the proximity of groundwater to the soil surface, as well as the type and condition
of the plant cover. In the discussion that follows, only the impact of the first four
factors will be considered. The evaporation intensity increases as the surface tem-
perature, where evaporation occurs, increases. The velocity of water molecules
increases with increasing temperature, so fewer or more of them can leave the water
surface. Evaporation is higher if the saturation of water vapour in the air is lower
than the surface from which the evaporation takes place. As stated earlier, air can
only contain a certain number of waters vapour molecules at a given temperature.
When the air temperature is higher, a larger number of water vapour molecules are
required to achieve saturation. This means that evaporation also depends on the
temperature of the air above the evaporating surface. Evaporation only takes place
until saturation of water vapour in the air is reached. In the atmosphere, saturated
water vapour can quickly become unsaturated due to air mixing by diffusion as well
as horizontal and vertical air movements. Evaporation increases with increasing
wind velocity as it drives water vapour above the evaporating surface. This is pri-
marily due to the dry wind that brings in less humid air. When the wind brings in
moist air, its effect on evaporation is much less. Convection can also influence evap-
oration, as the humid air from the ground floor is transported upwards by updrafts,
while the dry air is released from the higher layers into the lower layers by down-
drafts. In addition to the strength of the wind, changing its speed is also important
for the evaporation process with height. The greater the change in wind speed with
altitude, the more intense the turbulent mixing of the air in the vertical direction and
thus the evaporation. Evaporation decreases with increasing air pressure due to the
slowing of the molecular diffusion process. This process is the least significant of all
the processes that transport water vapour in the atmosphere. Water evaporates faster,
under the same conditions, from the surface of fresh water than saltwater, due to
stronger adhesion forces between water molecules and salts. Daily and annual evap-
oration distributions are aligned with the corresponding ones by the temperature of
the evaporating surface and the air above. During the day, evaporation is greatest
between 12 am and 4 pm local time. Then the lowest saturation of water vapour in
the air is due to the highest temperatures of the surface from which evaporation
References 133

Fig. 10.5  The process of

condensation and
evaporation

takes place as well as ground air, while the convective movements are the most
intense. The evaporation minimum is before sunset when due to terrestrial radiation
of soil, condensation or deposition of water vapour and the formation of dew or frost
on the soil surface often occur. The annual evaporation rate is also consistent with
the annual temperature distribution. The evaporation of water from the ocean or a
moist surface requires an energy source and wind to remove the evaporated water
vapour. The rate of evaporation also depends on the vertical gradient of vapour pres-
sure in the planetary boundary layer (PBL). The latent heat of vaporization required
to convert liquid to vapour is about 2.5  x  106kg−1. As an illustration, the energy
needed for evaporation of a given mass of liquid water is about 600 times relative to
the energy required to increase its temperature by 1 °C and up to 2400 times the
energy required to increase the air temperature by 1 °C. Both processes, condensa-
tion and evaporation, are illustrated in Fig. 10.5. To begin the process of evapora-
tion, favourable atmospheric conditions, higher air temperature, and low water
vapour saturation pressure should exist. Wind and favourable topography of the
terrain accelerate the process of evaporation of water vapour.

References

Allaby, M. (2007) Encyclopaedia of weather and climate (Rev ed.)., vols. 1 and 2, Facts of File
Science Library, 756 pp.
Anthes, R. A. (1996). Meteorology (Earth Science Series) (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River: Prentice
Hall. 214 pp.
Ćurić, M. (2001). Cloud microphysics (p. 306). Belgrade: RHMS (9,10).
Pruppacher, H.  R., & Klettt, J.  D. (2004). Microphysics of clouds and precipitation (2nd ed.).
Dordrecht: Klewer, 954 str.
Saha, K. (2008). The earth’s atmosphere. Its physics and dynamics (p. 367). Berlin/Heilderberg:
Springer (1,2, 4,5,8, 11, 15).
Smith, R. K. (1996). The physics and parameterization of moist atmospheric convection (p. 498).
Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Spiridonov, V. (2010). Meteorology. ISBN:976-9989-57-642-331, COBBIS.MK-ID
79389450, p. 317.
Straka, J. (2009). Cloud and precipitation microphysics  – Principles and parameterizations.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 392 pp.
Chapter 11
Clouds and Precipitation

Clouds are a visible manifestation of condensation or deposition in the atmosphere

comprising suspended water droplets and ice crystals (Wang 2013). They exist in a
wide variety of forms from sheets to rolls, to vertical towers in convective clouds,
and they occur from the surface in the form of fog to the upper troposphere
~10–15 km. Clouds have the ability to reflect and also with a small amount to absorb
the solar radiation. The cloud reflection (albedo) is high and depends on the cloud
optical depth and the liquid water content. The optical depth represents a measure
of absorbed or scattered solar radiation along a path through the cloud, i.e. the cloud
transparency. On average, clouds cover at about 66% of the Earth’s surface and,
with high albedo, represent a significant factor in reducing the incoming solar radia-
tion. In addition, cloud water droplets also have such absorption ability but with
lower percentage amount.

11.1  Formation of Clouds

Prior to formation of clouds and precipitation, certain physical processes in the

atmosphere occur. The first such process is a process in which a part of the atmo-
sphere with a relatively large volume is increasing relative humidity up to satura-
tion, i.e. around 100%. It usually happens because of the vertical movements of the
atmosphere when it is unstable and stratified, or because of the dynamic and thermal
processes that occur in it. The other process is the transformation of various catego-
ries of water in small scale: nucleation, diffusion, and accumulation, and it is the
subject of study in a specific scientific topic called microphysics of clouds (Ćurić
2001b; Pruppacher and Klett 2010; Straka 2009).
Cloud condensation level (CCL) is the altitude (level) at which air cools dry
adiabatically until it reaches saturation. At this level, the water vapour condenses by
activation on small particles suspended in the air called cloud condensation nuclei
(CCN) and clouds form. When the individual air parcel cools to the dew point, i.e.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 135

V. Spiridonov, M. Ćurić, Fundamentals of Meteorology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-52655-9_11
136 11  Clouds and Precipitation

when the ratio of mixture of the air parcel and the mixture ratio of saturation are
equal, the relative humidity increases around 100%. If rising continues, the particle
rises wet adiabatically (forming a cloud). As it was described in Sect. 10.4, the abso-
lute humidity is the measure of water vapour (moisture) content in the air, regardless
of temperature. On the contrary, the occurrence of clouds mainly depends on the
relative humidity, which quantitatively measures the degree of saturation and thus
the likelihood of condensation (see Wang 2013). Another important detail is that
about 99% of the water vapour is present in the troposphere, while less than 1%
resides in the stratosphere. Hence, it is not surprising that almost all types of clouds
from small cumulus to large cumulonimbus (Cb) clouds occur entirely within the
troposphere (Fig. 11.1). Even the clouds of very strong storm systems, such as hur-
ricanes and tornadoes, are basically confined within the troposphere.
Clouds form wherever air is cooled below its dew point, whether by radiation, by
mixing with cooler air, or by ascent in the atmosphere with resultant decompres-
sion. The amount of water vapour, which can exist in each volume in equilibrium
with a plane surface of pure water, is a function of temperature only (Heintzenberg
and Charlson 2009). Air containing this amount of water vapour is said to be satu-
rated. Any water vapour in excess of the amount required for saturation is theoreti-
cally available for the formation of a water cloud.
The rate at which water vapour is made available for the formation of cloud
droplets by a known rate of cooling can be calculated from the Clausius-Clapeyron
equation, which relates the saturation vapour pressure to the temperature in degrees
Kelvin. The Clausius-Clapeyron equation, allows the content of water vapor to be
determined for the air parcel that is cooling, as well as the amount of increase in
water or ice saturation. When air rises, it cools where condensation or air saturation
with water vapour occurs. Condensation depends on the moisture content in the air
that rises vertically. Moist air requires less cooling, and it rises to the level of satura-
tion. Dry air requires more cooling and more lifting to reach the point of saturation.
Two important processes take place in the atmosphere before the formation of

Fig. 11.1 Numerical
simulation of Cb
cloud with formation of
hydrometeors
11.1  Formation of Clouds 137

clouds and precipitation occurs. The first process is when in a larger volume of
atmosphere, relative humidity increases to saturation, i.e. 100%. In principle, this is
due to vertical air movements or as a result of some dynamic and thermodynamic
processes. The second process includes three basic processes: nucleation, diffusion,
and collection. These processes take place on a very small scale which are propor-
tional to the dimensions of the cloud elements (cloud drops and ice crystals) and
precipitation elements (raindrops, snow, and hail). The processes of the second type
are those responsible for formation of cloud elements and take place in their further
growth. They are mutually connected and highly dependent on the dynamic charac-
teristics of the environment.

11.1.1  Air Saturation Mechanism

Before detail description of the necessary conditions for formation of cloud

elements, we will briefly recall the basic factors which contribute to the change of
the relative humidity of air (Khvorostyanov and Curry 2014). This can be seen from
the differential form of relative humidity expression U:

dU dq dT dP
 A  (11.1)
U q T P

where q is the specific moisture, T the temperature, P the air pressure, and A the
ratio of total and external heat of evaporation of water. Air cooling occurs as the
result of heat removal (diabatic cooling), mixing of warmer and cooler air, and adia-
batic cooling. The following processes lead to increase of the relative humidity:
1 . Water vapour supply from different water sources: oceans, seas, lakes, and rivers.
2. Lowering the temperature. Thus, cold air is closer to saturation at the same water
vapour content.
3. Increasing the air pressure. The increase in pressure at constant temperature
leads to decrease of air volume, or water vapour compression on a smaller space,
which means density increases or consequently the relative humidity increases.
The term for differential change of pressure is one order magnitude smaller than the
other terms. The rate of the third term slightly increases with height (due to the pres-
sure decrease). Clouds usually form in areas with dropping pressure (pressure
decrease), which means the term which denotes the change of pressure makes the
environment unfavourable for formation of clouds.
138 11  Clouds and Precipitation

11.1.2  Adiabatic Cooling

When the air expands adiabatically, it cools, approaching to saturation. As the

pressure decreases with height (see Eq. 11.1.), it leads to decrease in air saturation.
In other words, in order for the condensation process to take place under such
conditions, the cooling in vertical motion should be larger than when the expansion
occurs at the constant air pressure. Another mechanism for condensation to occur in
the updraft motion is that the vapour pressure of saturated air needs to decrease
more rapidly than the total pressure (or water vapour pressure). That is seen from
the differential form of the “first law of thermodynamics” for adiabatic case
(Poisson’s equation):

0  c p dT   dp (11.2)

Using the equation of state and Clausius-Clapeyron equation, we get:

c p des dp
= (11.3)
RA es p

where cp is specific heat under constant pressure. By integrating Eq. 11.3 from the
initial state [es(T0), p0] to the final one [es(T), p] for χ > 1, we obtain:

Es  T 
 
 p   e 
     (11.4)
e s  T0   p0   e 0 

p
where χ = AR/cp ≈ 5.7 and e is vapour pressure. As the exponent χ > 1 and <1,
from Eq. 10.4, it is evidenced that our claim is true. p0

11.1.3  Water Vapour Supply by Air Mixing

When mixing any two saturated elements of air with different temperatures, the
supersaturation appears in the mixture. That is because the water vapour density of
the mixture is greater than the water vapour density of the saturated air correspond-
ing to the temperature of the mixture. It is also possible that two unsaturated ele-
ments of air, whose temperatures are sufficiently different, by mixing become
saturated. Let’s observe two air particles found at the same atmospheric pressure p.
With variables which characterize them (mass m; specific humidity q; water vapour
pressure e and temperature T), we will denote with index (1) for the first individual
air particle and (2) for the second. By mixing those air particles under constant pres-
sure, we get a mixture whose features will be denoted without index. It is obvious:
11.1  Formation of Clouds 139

m1 m2
q q1  q2 (11.5)
m1  m2 m1  m2

In addition, with a great accuracy, it can be written as:

m1 m2
e e1  e2 ,and (11.6)
m1  m2 m1  m2

m1 m2
T T1  T2 (11.7)
m1  m2 m1  m2

This mixing could be understood if we look at the diagram shown in Fig. 11.2.
The curve es(T) shown in Fig. 11.2 represents the Clausius-Clapeyron equation
which gives relationship between the temperature of a liquid T and its saturated
vapour pressure (e):

1 des L
= V2 (11.8)
es dT RV T

When the two air masses are mixed, the mixture can become supersaturated. The
condensation process and the formation of the cloud occur. The condensation pro-
cess will increase the temperature due to latent heat release (−Ldq). If this process
is isobaric, then the rate of temperature increase is found by the relation:

  Ldq   c p dT (11.9)

or from the relation for q under given conditions:


dq  de (11.10)
p

Fig. 11.2  Temperature as

a function of vapour
pressure
140 11  Clouds and Precipitation

where ε = 0.622. By substitution of Eq. 10.10 into Eq. 10.9, we get the following

expression:

de cp
 p (11.11)
dT L

This formula determines the inclination length which describes the isobaric
condensation process at the diagram (T, e). The cross-section of that length with
curve es(T) determines the point (T’, e’) that characterizes air mixture after
termination of the condensation process. Mixing can also be observed under
adiabatic conditions. If a two air parcels are found under different pressures, mixing
will occur under equal pressures. The specific humidity will be described by
Eq. 10.5, while the potential temperature is equal to the average potential temperature
of each air parcel, analogously to Eq. 10.7. In such mixed column of air over unique
surface, the specific humidity is given by:
z
1 2
es z1
qm  qdz (11.12)

where m is the mass of the column of air.

11.1.4  Mixing and Diffusion

Mixing is always associated with bringing the water vapour into the observed air, or
sometimes supersaturation can be achieved by water vapour supply in saturated
environment through diffusion. Diffusion is important over large water surfaces
when two air saturated masses meet and dense fog forms with light rain-drizzle and
snow. Another way of supersaturation occurrence is when the moist air comes over
water surface with different temperatures:
(a) When warm moist air comes over cold water surface, it is cooling from bellow.
By cooling the air become supersaturated, but the stability of this layer of air
parcel is growing. Fog that is formed under such conditions is shallow “sea-­
breeze fog”.
(b) When cold air moves over warm surface, due to upward diffusion of water
vapour, “evaporation or steam fog” forms.
11.1  Formation of Clouds 141

11.1.5  Diabatic Cooling

A thermodynamic change of state of a system in which the system exchanges energy

with its surroundings by virtue of a temperature difference between them.
Temperature changes due to diabatic heating or cooling by them do not necessarily
depend on whether the parcel is rising or sinking. Diabatic cooling mechanisms are:
• Radiation (heat loss by radiation occurs in area with large density gradient-­
nocturnal radiation cooling-radiation fog)
• Molecular diffusion-conduction (warm air moves over cold surface-formation of
advection fog)
• Turbulent diffusion-convection (by turbulent diffusion and convection, heat is
transferred vertically).

11.1.6  Formation of Cloud Elements

From the large number of processes leading to air saturation and formation of clouds
in the troposphere, the most important is the adiabatic condensation in upward
movements. Depending on the stability of the atmosphere and mechanisms that
cause upward movement, the most diverse clouds appear, including cumulus, alto-
cumulus, lenticularis, nimbostratus, or cirrus. When air rises it cools and the relative
humidity increases. When a certain supersaturation is achieved in such environmen-
tal conditions, cloud droplets are formed on the soluble particles that serve as the
cloud condensation nuclei CCN. The number of active particles (those on which
drops are formed) increases with an increase in supersaturation. The number of
formed droplets varies from  30 3000  . Such simply described process occurs
 3 to 
 cm cm 3 
at the cloud base, but it is more complex due to the mixing, falling of larger drops,

and accretion, which all tends to decrease supersaturation. By diffusion of water

vapour, cloud drops grow rapidly at about 5  μm in diameter. The latent heat is
released from drops by condensation. The growth of droplet is determined by equi-
librium between both processes (diffusion and condensation). The growth of the
droplet by diffusion is reversely proportional to the radius.

11.1.7  Precipitation

The term precipitation incorporates all hydrometeors (rain, snow, hail, dew, frost,
rime, and other types). On the global scale, about 5% of all precipitation falls as
snow as the result of high precipitation efficiency in low latitudes. Two mechanisms
142 11  Clouds and Precipitation

contribute in the formation of a significant number of large droplets from the small
droplets, which actually form the precipitation (Rogers and Yau 1989; Ćurić 2001b):
1 . Collision and collection-coalescence (warm rain)
2. Ice particles’ growth into supercooled cloud water through ice nucleation

(cold rain)
The second process occurs as a result of the existing difference between saturation
vapour pressure over water and ice. That is suggested by Wegener (1911) and
approved by Bergeron (1935), so-called Bergeron process. Langmuir (1948) exam-
ined the first process. In the real environment as cloud, both processes are competi-
tive. As the cloud drops in the cloud are randomly distributed, it would not be
possible to claim which one of the neighbouring drops will have the privilege to
become larger by merging. A droplet that attains such privilege gets large fallout
speed thus qualifying for more rapid merging. When the small droplet reaches the
cloud radius, it continues to grow rapidly and forms raindrops with a radius of
1 mm. The diffusion growth of the droplet according to the law (1/r) indicates that
the population of the droplets tend to be about of the same radius. This would dimin-
ish the possibility for collision and coalescence. However, in the population of the
droplets whose number increases through diffusion, the mutual interaction among
droplets rapidly increases. The fall speed of smaller droplets is proportional to r2.
From there, it shows that the fall speed affects the width of the spectrum of particle
sizes. The higher the water content, the faster the intensity of the drops’ interaction
increases, as the efficiency of collection, the cross-section of droplet, and the differ-
ence in the falling rate also increase. Thus, the production of large droplets is highly
dependent on the content of liquid water.

11.1.8  The Mechanism of Ice Nucleation

The mechanism of ice nucleation that leads to formation of precipitation

(Heintzenberg and Charlson 2009) utilizes the condition that the maximum water
vapour pressure over ice is lower than the vapour pressure over water at the tem-
peratures lower than 0 °C.  This mechanism is most pronounced at temperatures
around −12°C when the difference between vapour pressures is about 0.27 hPa.
Injection of ice crystals into the supercooled cloud, leads to ice crystal growth at the
expense of water vapour and evaporation of cloud drops. Such cloud environment is
unstable saturated as the result of the rapid change of water vapour content relative
to warm clouds which represent stable saturated environment. When evaporating
the droplets, the air is cooling, and because of the simultaneous deposition (transfer
of water vapour to ice), the heat is released. The overall effect of these two processes
leads to air heating.
11.2  Cloud Definition and Classification 143

11.1.9  Classification of the Microprocesses

Microprocesses of cloud formation and precipitation could be divided into three

basic categories: nucleation phase, phase of growth or evaporation by water vapour
diffusion, and phase of particle growth by accretion. Three separate phases appear
at the nucleation process: nucleation of water from water vapour, nucleation of ice
from water vapour, and ice nucleation from water. The equation which describes
one category is similar to another, regardless of whether we consider water or ice.
In any case it could be stated that a more simply task is to study the processes asso-
ciate with water. These nucleation processes could be observed into clear environ-
ment (homogeneous nucleation) or into environment which contains additional
substituents (heterogeneous nucleation). The growth and evaporation of particle by
diffusion are being complicated due to the kinetic effects presented at small parti-
cles and also as the result of ventilation effects at larger particles and competition
effects at particles found among a number of others. In intercellular interactions,
four nucleation processes occur: 1) Coalescence (collection of the smaller particle
by large particle); 2) Aggregation (collection of the smaller ice crystals by larger; 3)
Freezing (collection of the smaller ice particle on large drop); 4) Accretion (collec-
tion of small water drops on large ice crystal). Here, larger, or particle that is fallout
faster is called collector.

11.2  Cloud Definition and Classification

Clouds are among the most significant atmospheric phenomena. At any given time,
they cover about half of the Earth’s surface. Without clouds there would be no pre-
cipitation, thunders, lightning, and a wide variety of spectacular optical phenomena.
They change the heat balance in the Earth-atmosphere system and cause different
hydrometeors, electrometeors, and photometeors to occur in the atmosphere. Clouds
with their shape and accompanying phenomena give a clear picture of the air cur-
rents at altitude and atmosphere.
Clouds represent a visible set of tiny water droplets and/or crystals of ice floating
in the air. Clouds, like fog, are formed by the condensation and deposition of water
vapour in the atmosphere, as well as the freezing of water droplets. Fog and cloud
differ significantly, although they are similar in composition. Fog forms in the
ground layer of the atmosphere during calm weather or in low winds, with clouds
forming at different altitudes above ground, usually with strong vertical air currents.
Water droplets and ice crystals of which the fog and clouds differ in their dimen-
sions in that the clouds consist of slightly larger droplets and crystals than the fog.
Fog is generally a stable formation, while clouds can be unstable, stable, and weak.
Clouds are in a continuous process of formation, development, and dissipation.
At the border with cloudless air, cloudy droplets evaporate or ice crystals sublimate.
As long as there is an influx of water vapour that condenses or becomes solid by
144 11  Clouds and Precipitation

deposition, the cloud does not disappear. Clouds disappear especially quickly when
they are in a descending air stream, and because of the adiabatic warming, cloud
droplets evaporate.

11.2.1  Cloud Classification

Clouds appear in a wide range of sizes and shapes. According to Wang (2013), the
most suitable scientific classification of clouds is based on two main criteria
(features):
1 . Cloud visual patterns based on the observation
2. Cloud base height
This classification is initially proposed by the British meteorologist Luke Howard
since 1803 and was later modified and adopted by the World Meteorological
Organization (WMO). Even so, clouds can be classified into a number of groups
based on their shape, height, method of formation, and composition.

11.2.2  Cloud Classification by Form

By form, clouds can be divided into three basic and multiple transitional forms. The
three basic forms are cumulus, stratus, and cirrus. Cumulus, or bulky clouds, occur
in an unstable atmosphere where vertical air movements are expressed. The rising
air is local, so these clouds do not cover the entire sky, but have a cellular structure.
Layered clouds, or strata, are formed by forced uplift or turbulent mixing of air in a
stable atmosphere. Cirrus or feather-cloud clouds occur in areas of high-­
altitude winds.

11.2.3  Cloud Classification Based on Height

According to the height at which they occur, clouds are divided into low, medium,
and high clouds. There is also a fourth group to which vertical development clouds
belong. These clouds develop more vertically than horizontally, extending in a
thicker layer of air. The height at which individual clouds from each of these groups
are located depends on latitude. Table 11.1 gives the approximate values of cloud
base height by geographical area. The differences in the altitudes of the cloud base
are primarily the result of the fact that the altitude at which the air temperature is
less than 0 °C changes with latitude. In the tropics, the zero isotherm is at a height
of about 6 km and in the polar regions at about 3 km.
11.2  Cloud Definition and Classification 145

Table 11.1  Cloud base height (km) depending on latitude

Cloud levels Tropical area Mid-latitude area Polar region
High 6–18 5–13 3–8
Middle 2-8 2-7 2-4
Low Below 2 km Below 2 km Below 2 km
altitude altitude altitude
Clouds with vertical Below 2 km Below 2 km Below 2 km
development altitude altitude altitude

Fig. 11.3  Basic cloud types

11.2.4  International Cloud Classification

The international cloud classification, adopted by the World Meteorological

Organization and described in detail in the Cloud Atlas, is made primarily by the
shape and height at which the clouds are located (Fig. 11.3). Based on altitude, the
clouds were classified into four groups and, based on the shape, into ten species
(Table 11.2).
High clouds are almost exclusively composed of ice crystals due to the low air
temperature at the altitudes at which they are formed. They are clouds of low thick-
ness, mostly white in colour, from which no precipitation is extracted. Cirrus are
high clouds that occur most frequently (Fig. 11.4).
These are separated clouds of fibrous or wavy appearance. Cirrocumulus is a
high cloud that looks like clumps of snow, properly arranged in the form of folds or
furrows. They usually cover a smaller portion of the sky. Cirrostratus are high clouds
that cover the entire sky like a veil, through which the contours of the Sun or Moon
are recognized. Very often, in their presence, a halo can be observed. These clouds
indicate the arrival of the warm front. Cirrus clouds have five defined subclasses:
fibratus, uncinus, spissatus, floccus, and castellanus.
146 11  Clouds and Precipitation

Table 11.2  International cloud Cloud levels Type

classification
Low Nimbostratus (Ns)
Stratocumulus (Sc)
Stratus (St)
Middle Altocumulus (Ac)
Altostratus (As)
High Cirrus (Ci)
Cirrostratus (Cs)
Cirrocumulus (Cc)
Clouds with vertical Cumulus (Cu)
development Cumulonimbus (Cb)

Fig. 11.4  High clouds

Middle clouds are usually made up of cold water droplets, but they can also be
of mixed composition or even composed of ice crystals only. Altocumulus is a grey
or white cloud in the form of clumps or plaques, usually properly spaced (Fig. 11.5).
They differ from the circus cumulus, except in height and in that the elements of the
cloud layer are larger, and usually their inner part is lighter, and the exterior is
darker in colour. Rainfall may occur from the altocumulus. Altostratus (altostratus)
is a grey or bluish, furrowed, or uniform cloud layer that usually covers the entire
sky. Through the thinner parts of this cloud, the Sun can be seen as through the milk
11.2  Cloud Definition and Classification 147

Fig. 11.5  Middle clouds

Fig. 11.6  Low clouds

glass. They are different from cirrostratus in height, colour, and the way they
transmit sunlight. They do not cause shadow on the Earth and do not cause halo.
Low-­intensity rainfall over a wider area can be extracted from the altostratus.
Low clouds are mostly made up of water droplets. At low temperatures, they
may also contain snow and ice crystals. Nimbostratus (nimbostratus) is a dark grey
cloud of considerable thickness, completely obscured by the Sun and Moon. It is a
precipitation cloud from which rain or snow from continuous to moderate intensity
is continuously falling (Fig. 11.6). Visibility below the nimbostratus is often very
diminishing as the falling rain evaporates. If water vapour is saturated below the
nimbostratus, fog or even lower cloud formation may occur.
A stratocumulus (stratocumulus) is a grey-white layer composed of separated or
assembled plates, pebbles, or rollers. The elements of this cloud layer are larger than
those of the altocumulus. From this cloud, occasional rain or snow falls. Stratus is a
low grey cloud covering the entire sky. Its composition is like fog but does not touch
the Earth’s surface. Sometimes light rainfall, such as drizzle or light snow, can fall
from it.
Vertical development clouds are generated by intense vertical uplift of air in a
statically unstable atmosphere (Ćurić 2001a). Cumulus (cumulus) are isolated,
clearly fringed clouds (Fig.  11.7). The base is flat and darker in colour, and the
upper part is white and in the form of domes, hills. The cumulus of lower vertical
148 11  Clouds and Precipitation

Fig. 11.7  Clouds with vertical development

development is the so-called nice weather cumulus, while larger and more devel-
oped cumulus that resembles cauliflower may produce drizzle.
Cumulonimbus clouds are clouds with vertical development looking as
multilevel clouds, extending high into the sky in towers or plumes. More commonly
known as thunderclouds, cumulonimbus is the only cloud type that can produce
hail, thunder, and lighting. The base of the cloud is usually flat with a very dark base
and may only lie a few hundred metres above the Earth’s surface. Towering cumu-
lonimbus extend from low altitude to very high altitudes. These are “thunderstorm”
clouds and may produce lightning, thunder, and hail. This is the view of the bottom
portion of a cumulonimbus cloud when it is about to rain. Because of its massive
size and towering height, this is often the only view of a cumulonimbus that can be
seen at close range. These often appear on the underside of a cumulonimbus and
indicate the possibility of severe weather. Cumulonimbus clouds are born through
convection, often growing from small cumulus clouds over a hot surface. They can
form along cold fronts as a result of forced convection, where milder air is forced to
rise over the incoming cold air. Cumulonimbus clouds are associated with extreme
weather such as heavy torrential downpours, hailstorms, lightning, and even torna-
does. Individual cumulonimbus cells will usually dissipate within an hour once
showers start falling, making for short-lived, heavy rain. However, multicell or
supercell storms contain many cumulonimbus clouds, and the intense rainfall may
last much longer. If there is thunder, lightning, or hail, the cloud is a cumulonimbus,
rather than nimbostratus. Cumulonimbus clouds have a three distinct “species”
which describe the appearance of the head of the cloud:
11.2  Cloud Definition and Classification 149

• Cumulonimbus calvus – The top of the cumulonimbus is puffy, like a cumulus

cloud. The water droplets at the top of the cloud tower have not frozen to become
ice crystals.
• Cumulonimbus capillatus  – The top of the cloud is fibrous but relatively
contained. Water droplets have started to freeze, usually indicating rain has
begun or will begin soon.
• Cumulonimbus incus – The top of the cloud is fibrous and anvil shaped as the
cloud has continued to grow. If the cloud reaches the top of the troposphere and
still wishes to grow, it must do so outwards, creating the pictures que anvil or
“incus”.
• Cumulonimbus mammatus  – Is a specific cellular pattern of hanging
protuberances, like pouches on the under surface of a cumulonimbus cloud base,
although they may be coupled to other classes of main clouds. They are formed
by cold air sinking to form a small patch opposite to the puffs of clouds rising
through the convection of warm air.
In addition to 10 general cloud types, there are 14 species, 9 subspecies, and 9
special features that distinguish clouds. A cloud of a type can belong to only one
species, while a certain species can be attributed to clouds of different genera. The
cloud may have characteristics of multiple subspecies, meaning that subspecies are
not mutually exclusive as species. The same is true of additional cloud features, i.e.
the viewed cloud can have one or more complementary features. The name of a spe-
cies, subspecies, or additional feature may not necessarily be attributed to a cloud
unless it is clearly expressed. Only some species, subspecies, and complementary
features will be mentioned here: lenticularis (lenticular; species Cc, Ac, or Sc),
mamma (breast; additional marking Ci, Ac, As, or Sc with a hanging pouch), fructus
(broken; type St or Cu), humilis (small size; type of poorly developed Cu usually
flat base), mediocris (type of cumulus of moderate vertical development, the upper
parts of which show moderately developed protuberances), congestus (accumula-
tion; type of highly developed Cu in the vertical direction, cauliflower-like), calvus
(bald; type Cb losing its bulky form usually at the top), capillatus (hairy; type Cb
fibrous upper), incus (anvil, additional marking Cb with anvil-shaped upper), pileus
(cap; additional feature of cumulus caps with hooded cap, hood), castellanus (cas-
tle; a type of tower-like vertical development cloud), undulatus (wavy, wavy-shaped
cloud subspecies), translucidus ((translucent; cloud-covered subspecies), i.e. most
of the sky and through which the sun or moon is seen), (precipitation; an additional
feature of As, Ns, Sc, St, Cu, or Cb from which precipitation is extracted)), etc.
150 11  Clouds and Precipitation

11.2.5  Cloud Classification by Composition

The clouds may be composed of water droplets, ice crystals, or mixed composition.
The dimensions of water droplets, as well as the dimensions and shape of ice crys-
tals, can be very different and in the same cloud. Depending on the composition,
clouds may be:
1 . Stable if composed of ice crystals or tiny water droplets
2. Unstable if mixed or consisting of larger water droplets of different dimensions
3. Weakly volatile when composed of ice crystals or smaller water droplets of
different dimensions
Unstable clouds are mostly rainfall clouds, while there is generally no
precipitation from stable clouds. It can occasionally pour rain or drizzle from low
clouds. The most stable are the high clouds (cirrus, cirrostratus, cirrocumulus) and
the most unstable are cumulonimbus.

11.2.6  Classification by Mechanism of Formation

Clouds are most commonly generated by adiabatic expansion and cooling of air due
to thermal convection, rising air at orographic obstacles, rising warm air above the
wedge of cold air, dynamically conditioned vertical air movements, or a sudden
local pressure drop that occurs in tornadoes, thrombi, and seas (Ćurić 2001b). Cloud
formation can also occur due to the turbulent transport of water vapour and conden-
sation nuclei to the inversion layer and the mixing of air masses at different tem-
peratures, as well as wave motions in the atmosphere.
Orographic clouds are generated by the forced uplift of moist air when
approaching a mountain barrier (Fig. 11.8). They can occur in front of, above, or

Fig. 11.8  A rotor cloud as type of orographic clouds

11.2  Cloud Definition and Classification 151

behind an orographic obstacle and take many forms. If the atmosphere is unstable,
cumulus clouds are formed, and layer clouds are stable.
When transferring air through mountain ranges, on the windward side, large-­
scale clouds form, which cover the mountain top as a cap, and are called a hair dryer
or a wall of hair. They can also be seen on the windward side of the mountain, and
if the air is very humid, they can also cross the mountain ridge to the height at which
all cloud droplets evaporate when descending. Under certain meteorological condi-
tions, the formation of so-called standing waves when transferring air over moun-
tain ranges occurs. On the ascending parts of standing waves, if the air is moist
enough, clouds of lenticular forms of the genus Sc, Ac, and Cc, of the lenticular
species, occur. Downstream currents in the lower layers of the atmosphere are vor-
tices with a horizontal axis, the so-called rotors, and if the air is sufficiently damp
on the upstream part of the vortex, roll-shaped thick clouds. In addition to the
described orography wave, air waves can also occur in the free atmosphere under
certain meteorological conditions (e.g. horizontal movement at unequal speeds of
two air masses at different temperatures, below altitudinal inversions, etc.). If the air
is humid enough, condensation and deposition of water vapour and the formation of
wave clouds, most commonly of the genera As and Sc, occur.

11.2.7  Special Clouds

In the atmosphere, in addition to the clouds described so far, which form in the
troposphere, clouds form in the higher layers of the atmosphere. In the stratosphere,
mother-of-pearl clouds, a luminous iridescent cloud, can be viewed (Fig. 11.9) and
night-light clouds in the mesosphere. Mother-of-pearl clouds occur at altitudes
between 20 and 30 km. They can be viewed during the winter months in the moun-
tainous polar regions (Alaska, Scandinavia, etc.). In sunlight, they have a brilliant

Fig. 11.9  A luminous

iridescent cloud
152 11  Clouds and Precipitation

mother-of-pearl colour. On the mother-of-pearl clouds, there is also irritation, so

colours that appear banded and almost parallel to the edge of the cloud can be seen.
It is assumed that mother-of-pearl clouds result from adiabatic cooling at the crest
of orographic waves reaching higher layers of the atmosphere. The night lumines-
cent clouds of the upper mesosphere, consisting of small crystals of ice formed on
particles of meteoric origin, are described in more detail in the temperature section.

11.3  Fog

Fog is defined as a visible aerosol consisting of tiny water droplets or ice crystals
suspended in the air. Fog droplets are found with different dimensions. In super-
cooled temperatures, they reach 2–5 microns, while in the positive temperature,
7–15 microns. When the visibility of air is reduced below 1000 metres, fog occurs.
Fog is a cloud base at the Earth’s surface or very close to it, and it is considered as
an unfavourable temporal phenomenon.

11.3.1  Fog Types and Formation

To form fog, the air must be saturated with water vapour. The relative humidity in
conditions of fog is around 100%. Fog is caused by tiny water droplets suspended in
the air. The thickest fogs tend to occur in industrial areas where there are more pollution
particles in the air allowing water droplets to coalesce and grow. Additional favourable
atmospheric conditions for its occurrence are: high air pressure (anticyclone weather),
stable atmosphere and appearance of the temperature inversion, no wind or very weak
flow of air, suitable topographic conditions, and the presence of condensation nuclei. In
Fig. 11.10, different forms of fog which is formed by cooling are illustrated:
1 . Radiation fog (formed by radiation cooling of the Earth and the adjacent air)
2. Advective fog (generated when warm and moist air flows over a cold surface)

Fig. 11.10  Radiation fog

11.3 Fog 153

Fig. 11.11  Evaporation fog

Fig. 11.12  Urban and industrial fogs

3. Orographic fog (occurs when relatively damp air rises up at the topography and
cools adiabatically)
Fogs which are formed through evaporation (Fig. 11.11) are divided into:
• Evaporation fog (when water vapour that rises over warm water condenses into
cold air)
• Frontal fog (when warm air rises over cooler air along the front)
For fogs forming in urban areas, despite the above-mentioned conditions for
formation, there are additional factors (stagnant air, higher concentrations of pollut-
ing substances) that stimulate the process of fog formation. These are known as
urban fogs which usually occur in combination with smog. Fogs that occur in indus-
trial zones in surface mines, lignite coal, and other mining and energy sites are
called industrial fogs (Fig. 11.12).
These fogs are a combination of pollution at the ground layer of atmosphere and
moisture, which are very favourable conditions for the formation of dense fog,
unable to reduce to just a few metres horizontal and vertical visibility in the
atmosphere.
154 11  Clouds and Precipitation

Fig. 11.13  Freezing fog

Supercooled fog. Supercooled fog forms in similar way as radiation fog due to
a nigh-time cooling of the Earth’s surface at clear sky conditions when heat is rap-
idly transferred back to the space. During this process, water vapour condenses into
tiny water droplets that exist at temperatures colder than 0°C, i.e. they become
supercooled water droplets remaining liquid even though they are below freezing
temperature (Fig. 11.13). When supercooled water liquid droplets freeze onto sur-
faces, a white deposit of feathery ice crystals is formed.

11.4  Hydrometeors

Any water or ice particles that have formed in the atmosphere or at the Earth’s
surface as a result of condensation or sublimation. Water or ice particles blown by
the wind from the Earth’s surface are also classed as hydrometeors. According to
the AMS Glossary, the following classification of hydrometeor is adopted:
1. Liquid or solid water particles formed and remaining suspended in the air, for
example, damp (high relative humidity) haze, cloud, fog, ice fog, and mist
2. Liquid precipitation, for example, drizzle and rain
3. Freezing precipitation, for example, freezing drizzle and freezing rain
4. Solid (frozen) precipitation, for example, snow, hail, ice pellets, snow pellets
(soft hail, graupel), snow grains, and ice crystals
5. Falling particles that evaporate before reaching the ground, for example, virga
6. Liquid or solid water particles lifted by the wind from the Earth’s surface, for
example, drifting snow, blowing snow, and blowing spray
Most frequent forms of precipitation at the Earth’s surface are:
• Rain (water drops that fall from the clouds and have a diameter smaller
than 0.5 mm)
• Snow (precipitate in the form of ice crystals or, often, a set of ice crystals)
11.4 Hydrometeors 155

11.4.1  Precipitation

The rain is a precipitate which is formed when separate drops of water fall on the
Earth’s surface from the clouds. Not all the amounts of rain reach the soil. Some of
the raindrops evaporate while falling through dry and warmer air. When the rain-
drops do not reach the Earth’s surface, the phenomenon is called virga, and it is
often controlled by the hot and the dry regions. The scientific explanation of how
rain is formed and how it falls to the surface is called Bergeron process. Rain plays
a role in the hydrological cycle in which moisture from the oceans, seas, lakes, and
the land evaporates, condenses into droplets that form clouds, falls to the Earth’s
surface in the form of rain, and again returns to the air in order to continue the round
cycle. Rain, as an atmospheric phenomenon, is characterized by two categories: the
quantity of rainfall and the factor for the occurrence of rainfall. Based on the amount
of precipitation in the observed time interval, the rainfall intensity could be classi-
fied into the following categories:
• Very weak rain – the intensity rainfall is <0.25 mm/hour.
• Weak rain – the intensity of rainfall is 0.25–1.0 mm/hour.
• Moderate rain – the intensity of rainfall is 1.0–4.0 mm/hour.
• Heavy – the intensity of rainfall is 4.0-16.0 mm/hour.
• Heavy rain – the intensity of rainfall is 16.0–50.0 mm/hour.
• Extreme rain – the intensity of rainfall is > 50.0 mm/hour.
Figure 11.14 shows the different forms of precipitation that occur in the
atmosphere: hail, snow, and rain. According to the mechanism of occurrence,
precipitation is classified into:
• Orographic rain
• Convective rain
• Frontal/cyclonic rain

Fig. 11.14  Form of rainfall (hail, snow and rain)

156 11  Clouds and Precipitation

Fig. 11.15  Orographic rainfall

11.4.2  Orographic Rainfall

Orographic rain occurs during warm and wet wind blowing from the sea to the
mainland, which encounters the natural barrier created by the mountains (Fig. 11.15).
This obstacle forces the air to rise. As the altitude increases, due to the drop in air
pressure, the air expands dynamically and reduces the air temperature, which results
in an increase in relative humidity. This causes condensation of water vapour into
water droplets and formation of clouds. The relative humidity continues to rise until
the dew point reaches the level of condensation, causing air saturation. The altitude
where condensation occurs is called level of condensation (CCN). When the clouds
become heavy enough to hold the condensed cloud mass, it starts raining. When the
wind is blowing downslope of the leeward side of the mountain, it is compressed
and it warms up, which results in further reduction of the relative humidity of the
wind that is already dry after rainfall, manifested in the upwind side of the moun-
tain. Hence, at the leeward side of the mountain, rainfall from these winds does
not appear.

11.4.3  Convective Rainfall

Convective rainfall mainly occurs in equatorial and tropical climatic regions, where
the days are very hot and humid. This type of rainfall usually occurs in mid-latitude
regions, more frequently in the warm part of the year. The speed of evaporation of
moisture from water bodies and respiration of thick vegetation is very high.
Evaporated moisture and the surrounding warm air begin to rise. By achieving the
height, the air expands dynamically, and this phenomenon is due to the reduction of
air pressure. As a result, a decrease of temperature occurs, which results in an
increase of relative humidity, which causes the condensation of water vapour into
water droplets. In this form, unstable clouds with vertical development (cumulo-
nimbus) provide intense rainfall showers (Fig. 11.16). Convective rainfall is usually
11.4 Hydrometeors 157

Fig. 11.16  Convective rainfall

Fig. 11.17  Frontal rainfall and snowfall

occurring late at noon, and it is accompanied by atmospheric electrical discharges,

lightning, and thunder. Convective rain is usually associated with tropical depres-
sion (typhoons) and storms.

11.4.4  Frontal Rainfall

Frontal or cyclone rainfall is caused by cyclonic activity and appears along the front
of the cyclone. Depending on the characteristics of air masses, geographic latitude,
and atmospheric conditions, such as front and physical processes, the frontal rain-
fall may be rain, snow, or hail (Fig. 11.17). In general, precipitation is formed when
two air masses with different temperature, humidity, and air density encounter. The
layer that separates these air masses is called a front. Frontal precipitation usually
occurs when a warm front encounters a cold front. The less dense warm air parcel
158 11  Clouds and Precipitation

rises and cools into the ascedental flow in region of strong updrafts. The heavier
cold sinks at the near surface and form clouds. At the frontal boundary, usually the
clouds bring heavy precipitation.

References

Ćurić, M. (2001a). Cloud dynamics (p. 262). Belgrade: RHMS (9, 10).

Ćurić, M. (2001b). Cloud microphysics (p. 306). Belgrade: RHMS (9,10).
Heintzenberg, J., & Charlson, R. J. (Eds.). (2009). Clouds in the perturbed climate system - Their
relationship to energy balance. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 598 pp.
Khvorostyanov, V. I., & Curry, J. A. (2014). Thermodynamics, kinetics, and microphysics of clouds
(777 pp). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Pruppacher, H. R., & Klett, J. D. (2010). Microphysics of clouds and precipitation (Atmospheric
and oceanographic sciences library) (2nd ed., p.  954). Heidelberg/Dordrecht: Springer.
(9,10, 22).
Rogers, R. R., & Yau, M. K. (1989). A short course in cloud physics (p. 293). Oxford: Pergamon
Press (9,10).
Straka, J. (2009). Cloud and precipitation microphysics – Principles and parameterizations
(392 pp). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Wang, P.  K. (2013). Physics and dynamics of clouds and precipitation (p.  452). Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press (10).
Chapter 12
Atmospheric Motion

The air in the atmosphere is in continuous motion, as the result of non-equal distri-
bution of energy over the Earth’s surface. Different energy distribution, which is
manifested by the different heating of the Earth’s surface, creates differences in
pressure. The pressure differences produce a horizontal air motion which is known
as wind. Atmospheric movement is caused by forces that affect horizontal and verti-
cal movement of air. Dynamic meteorology deals with movements that significantly
determine weather and climate (Morel 1973; Ćurić 1983, 2000, 2002 Gill 1982;
Holton 2004; Mak 2011; Lin 2007; Markowski and Richardson 2010; Saha 2008;
Spiridonov and Ćurić 2011; Ćurić and Janc 2016; Zdunkowski and Bott 2003; Vallis
2017). In this chapter only the basic elements of dynamics of the atmosphere are
described. In all these cases, the atmosphere does not need to be studied through the
individual molecules that it is composing but can be considered as a continuous
fluid medium or briefly a continuum (Hoskins and James 2014). Any point in that
continuum will in fact be considered as an elementary volume that is very small
compared to the volume of the part of the atmosphere that is subject to interest, but
it still contains a large number of molecules. We will always use the term “air par-
ticle” when we refer to the characteristics of a certain point of space. The state of the
atmosphere is characterized by various meteorological variables (e.g. pressure, tem-
perature, density, etc.). It is assumed that each point of the atmosphere corresponds
to one (unique) quantity of these variables. It is assumed further that these variables
and their derivatives are continuous functions of space and time.
The basic laws of fluid mechanics and thermodynamics that determine the move-
ment of the atmosphere can be described by differential equations. Here the fluid
characteristics are considered as dependent variables, while time and space (loca-
tion) are independent variable quantities. The atmospheric motion (Fig. 12.1) fol-
lows a three fundamental conservation laws: the law of conservation of mass,
momentum, and energy (Lindzen 2005; Spiridonov and Ćurić 2011; Zdunkowski
and Bott 2003). These principles are applied on a small elementary volume of the
atmosphere to derive the corresponding basic equations of motion.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 159

V. Spiridonov, M. Ćurić, Fundamentals of Meteorology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-52655-9_12
160 12  Atmospheric Motion

Fig. 12.1 Graphical
illustration of fluid motion

12.1  Real Forces

Before to derive a complete set of equations which describes the atmospheric

motion, it is useful to explain the nature of the forces that cause the movement of the
atmosphere. It is known that various forces act on the air movement into atmo-
sphere. The basic and most important atmospheric forces are those which act inde-
pendently of whether the Earth would rotate or be in a state of rest. They would be
the same in this rotating atmosphere and in the same situation when the Earth would
not rotate. From the point of view of the Newton’s second law of motion, it can be
said that they are forces that act in the action that is observed in relation to the coor-
dinate system whose axes are fixed in the space. The most important forces regard-
ing to the atmospheric motion are pressure gradient force, gravitational force, and
friction force. These forces are called external or real forces.

12.1.1  Pressure Gradient Force

There is no uniform distribution of pressure in the surrounding atmosphere. To

explain the pressure gradient force, it is necessary to describe the meaning of pres-
sure gradient. In atmospheric science (meteorology and the related disciplines), the
pressure gradient (typically of air, more generally of any fluid) is a physical quan-
tity that describes in which direction and at what rate the pressure increases the most
rapidly around a particular location. The pressure gradient is a dimensional quantity
expressed in units of pressure per unit length or Pa/m. The pressure gradient force
results in a net force that is directed from high to low pressure, and this force is
called the “pressure gradient force”. It is responsible for triggering the initial
12.1 Real Forces 161

movement of air in the atmosphere. Horizontal variations of air pressure are much
weaker than vertical pressure variations, only about one ten-thousandth as large.
But there’s no horizontal gravity force to counterbalance them. Thus, the horizontal
pressure gradient force generally forces the air to move, producing wind. Horizontal
pressure gradients work just like vertical pressure gradients: a stronger pressure on
one side of an air parcel than the other causes a net force in a direction. The pressure
gradient force acts on any individual air particle in the atmosphere. Let this element,
bounded by the surface S, have a volume of V. On the elementary surface dS, we can
take that the pressure p is equal at each point. It follows that the pressure force
p =  − p dS n, Fig. 12.2, where n is an external normal to an element of surface
dS. The pressure force component in the direction of the x-axis is ps =  − p dS n ∙ i.
The resulting component of all forces which act on the surface S in the direction
of the x-axis is:

G mFX    p n  i dS. (12.1)

Hence, using Gaussian identity, it is obtained:

G mFX       p i  dV    i pdV, (12.2)

since ∇ ∙ i = 0.
If the air element is small, we can assume that i ∙  ∇ p is independent which vol-
ume dV is considered, so the expression for the component of the pressure gradient
force in x-direction is obtained:

p
G mFx  Vi p  V . (12.3)
x

or using V = m/ρ, we get the pressure gradient force in x-direction per unit mass:

Fig. 12.2 Pressure
gradient force acts on the
elementary surface
162 12  Atmospheric Motion

G mFx 1 p
Grx   (12.4)
m  x

By applying the same procedure, components of the pressure gradient force in

y- and z-axis are obtained:

G mFy 1 p G 1 p
Gry   ; Grz  mFz   (12.5)
m  y m  z

In vector form, the pressure gradient force is given by:

1
Gr   p. (12.6)

The magnitude of the pressure gradient force is directly proportional to the size
of the gradient of pressure, but its direction is the opposite. To recall the transfer of
energy, the method of conductivity is applied. In heat conductivity, heat is trans-
ferred from an area with higher temperature to an area with lower temperature. The
strength of the pressure gradient behaves in the same manner, i.e. it directs the areas
of higher pressure to areas of lower pressure. This contributes to the air flow from
regions with high pressure to regions with lower pressure.

12.1.2  Gravity

Atmosphere is found in field of Earth’s gravitation, which acts on each individual

air particle. Gravity is a force which is generated by the Earth and which attracts all
objects towards its centre (Fig. 12.3). To assume that the atmosphere is a sphere is
not a big mistake, since the difference between the largest radius of the Earth
(6378 km in Equator) and the smallest (6357 km in the field) is only 21 km. Thus,
an expression for the force which the Earth attracts an individual air particle with
unit mass is in the form of:

Fig. 12.3 
Gravitational force
12.1 Real Forces 163

M r 
G    2   (12.7)
r  r 

where r is the vector directed from the Earth’s centre towards the centre of indi-
vidual air parcel, γ  =  6.66  ∙  1011m3kg−1s−2 the gravitational constant, and
M = 5.988 ∙ 1024 kg the mass of Earth. It is evident that G depends on the distance
between the centres of mass of the Earth and air of this element r ≡ |r|. Therefore,
we can define the gravitation potential field:

1 1 
    M    (12.8)
r r
 p 

where rp is arbitrarily chosen distance from the centre of the Earth. Thus, G∗ can be
expressed as follows:

G     (12.9)

If the distance of the air parcel from the centre of the Earth is expressed in terms
of the mean Earth’s radius R and height z above mean sea level (MSL), the gravity
force gets the following expression:

M  r 
G      (12.10)
R  Z
2

 r 

Gravity force which acts on the air parcel with a unit mass m=1, found MSL, is:

M  r 
G      (12.11)
R2  r 

From here and from (12.10), we obtain:

Gn
G  2
(12.12)
 Z
1  R 
 

We see that the gravitational force at any level can be identified with the gravita-
tional force which acts in the same air parcel, in case it is located at a distance R
from the centre of the Earth. This follows from the fact that the air parcels which are
significant for meteorology are found at altitudes up to 20 km. This means that in
this case R>>Z, it follows that Gn  G . Gravity force which acts on individual air
164 12  Atmospheric Motion

parcel is called gravity acceleration g∗.Taking the expression (12.11), using

R = 6.333 ∙ 106, the approximate rate of gravity acceleration is g∗ = 9.84 ms−2.

12.1.3  Friction

There are various air movements in the atmosphere. There is a movement of mole-
cules, which in general is chaotic, the movement of elements of air (whose mass is
very different), and there is a movement of whole layers of air. Hence, it could be
conditionally assumed that the atmosphere represents a set of molecules, a set of
elements of air and air layers. All these “constituent” elements that are numerous
have some characteristics: speed, amount of movement, temperature, etc. Movement
takes place continuously transferring these characteristics from the place to the
place to the other. This is the result of the most diverse changes in the quantity and
quality of the atmosphere at any point. Here we are interested in a force that acts on
any element of air and is the consequence of all mentioned types of motion. We call
this force a force of friction or a viscous force. Let’s observe the element of air vol-
ume δx, δy, δz, found in the field of horizontal flow v = (u, v), which changes only
with height (Fig. 12.4). Such a flow is valid to observe because in the atmosphere,
wind changes with height are higher than in horizontal direction. Due to the above-­
mentioned air movements, the vertical transport of the momentum will be exerted.
In the absence of friction of the air, an individual air particle (object) would
underline a constant acceleration in the vertical direction. The reason for this accel-
eration is gravity. Friction works against the movement. If an air particle moves up
(rises), the friction is directed downwards and vice versa. Particles can reach the
level where the influence of friction is approximately zero. This happens in the free
atmosphere above the friction layer. In the layer below the free atmosphere, friction
plays a major role in air movement. In a situation like Fig. (12.4), the friction force
in the direction of the x-axis will act on the upper surface of the observed air ele-
ment (τzx). Assuming that this force is proportional to the change of the velocity

Fig. 12.4  Friction force

which acts on the
elementary mass of air
whose volume is δx, δy, δz
12.1 Real Forces 165

component (u) with height, the expression for this force of motion is obtained or as
it is called (shearing stress due to the wind shear) per unit area:

u
 zx    (12.13)
z

where μ = μ(z) is friction coefficient (has the same meaning as the dynamic viscos-
ity coefficient but with much larger quantity). On the lower surface, the force per
  
unit area will act in the direction opposite to x-axis   zx  zx  z  . Resulting
force in the direction of x-axis:  z 

   
Fxm   zx   zx  zx  z   zx  z (12.14)
 z  z

As the mass of the air ρδz is found above the unit surface in the observed ele-
ment, this can be defined by the friction force per unit mass:

1  zx
Fx  . (12.15)
 z

Similarly, it is obtained for the force of friction in the direction of the y-axis:

1  zy
Fy  . (12.16)
 z

Under the above assumptions, on the element of air will act the force which has
the components:

 1  zx 1  zy 
F  , ,0 (12.17)
  z  z 

It can easily be determined, if the observed element of air is in the flow field
ϑ = ϑ(x, y, z ) where ϑ = (u, v, w).The stress (force per unit area) at a point in a fluid
needs nine components to be completely specified, since each component of the
stress must be defined not only by the direction in which it acts but also the orienta-
tion of the surface upon which it is acting. The set of nine scalar variables is referred
to us as stress tensor. It should be noted that the viscosity coefficient μ thus defined
has a higher value than in laboratory conditions. In the atmosphere μ changes with
u
height and in the horizontal direction. With the same wind shear (e.g.  0 ), the
z
frictional force, i.e. μ, will be greater in case of small-scale processes, as they
increase the mixing (transport) of momentum. Also μ is larger in areas with a strong
convection than to regions with stable atmosphere. For the same reason, it is larger
when the air moves across the irregular relative to the flat surface.
166 12  Atmospheric Motion

12.2  The Forces That Are the Effects of Earth’s Rotation

It is most appropriate that air movement in the atmosphere is observed in relation to

the coordinate system that is stationary in relation to the Earth. In relation to such a
coordinate system, in practice, the wind speed is determined. But the introduction
of such a coordinate system requires the introduction of additional forces (in addi-
tion to the stated – external forces). Namely, the element of air, which is in a state of
rest in relation to the coordinate system related to the Earth, is neither in rest nor in
a state of uniform motion in relation to the coordinate system fixed in the space
inertial system. Newton’s law of motion can be applied for motion in such a moving
coordinate system only when considering the acceleration of that system in relation
to the fixed system. Considering the acceleration of the coordinate system related to
the Earth in relation to the fixed system in the space requires the introduction of
“apparent” forces, centrifugal and Coriolis.

12.2.1  Centrifugal Force

Let us consider point A which rotates with uniform angular velocity Ω around some
axis, Fig. 12.5. It can be any point that is fixed to Earth. In that case Ω is angular
velocity of the Earth. Peripheral velocity of point A is:

Fig. 12.5 Periphery
velocity of point which
rotates with constant angle
velocity
12.2 The Forces That Are the Effects of Earth’s Rotation 167

v   xR,or (12.18)

2
v  2 R 2 sin 2  , r  Rsin . (12.19)

Radial acceleration is:

v2 r r
ar    2 Rsin . (12.20)
r r r

The previous expression can be written in vector form:

a r   x   xR  . (12.20)

The last term defines a centrifugal acceleration. This is also the term for the cen-
trifugal force per unit mass. We’ll denote it with Z. We see the centrifugal force with
the function of the distance from the axis of rotation. It can be written (using 12.20)
in the form:

 1 
Z  2 rr / r if r  1, i.e.Z     const  . (12.21)
 2 r
2 2


We notice that we can introduce the potential:

1
    2 r 2  const (12.22)
2
whose gradient is the centrifugal force. Thus, it follows:

Z    (12.23)

The radial acceleration defined by the expression (12.20) is the largest on equa-
tor. For example, the Earth turns around its axis for 23 h 56 min and 4 s (i.e. 86164
s), so that:

2
 s 1  7.292  10 5 s 1 . (12.24)
24  60 2  4  60
For r = 6.378 106m, it turns out that ar = 0.03 m s−2. By comparing this accelera-
tion with gravity, we see that it is much less than gravity.
168 12  Atmospheric Motion

12.2.2  Coriolis Force (C)

The second Newton’s law is valid in an absolute or inertial coordinate system. We

determine (measure) air movement in relation to a system that is related to the Earth.
The Earth rotates at an angular velocity in a non-inertial (relative) system. So, the
illustration of motion in this relative system must be different than in the absolute.
Scalar quantities such as density ρ(x, y, x, t), pressure, etc. are equal in both sys-
tems. However, vector variables, such as vector position R, velocity V = dR/dt, and
acceleration a = dV/dt, differ in these systems. Hence, acceleration must be modi-
fied to consider the Earth’s rotation. Let’s look at the system that rotates with the
angular velocity, Fig. 12.6.
Vector A that is constant in this system rotates when viewed in the absolute sys-
tem. In the time interval dt, this vector A (which is normal to the vector A and Ω)
will change for dA. Its absolute value is:

dA  Asin  dt (12.25)

because θ is the angle between A and Ω. According to this, vector A changes in the
absolute system for:

dA
 A sin  (12.26)
dt
and it is normal to A and Ω. In vector form this change is:

Fig. 12.6 Graphical
illustration of
Coriolis force
12.2 The Forces That Are the Effects of Earth’s Rotation 169

 dA 
 dt    x A. (12.27)
 a
 dA 
In general, the individual changes in vector A in the absolute system   and
 dt  a
 dA 
relative system   are obviously associated with the following expression:
 dt 
 dA   dA 
 dt    dt    x A (12.28)
  a  
If the position vector of the material element of the air is R, then its velocity =dR/
dt , according to (12.28):

Va  V   x R. (12.29)

Similar applies to acceleration in the absolute system:

 dVa  dVa
 dt   dt   x Va (12.30)
 a
By substituting Va from (12.29) in the last expression, we get that:

 dVa   dV  dV
 dt    dt   x V    x  V   xR  =  2 x V   x   x R  (12.31)
 a   dt

From (12.31) we see that when we want to use relative acceleration instead of the
absolute, it will be modified by two additional accelerations. First, 2Ω x V is Coriolis
acceleration. It is conditioned by the individual force that appears in the rotating
system and is called the Coriolis force. The Coriolis force C that acts on the body of
the unit mass is obviously described by the term:

C  2
xV (12.32)

Coriolis acceleration is normal to the velocity vector and the planetary vorticity
vector 2Ω. This acceleration is significant for movements that are by duration (time
scale) comparable to the time of rotation of the Earth. The second term in (12.31) is,
as we have seen in Sect. 12.3.1, the centrifugal acceleration of air particles due to
the Earth’s rotation. It should be emphasized once again that when term 2Ω x V is
written together with the acceleration (on the left side of the equation of motion),
then it means Coriolis acceleration, and when this term is moved to the right in the
equation of motion, it is called the Coriolis force. As this apparent force acts nor-
mally on V, it does not do any work over the element of air. We see that Coriolis
force is completely different from centrifugal force. A centrifugal force occurs
170 12  Atmospheric Motion

when a body rotates, while the Coriolis force occurs only in cases where there is a
relative velocity with which the air parcel moves in relation to the rotating system.
Therefore, the Coriolis force will always act on air when measured velocities (those
obtained by using meteorological instruments) are different from zero.

12.3  Some Common Resultant Forces

Very often there is a need to observe some of the forces or their components together,
in terms of their resultant. In general, they represent some complex forces, which
under certain conditions significantly affect some scales of air motion. The two
most commonly used complex forces are gravity forces and buoyancy forces.

12.3.1  Earth’s Gravity Force

From the observed forces that act on motion, we have seen that only the gravity
force and the centrifugal force depend on the position of the observed air element
relative to the axis of rotation. The resulting force of these two forces is called
Earth’s gravity or effective gravity, Fig. 12.7. We’ll denote it with G, so it can be
written:

G  G  x  xR   G  2 r. (12.33)

This force occurs in a system that rotates with the Earth. Knowing the value of
the acceleration that produces forces G∗ and Z allows us to conclude that
G∗ > Z. Considering the potentials of the gravitation force Φ′ and centrifugal force
Φ′′, it is obtained:

G   (12.34)

where Φ = Φ′ + Φ′′ is the Earth’s gravity potential. If in Eq. (12.8) the distance rp
from the centre of the Earth to the point that lies on the MSL in the pole and if in Eq.

Fig. 12.7  Gravity force G

12.3 Some Common Resultant Forces 171

(12.22) is a const = 0, then Φ is a geopotential. From (12.34) the Earth’s gravita-

tional force is expressed in terms of the gradient of the potential Φ, which is called
the geopotential. Since G  =    −  gk, where g  ≡  |G|, it is clear that Φ  =  Φ(z) and
d
 g . If it is assumed that the geopotential at the MSL must be equal to zero,
dz
then the geopotential Φ(z) at height z is equal to the work that should be exerted
against the Earth’s gravitation in order to lift the unit mass from MSL to the
height, i.e.:
z
  gdz (12.35)
0
According to this, the geopotential to the surface Φ = 0 coincides with the mean
sea level. At the pole Φ = 0.We wonder where else Φ = 0 ? As the Earth is geoid and
that Earth’s gravitational force G is always normal at a tangential plane drawn from
any point on the Earth’s surface, it can be seen by using (12.34) that the geopotential
surface Φ  =  0 coincides with the Earth’s surface. Geopotential surface where
Φ = 1 = const is found at a greater distance from the Earth’s surface on equator than
on the pole. This is because G has the highest value at the pole and the smallest on
equator. One sees from (12.34) that at the pole since (r = 0) and at the equator
(where G∗ ≫ Z) the Earth’s gravitation is directed towards the Earth’s centre.

12.3.2  Buoyancy Force

We will often be interested in the movement of individual elements of the air in a

vertical direction. In this direction, the Earth’s gravity and the vertical component of
the pressure gradient act as the most significant forces. The vertical component of
the pressure gradient force Grz is always pointing upwards (in the positive z-axis
direction). The Earth’s gravity G, i.e. the acceleration it gives to the body of unit
mass g, is directed in the opposite direction to the z-axis. Let us suppose that the
element air of unit mass (air parcel) with density ρ and virtual temperature Tv lies in
the environment that is characterized by the following quantities:  ,Tv , and ∂ρ′/∂z
(see Fig. 12.8).
Difference

1 p
S   g (12.36)
 z
is referred as the buoyancy force. Using the static equation, it turns out that:

  
S  g (12.37)

172 12  Atmospheric Motion

Fig. 12.8  The effect of the

buoyancy force and the
Earth gravity on the
air parcel

We see that the buoyancy force is directed upwards when ρ′ > ρ and in the oppo-
site direction when ρ′ < ρ.
Using the equation of state for moist air, assuming that the pressure in the
observed air element is equal to the surrounding pressure at the same height, we
obtain that:

Tv  Tv
S  g (12.38)

 Tv

The difference in Tv  Tv in the atmosphere is usually not large (several degrees).
But for certain elements of the air (which are much warmer than the environment
due to suitable local conditions), this difference can be large, up to 10°C.
When looking at air unsaturated with water vapour, the expression (12.38) can be
written using the potential temperature. It gives:

  
S  g (12.39)


The buoyancy force is primarily associated with the stability of the air. When air
is heated, it expands and becomes less dense. Since the density changes when
changing the temperature, the temperature profile of the layer is very important. If
the surface is heated, and if it is colder at altitude, then heated air particles will be
12.3 Some Common Resultant Forces 173

able to quickly rise to great altitudes because of the surrounding air temperature
which decreases faster than the temperature of warm air particles. This is the basic
concept of action under the buoyancy. A practical example of a buoyancy force is
shown in Fig. 12.9. In addition, we can calculate the acceleration an unstable air
parcel will have and, from this, can determine the parcel’s velocity at some later
point in time. If S ↑  > 0, then the parcel rises; if S ↑  < 0, then the parcel descends.
We look at the instability at each point in the environmental temperature profile and
can determine γenv for each point.
Thus:

T
Tv _ env  T0  z  T0   env z; (12.40)
z
env
T
Tv _ parcel  T0  z  T0   d z; (12.41)
z
parcel

so that:

T0   d z  T0   env z  ( env   d )

S   gz (12.42)
Tv Tv

If γenv < γd, the parcel accelerates downwards for positive ∆z (positive stability);
If γenv > γd, the parcel accelerates upwards for positive ∆z (negative static stability).
We can also express buoyancy in terms of potential temperature as the nearly
conservative variable for adiabatic atmosphere:

Fig. 12.9  The buoyancy

effect on a hot air balloon
174 12  Atmospheric Motion

Rd
 p  cp
  T 0  (12.43)
 p 
dθ
We want to find . Taking the log of both sides of the equation and replacing a
dz
dp
  g  , we are able to find the following expression for buoyancy in terms of
dz
potential temperature:

1 d
S  g z (12.44)
 dz

It does not matter what the environmental temperature or potential temperature

profiles; a change in height of an air parcel will result in a temperature that changes
along the dry adiabatic and a potential temperature that does not change at all. As
you can see below, the stability of a layer depends on the change in environmental
potential temperature with height. Air parcels try to move vertically with constant
potential temperature. Parcels will move to an altitude (and air density) for which
S ↑  = 0. However, if they still have a velocity when they reach that altitude, they will
overshoot, experience a negative acceleration, and then descend, overshooting the
neutral level again. In this way, the air parcel will oscillate until its oscillation is
finally damped out by friction and dissipation of the air parcel. Note that in the neu-
tral section of vertical profile where potential temperature does not change, it is not
possible to determine if an air parcel will be stable or unstable. For instance, if the
air parcel in the neutral region is given a small upward push, it will continue to rise
until it reaches a stable region.

12.4  Atmospheric Motion

In this chapter we will describe the movement of the air under the influence of cer-
tain forces. We will also describe some of the terms that are encountered in meteo-
rology and are related to the air movement. Here, we will analyse the effects of the
action of individual forces on air movement, which means that we will observe
simple atmospheric movements that occur under very limited condition (Zdunkowski
and Bott 2003).

12.4.1  T
 he Equation of Motion in a System Rotating Together
with the Earth

Since we described the basic forces, we can move on derivation of the equation of
motion in a system that rotates together with Earth. The Newton’s law of motion can
be written in the form:
12.4 Atmospheric Motion 175


 dVa 
   S (12.45)
 dt 
where a term on the left-hand side of the equation represents an absolute accelera-
tion and on the right-hand side is the sum of the real forces acting on the air parcel
of the unit mass.
By substitution of all terms related to the real forces, we obtain:

dV      1  
 2xV  x  xR   p  G  F (12.46)
dt 

Here V is the relative velocity of air or simply air velocity. Considering that:
      
G  G  x  xR   G  2 r (12.47)

is the resultant force (Earth’s gravitation or effective gravitation) which happens in
the system rotating with the Earth, then it follows that Eq. (12.47) is:

dV 1   
  p  G  2xV  F (12.48)
dt 
In such system, vectors which appear in the vector equation of motion Eq. (12.48)
have the following components along x, y, and z coordinates:

dV  du dv dz 
 , , ;
dt  dt dt dt 

1  1 p 1 p 1 p 
 p    , , ;
   x  y  z 

 
G   0, 0, g  ; F   Fx ,Fy ,Fz 

Force F, in general, has a component, and in the direction of the z-axis, Fz,
although for simplicity, we did not consider in the previous sections. It is evident
from Fig. 12.10 that the Ω has components: Ω = (Ωx, Ωy, Ωz), where Ωx = 0,  Ωy = 
Ω cosϕ,  Ωz = Ω sinϕ (ϕ) is geographical latitude. Then the Coriolis force obtains
the following matrix form:

i j k i j k
C  2 xv = 2 0 y z  0 2 cos  2 sin  (12.49)
u v w u v w

176 12  Atmospheric Motion

Fig. 12.10  Earth vorticity

vector components in (x, y,
z) system

i.e.C   fv  f w, fu, f u  (12.49’)

with the following parameters being introduced:

f  2 sin  and f   2 cos  (12.50)

The parameter f is called Coriolis parameter or the Earth’s rotation. Taking in
consideration all written before the vector, Eq. (12.48) can be expressed into a sys-
tem of the following three scalar equations:

du 1 p
  fv  f w  Fx
dt  x
dv 1 p
  fu  Fy (12.51)
dt  y

dw 1 p
  g  f u  Fz
dt  z
In (Eq.12.48) it was not important how the axes (x, y, and z) were oriented.
Scalar equations of motion (12.51) are derived under defined directions of axis (x
towards the east, y towards the north, and z vertically upwards, normal to the Earth’s
surface). Therefore, the equation of motion (12.48) can now be written in vector
form with defined axes. From (12.51) it follows that:

dv 1
  p  gk  2xv  F (12.52)
dt 
where k is ort in direction of z-axis and g is the acceleration of the Earth’s gravity,
which is often called effective gravity. The first two equations in (12.51) describe
the motion in the plane (x, y) that tangles the Earth at the point of the coordinate
origin. Therefore, they are called horizontal equations of motion in the tangential
12.5 Application of the Equations of Horizontal Motion 177

plane. We see that the tangential plane deviates from the surface of the Earth, the
more we are moving away from the coordinate origin. This means that horizontal air
flows of large proportions (the order of the radius of the radius of the Earth) will not
be able to accurately describe this system of equations. In order to avoid this lack, a
spherical coordinate system is used. A more detailed information regarding the
transformation of this system of equations in spherical coordinate system can be
found in several books which deal with dynamic meteorology. However, we will
continue to use a system that is often called the system of primitive equations
because in further interpretations we will not observe the movement of such large-­
scale processes as planetary waves. We will mention here that in the system (12.51)
we figured out five dependent variables: (u, v, w, p, ρ). Since g and Ω are known, F
is expressed through (u, v, w). To keep the system of equations closed (means to be
completely resolved), additional equations are needed, and we will discuss
them later.

12.5  Application of the Equations of Horizontal Motion

12.5.1  Geostrophic Wind (Vg)

In the upper atmosphere above the layer of friction, the friction force which acts on
the air particle is practically negligible. Hence, the air particle forces two actions:
Coriolis force and the pressure gradient force. When these two forces are in balance
with each other, it is called geostrophic balance. Geostrophic wind is therefore uni-
form horizontal velocity that is balanced with horizontal components of the pres-
sure gradient force and Coriolis force. The graphic illustration of the geostrophic
wind flow is given in Fig.  12.11. The direction of movement should be exactly
parallel with isobars with high pressure on the right and low pressure on the left.
Flow of wind in the upper level is approximately geostrophic. Geostrophic wind
(Vg) is a close approximation of the real wind (V). It is important to recall that when
an air particle moves, Coriolis force and power of the gradient of pressure change
(when the width and pressure change), and this may result in acceleration or decel-
eration. We will approach the derivation of the equation for the geostrophic wind.
From the horizontal momentum equations:

dV 1
   h p  fk x V, (12.53)
dt 
dV
where V = (u, v, 0), as = 0 , we have the following term:
dt
1
  h p  fk x V = 0, (12.54)

178 12  Atmospheric Motion

Fig. 12.11  Geostrophic wind at both hemispheres

Fig. 12.12 Establishment
of the geostrophic
equilibrium

Geostrophic wind is a vector V that satisfies Eq. (12.54). Let us denote it with
V = Vg. By vector product of (12.54) with a unit ort “k”, we obtain that:

1
Vg = k x h p, (12.55)
f

which is the vector way of writing the geostrophic wind in the system (x, y, z). The
geostrophic wind is therefore a uniform horizontal velocity for which the horizontal
component of the pressure gradient force and the Coriolis force is balanced, which
is graphically presented in Fig. 12.12. In the atmosphere, in the absence of a fric-
tional force, there is a geostrophic flow. As an illustration for this, we observe the
following example: let a gradient of pressure be established at a given moment as it
is shown in Fig. 12.13. Then the individual air parcel that was initially in rest will
accelerate towards the low-pressure area. Since a particle then has some velocity,
normal on the isobar, the Coriolis force Ch will start to act. When the horizontal
1
pressure gradient force   h p and the Coriolis force Ch are balanced, the move-

ment will be parallel to the isobars. The intensity of geostrophic wind is:
12.5 Application of the Equations of Horizontal Motion 179

Fig. 12.13  Thermal wind

1 p
Vg  , (12.56)
f  n

where n is direction normal to the isobars.
The horizontal momentum Eq. (12.53) can be also written in (p-system) as:

dv
  p  f k x V (12.57)
dt
or absence of friction:

0   p  f k x V

Hence, we get that:

1
Vg  k x  p , (12.58)
f
or the intensity:

1 
vg  (12.59)
f n

Here, n is a normal to the isohypse of isobaric surface p=const. The advantage of

isobaric coordinate (p-system) is evident from (12.59) as there is no density in this
relation. Thus, only the geopotential gradient uniquely determines the geostrophic
wind at all heights, while the given pressure gradient corresponds to the different
values of the geostrophic wind, depending on the density at different heights.
180 12  Atmospheric Motion

From (12.58) and (12.59), we see that the geostrophic wind can be calculated,
whether we know the pressure field at a certain height or the geopotential field on a
fixed isobaric surface. The question is what does this wind represent? The real wind
field at altitude is obtained from upper air sounding data. Although the wind is
known only in discrete points, we can assume that the vector field is known.
From the assumptions introduced to get the geostrophic wind Vg from the equa-
tion for horizontal motion, we see that Vg would be equal to real wind in areas
where the isobars, i.e. the isohypses, would be parallel and straight and when there
would be no frictional force. A scale analysis of the equations of motion shows that
assumptions are valid and with great accuracy.
Above the planetary boundary layer, the acceleration and friction force are sig-
nificantly smaller in magnitude than the pressure gradient force and the Coriolis
force. As summarized, the geostrophic wind is a theoretical wind, which is often
used to describe the current flow of wind at altitude. Theoretical geostrophic wind
is sometimes the same as this wind. However, the only way to obtain values for this
wind is the wind to be measured with profilers by using LIDARs and similar instru-
ments or devices. Geostrophic wind is not always uniform throughout the layer. The
change of Vg in height gives the thermal wind VT .

12.5.2  Thermal Wind (VT)

By definition, thermal wind VT is:

Vg Vg
VT  or VT  z. (12.60)
z z
Considering (12.60), (12.54), and the equation of the state, we get that:

Vg R T RT   
VT   VT  k x  h  lnp   k xh  lnp  . (12.61)
z f z f  Z 
 1 p g
As the term lnp   , having in mind (12.54), from the previous
Z p Z RT
term, it is obtained:

Vg 1 T g
VT   Vg  k x  h T (12.62)
z T Z fT
The first term on the right side is one order of magnitude smaller than other. One
sees that in isotherm atmosphere, the thermal wind is in the same position in relation
to isotherms such as the geostrophic wind in relation to the isobars. From the equa-
tion for geostrophic wind in p-system (12.58), we have:
12.5 Application of the Equations of Horizontal Motion 181

Vg g z
 k x p (12.63)
p f p

after using the static and the state equation:

Vg R
 k x  p T. (12.64)
p fp

By substitution of p from the static equation, the former term gets the form:

Vg g
vT =  k x  p T. (12.65)
z fT
In the p-system, therefore, the thermal wind is completely related to isotherms,
as a geostrophic wind relative to the isobars. In Fig. 12.13 are drawn isotherms and
the thermal wind on the surfaces p =const.
The introduced term, thermal wind, has a great practical benefit: so, if we know
the change of geostrophic wind with height in some layer of atmosphere, from
(12.65) we can calculate the horizontal temperature ascendant. Conversely, if we
know the geostrophic wind at some height and the horizontal component of the
temperature ascendant, we can calculate the geostrophic wind at other altitude. The
local temperature change due to horizontal advection can also be calculated using a
thermal wind. From:

dT T
  v g  p T (12.66)
dt t
dT
Since we consider the case when = 0 , as the individual air parcels do not
dt in the horizontal direction at velocity
change the temperature but only move
Vg, we get:

T
 Vg  p T (12.67)
t
By vector product of (12.65) with unit ort vector in z-direction k, we have:

f Vg
 p T   Tk x (12.68)
g z

this in turn into (12.67) gives:
182 12  Atmospheric Motion

T f  Vg 
 TVg   kx . (12.69)
t g  z 

In accordance with the method of writing a mixed product, the previous term is
more convenient to write in the form:

T f  Vg 
  Tk   Vg x . (12.70)
t g  z 

 Vg  T
We see if  Vg x  is directed opposite from the unit vector k, so  0 at
 z  t
f > 0 , i.e. warm advection will be performed. Such a situation is shown in Fig. 12.14
(left panel).
 Vg 
If  Vg x  is in the direction of the vector k, as it is shown in Fig. 12.14
 z 
T
(right panel), then so  0, and we say that cold advection is then performed. The
t ∂Vg
temperature change due to advection does not exist when Vg and are of the
same direction. When α = 90, the temperature change is the highest. ∂z In practical
procedures for calculating the local temperature change from (12.70), we need to
∂Vg
represent in terms of the final differences (since we do not know the function
∂z
Vg = Vg(z)). In that case, it is:

Vg 1
z

z 2  z1
 Vg2  Vg1  (12.71)

where z2 − z1 is the atmospheric layer depth between the levels where Vg = Vg2 and
Vg = Vg1. Then (12.70) get the following form (using Vg = Vg1):

Fig. 12.14  Warm and cold advection

12.5 Application of the Equations of Horizontal Motion 183

T fT
 k   Vg1 x Vg 2  (12.72)
t g  z 2  z1 

In the relation (12.72), term k ∙ (Vg1x Vg2) is quantitatively equal to the surface
of parallelogram which sides Vg1and  Vg2. Thus, it follows if z2 − z1 = 1 (for unique
change of height):

T 2f dS
 T . (12.73)
t g dz

where

dS 1  Vg 
 k   Vg x . (12.74)
dz 2  z 

It is assumed that S > 0 when Vg moves to the left from Vg1 to Vg2.
In barotropic atmosphere, as ρ = ρ(p), i.e. at the surfaces p=const., it follows that
and density is constant. From the equation of state for dry air, it follows that ∇hT = 0.
Hence, it follows that the geostrophic wind does not change with the height in the
barotropic atmosphere. From there it follows that the local temperature change, due
to horizontal advection, is then zero.

12.5.3  Gradient Wind

Looking at the movement of air on weather maps, a great complexity can be noticed.
Nevertheless, the field of pressure (or geopotential) and wind field can be associated
with the assumption that there is a balance of forces acting on the individual air
parcel. In order to better understand the balance of forces, the movement is ideal-
ized. It is assumed that the motion is stationary (not dependent on time), horizontal,
and carried out in the absence of frictional force. Such simplified movement condi-
tions, such as geostrophic motion, can only be achieved in special circumstances.
Isobars (isohypses) are rarely straightforward. Horizontal frictionless motion, paral-
lel to such isobars (isohypses), when it is non-accelerated along the isobars (tangen-
dV
tial acceleration = 0 , but the radial acceleration V2/r ≠ 0) is more realistic than
dt
geostrophic. It is called gradient motion. In such motion there is a balance between
the three forces: the horizontal components of the pressure gradient force p, the
Coriolis force Ch, and the centrifugal force Cc. From the equations with a horizontal
motion written in a natural coordinate system, and the air parcel path along the
curved isobar is denoted with s, remains the expression:
184 12  Atmospheric Motion

v2 1 p
 fv  0 (12.75)
r  n
Velocity calculated from (12.75) is known as gradient velocity (or gradient
wind). Let’s denote it with Vgr. It is obvious:

fr f 2 r 2 r p
Vgr     (12.76)
2 4  n

It is interesting to observe a special case of a circular motion of air in a cyclone,
when the pressure gradient force is balanced with a centrifugal force. It is such a
movement where the Coriolis force is considerably smaller than the others individu-
v2
ally. Then Rossby’s number RO = / fV is very large. From the balance of forces,
it follows that: r

V2 1 p
 (12.77)
r  n

Hence:

r p
V  (12.78)
 n

With expression (12.78) so-called cyclostrophic velocity is defined. It can be
directed in both positive and negative senses. Horizontal air motion near the vertical
axis of rotation, in the case of hurricanes, is very similar to cyclostrophic motion.
Typical mid-latitude motions, unlike the previous one, are like geostrophic motion,
i.e. there is a balance between pressure gradient force and Coriolis force. The rela-
tionship between the defined geostrophic and gradient wind in certain, identical
conditions can be easily found. Geostrophic velocity in a natural coordinate system:

1 p
Vg  
f  n

Taking this into account, (12.75) can be written in the form:

Vgr2
fVgr   fVg  0. (12.79)
r
 1 
If we multiply (12.75) by   2  , we can also write as:
 V 
 1 
2
 gr 
1 1
fVg  f   0 , where the solution is:
 V  Vgr r
 gr 
12.5 Application of the Equations of Horizontal Motion 185

4 fVg
f f2 
1 r
 . Hence, we get:
Vgr 2 fVg
Vg 1 1 Vg
   (12.80)
Vgr 2 4 rf

From (12.80) we see that in front of the root, only positive sign should be used,
since as r  →  ∞ follows that Vg  =  Vgr, which is possible only in case of a posi-
tive sign.
When f > 0 and r > 0 (cyclonic circulation), it follows that Vg > Vgr.
When f > 0 and r < 0 (anticyclonic circulation), it follows that Vg < Vgr.
From the previous condition, one sees that the geostrophic wind in the cyclonic
curves of the isobars is greater than the speed at which there is a balance of forces
for this form of the isobars. In anti-cyclonic case, the geostrophic wind has a lower
value than the velocity at which a balance of forces exists for this form of isobars.

12.5.4  Quasi-geostrophic Equations of Motion

The scalar equation of horizontal momentum equations into p − system written in

the vector form is:

dV
  p   f k x v (12.81)
dt
where V = ui + vj is velocity vector (horizontal component of the air velocity vec-
tor) and ∇p is horizontal operator that is applied on isobaric surface. As we have
seen, this represents a simplified equation, due to the application of the hydrostatic
approximation. That still contains some terms which are less significant (secondary
importance) for synoptic-scale motions at mid-latitudes. Therefore, it will be sim-
plified by introducing the fact that the horizontal motion is approximately
geostrophic.
If we denote the wind vector as:

V  Vg  Va (12.82)

where the geostrophic wind Vg is defined by the expression:

1
Vg  k x. (12.83)
f0

186 12  Atmospheric Motion

In (12.82) Va is a difference between the real wind vector and the geostrophic
wind vector and is referred as geostrophic wind. In (12.83) an assumption is intro-
duced that the meridional scale of motions L is small relative to the Earth’s radius a,
so the geostrophic wind is expressed with aid of the constant value of the Coriolis
parameter f0. For the observed motions |Vg| ≫ |Va|, it is apparent that the interpreta-
tion of ageostrophic wind depends on that whether the geostrophic wind is defined
by f0 (12.83) or a variable Coriolis parameter f (12.58). In the first case, geostrophic
wind is non-divergent, while in the second case, geostrophic wind has divergent
part. Although the geostrophic wind can be defined with f0, it is necessary in this
expression to maintain the dependence of the Coriolis parameter on the latitude.
Keeping only the first two terms follows that:

f  f0   y (12.84)

df
where   0  2 cos 0 / a and it is taken that y = 0 at ϕ1 = ϕ0. This approxi-
dy
mation is called β-plane approximation. For the synoptic scale of motions, the rela-
tionship between the terms of the r.h.s. of (11.1.3) is:

 L cos 0 L
~  1.
f0 sin 0 a

By this using f0 instead of the real value of the Coriolis parameter f is approved.
From (12.81) it is evident that the acceleration, following the motion, is equal to
the difference between the Coriolis force and the pressure gradient force. This dif-
ference depends on the deviation of the real wind from geostrophic wind. So, it is
not really appropriate to simply replace the horizontal velocity with the geostrophic,
so it is not justified simply to replace the horizontal velocity with a geostrophic
value in a Coriolis term, but by replacing (12.83), (12.82), and (12.84) in the terms
on the r.h.s. of (12.81), it is obtained:

f k x V     f0   y  k x  Vg  Va   f0 kxVg  f0 k xv a   yk x Vg (12.85)

Here, in terms proportional with βy, the ageostrophic wind is ignored relative to
the geostrophic wind. Thus, the approximate equation of motion is:

dVg
  f0 k x Va   yk xVg (12.86)
dt
It is called a quasi-geostrophic equation of motion. It should be noted that here
the operator for an individual (substantial) derivative is defined as:

d    
  Vg    ug  vg (12.87)
dt t t x y

12.7 Vorticity Equation 187

12.6  Vertical Motions in the Atmosphere

For the synoptic scale of motion, the vertical velocity is of order a few centimetres
per second. By the standard upper air sounding, the wind speed is measured with
accuracy of about one metre per second. Therefore, there is no measurement of the
vertical velocity into the standard meteorological practice. Usually, the vertical
velocity is kinematically calculated (using the continuity equation) and with adia-
batic approach (utilizing thermodynamics equation). Both methods are applied in
the isobaric (p)-system, where ω(p) is used instead of w(z). These two quantities of
vertical motion will be correlated with aid of the hydrostatic approximation. By
definition ω = dp/dt (so-called omega equation) when the individual derivative is
developed into (x, y, z) system, it is obtained:

dp p p
   V p  w (12.88)
dt t z

As we have seen before, the horizontal velocity can be expressed through the
geostrophic Vg and ageostrophic velocity, V = Vg + Va, where |Vg| ≫ |Va|. In addi-
1
tion, Vg  kxp . Hence, it follows that vg ∙  ∇ p = 0. Considering that and using
f
the hydrostatic approximation, we can write that:

p
  Va p  g  w. (12.89)
t
Three terms at the r.h.s. of (12.89) have the following typical values:

∂p 10 mb
~ ;
∂t per day

 1m   0.01mb  1mb 100 mb
Va p ~     ~ ; g w ~
 s   1km  per day day

Therefore, it is seen that is quite appropriate to use this relation in the practice, in
order to calculate vertical velocity from the omega equation:

  g  w. (12.90)

12.7  Vorticity Equation

From equations of motion, together with the equation of thermodynamics and con-
tinuity equation, the corresponding combinations yield derived equations. They
contain unknown important quantities such as vorticity, divergence, etc. When in
188 12  Atmospheric Motion

these equations we have time derivatives, they are called prognostic equations.
When they do not contain derivatives, they are known as diagnostic equations. In
this context, using the following procedure, a vorticity equation is derived. From the
momentum equations in the horizontal plane:

u u u u p
u v w    fv  Fx (12.91)
t x y z x

v v v v p
 u  v  w    fu  Fy (12.92)
t x y z y

by differentiating the first by y and the other by z and subtracting the first from the
second of the two differentiated equations, we obtain that:

   
u v w  f  D
t x y z
(12.93)
f  w v w u    p  p   Fy Fx 
v        
y  x z y z   x y y x   x y 

where:

v u u v
   , D  .
x y x y

As f only depends on y, thus it follows:

f df
v 
y dt

so, the Eq. (12.93) could be written into a more concise form:

d   w  v  w u 
 f     f   D    
dt   x z  y  z 
(12.94)
   p   p    Fy  Fx 
    
 x y  y  x    x y 

Equation (12.94) is the vorticity equation. It shows the individual change of the
absolute vorticity ζa = ζ + f (it is reffered to us as the absolute vorticity since f is the
vertical component of vorticity of Earth related to fixed system and ζ is vertical
component of vorticity in relation to the Earth) which depends on divergence D:
12.7 Vorticity Equation 189

u v
D  (12.95)
x y

twisting term P:

 w v w u 
P     (12.96)
 x z y z 

the solenoidal term S is denoted as:

  p  p 
S     (12.97)
 x z y x 

and the last term (friction term) which depends on friction Fr:

 Fy Fx 
Fr     (12.98)
 x y 

It can be easily shown that a twisting term can be expressed as follows:

 w v w u   w w 
P        
 x z y z   x y 

where:

w v u w
  ;  
y z z x

The quantities η and ξ are the horizontal components of a three-dimensional
vorticity vector ξ = (η, ξ, ζ).
It is also easily seen that the solenoid term S (Eq.  12.97) can be written in
the form:

S     xp   k.

Substituting the last two expressions for P and S into (Eq. 12.94) yields that:

d  w w 
 f       f    D          x p   k (12.99)
dt   x y 

It can be seen from (Eq. 12.99) that the absolute vorticity of the individual air
element changes due to two conditions:
190 12  Atmospheric Motion

1. If the divergence term is positive (D > 0), then the air element stretches over a
large area, thus causing the vorticity to decrease in order to conserve the angular
momentum.
2. When the divergence term is negative (D < 0), then the air element shrinks over
small area and elongates. In this case the relative vorticity gradually increases
(due to the reduced inertial moment). This is shown in Fig. 12.15. As it is shown
in Fig. 12.15a when there is stretching, the divergence term:

 u v   u v 
   0   f    D   f       0
 x y   x y 
d
  f     0  f  
dt
must increase.
In case of compression (Fig. 12.15b), it follows that:

 u v   u v 
    0    f    D    f        0
 x y   x y 
d
  f  0  f 
dt
must decrease.
1. The twisting term is called because the horizontal shear of the vertical velocity
(∂w/∂x,   ∂w/∂y) overturns the element of air and its horizontal component of
vorticity (η, ξ, ) transforms into a vertical component of vorticity. This can be
seen in Fig. 12.16. The strong, vertical shear of horizontal motion, which occurs
at high-temperature gradients, enhances the components η and ξ which, after
spinning up, represents a strong source for the vertical component of vorticity ζ.
Tilting or twisting of horizontal vorticity into the vertical (or vertical vorticity

Fig. 12.15  Divergence term. Stretching (left panel) Compression (right panel)
12.7 Vorticity Equation 191

Fig. 12.16  Production of absolute vorticity of the air element

into the horizontal) is important for mesoscale storm dynamics and tornadoes,
but not typically a major player in the large scale.
2. The solenoid term, which appears in the baroclinic atmosphere, generates a ver-
tical component of vorticity. In such case pressure and density (i.e. temperature)
contours cross. Vorticity changes result from differential horizontal ­accelerations.
As seen in Fig. 12.16b, the pressure gradient force of the observed air element at
point (2) is greater than at point (1).
3. Pressure gradient forces create a spinning moment (torque) that changes the
angular momentum of an air element occupied by a single solenoid.
∂p
Although is constant in the illustration above (see Fig. 12.16b), the pressure
∂y
gradient acceleration is larger on the right because the density is lower. As a result,
the relative vorticity gradually increases (i.e. becomes cyclonic if starting from
rest). Mathematically the above becomes:
192 12  Atmospheric Motion

Fig. 12.17  Contribution of

isobar-isosteric solenoids
of air vorticity

D 1   p  p  1   p 
f     2     0
Dt   x y y x   2  x y 
 p
Since   0,  0 and 0
x y
The last term on the right side of Eq. (12.94) is due to the existence of a change
in the friction force in the horizontal plane. If there is a torque (spinning momen-
tum) caused by friction, the particle acquires cyclonal or anticyclone circulation
(see Fig. 12.17). As the result of this:

d 
 f     0. (12.100)
dt

12.8  Basic Characteristics of Vorticity

Vorticity by definition is a vector field which defines a microscopic measure of air

parcel spin about its axis. As it is discussed in the previous section, there are three
types of vorticity: Earth’s vorticity, relative vorticity, and absolute vorticity.
Earth vorticity occurs as the result of Earth’s rotation. It is also called planetary
vorticity that is a twice the angular velocity 2Ω. The local vertical component of the
planetary vorticity f = 2Ωsinϕ where Ω is the angular speed of the earth and ϕ is the
latitude. The relative vorticity is the vorticity relative to the Earth induced by the air
velocity field. This vorticity is induced due to troughs and ridges and horizontal
wind speed differences. Since air flow in troughs is cyclonic and in ridges anticy-
clonic, relative vorticity in troughs is positive and in ridges anticyclonic.
The absolute vorticity of the air parcel is the sum of the relative vorticity and
Earth vorticity.
Vorticity caused by a change in wind direction or wind speed with height is
termed horizontal vorticity (the spin is in relation to a horizontal axis) and direc-
tional wind shear (veering). Horizontal vorticity is most important in the atmo-
spheric boundary layer (ABL) (lower part of troposphere).
12.8 Basic Characteristics of Vorticity 193

Fig. 12.18  Diagram of a three vorticity components

Streamwise vorticity is the amount of horizontal vorticity that is parallel to storm

inflow. Storm inflow is the velocity of the low-level wind moving towards a thun-
derstorm. Helicity is the amount of streamwise vorticity that is available to be
ingested by a thunderstorm. In summary, vertical positive vorticity contributes to
upper level divergence in the PVA region and thus rising air, while horizontal vor-
ticity is important to severe weather. In the synoptic practice, vorticity is evaluated
and plotted on the 500 mb chart. Vorticity is a clockwise or counterclockwise spin
in the troposphere. A 500 mb vorticity is also termed vertical vorticity. This vorticity
is caused by troughs and ridges and other embedded shortwaves or highs. A wind
flow through a vorticity gradient will produce regions of PVA (positive vorticity
advection) and NVA (negative vorticity advection). PVA contributes to rising air.
While low pressure is associated with rising air and updraft motion, high pressure
causes sinking air.
In general the vorticity depends on Earth vorticity (the spinning motion created
by the Earth’s rotation), shear vorticity (wind speed shear), and curvature vorticity
(wind veering or directional shear) which elements are shown in Fig. 12.18.
It is obvious that counterclockwise rotation in the Northern Hemisphere results
in a positive vorticity, while clockwise rotation produces negative vorticity.
194 12  Atmospheric Motion

Fig. 12.19  Diagram of a

positive and negative
vorticity

12.8.1  P
 ositive Vorticity Advection PVA and Upward
Air Motion

Positive-increasing vorticity appears in case of a positive shear vorticity the wind

velocity increasing when moving away from centre point of trough (left panel in
Fig 12.19a). In this case a south to north movement of air exists which means that
Coriolis increases when moving from the equator towards the poles (Fig. 12.19b).
In addition this occurs in troughs and shortwaves in presence of positive curvature
vorticity (left panel in Fig. 12.19c).
References 195

Negative-decreasing vorticity is observed in negative shear vorticity under

North-South air parcel movement and negative curvature vorticity-clockwise spin-
ning (right pannels in Fig. 12.19).

References

Ćurić, M. (1983). An introduction to dynamic meteorology (p.  317). Belgrade: Jug. Inst of
Informatics.
Ćurić, M. (2000). Selected chapters in dynamic meteorology (p. 244). Belgrade: University Press
(11, 12).
Ćurić, M. (2002). Dynamic meteorology (p. 418). Belgrade: RHMS (11,12).
Ćurić, M., & Janc, D. (2016). Meteorology (p. 581). Belgrade-Zemun: AGM book d.o.o.
Gill, A. E. (1982). Atmosphere-ocean dynamics (p. 662). Amsterdam: Academic Press (15).
Holton, J.  R. (2004). An introduction to dynamic meteorology (p.  535). Amsterdam: Elsevier
Academic Press (12).
Hoskins, B.  J., & James, I.  N. (2014). Fluid dynamics of the midlatitude atmosphere (p.  408).
Chichester: Wiley (12).
Lin, Y.-L. (2007). Mesoscale dynamics (p. 630). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (12, 13).
Lindzen, R.  S. (2005). Dynamics in atmospheric physics. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 310 pp.
Mak, M. (2011). Atmospheric dynamics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 486 pp.
Markowski, P., & Richardson, Y. (2010). Mesoscale meteorology in midlatitudes (p.  407).
Hoboken: Wiley (12, 13).
Morel P (1973) Dynamic Meteorology (p. 622). Holland: D. Reidel Publishing Company (12).
Saha, K. (2008). The earth’s atmosphere. Its physics and dynamics (p. 367). Berlin/Heilderberg:
Springer (1,2, 4,5,8, 11, 15).
Spiridonov, V., & Ćurić, M. (2011). An introduction to meteorology (p.  241).
ISBN:978-608-65175-0-2 COBISS.MK-ID 83607306 (1, 2,3,4,6, 10, 11, 12, 16, 17, 18).
Vallis, G. K. (2017). Atmospheric and oceanic fluid dynamics fundamentals and large-scale circu-
lation (p. 860). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Zdunkowski, W., & Bott, A. (2003). Dynamics of the atmosphere: A course in theoretical meteo-
rology (p. 719). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (12).
Chapter 13
Atmospheric Waves

The atmosphere has a wave nature with various types of wave motions (Lin 2007;
Hoskins and James 2014). It represents an environment which allows the formation
and maintenance of different waves. Let’s first look briefly at the wave physical
concept before continuing with the description and derivation of atmospheric waves.

13.1  Waves: General Features

In physics, a wave is simply a disturbance that transfers energy through matter or

space. A schematic illustration of a wave is shown in Fig. 13.1, where λ is wave-
length, k-vector (k = 2π/λ), κ – wave number κ = (1/λ), τ is period, ω is angular fre-
quency (ω = 2π/τ) and ν is frequency(1/τ).
There are two main types of waves: mechanical and electromagnetic (Fig. 13.2).
A mechanical wave represents an oscillation of matter transferring energy through
a medium. Electromagnetic waves are oscillations of electric and magnetic fields
that propagate at the speed of light through a vacuum.
Using the physical concept, we can express the simple wave propagation equa-
tion. If we displace any function f(x) to the right and change its argument from x to
x − a, where a is a positive number, and if we put a = vt, where v is positive and t is
time, then the displacement will increase with time. Thus f(x + vt) represents a right-
ward, or forward, propagating wave. Similarly, f(x − vt) represents a leftward, or
backward, propagating wave, where v is the wave speed.
According to the usual classification of mechanical waves in the literature, there
are the following types of waves: transverse, longitudinal and surface.
A characteristic of transfer waves is that the medium oscillates at a right angle to
the direction of wave motion. These waves have two parts: the crest and the trough.
Longitudinal waves are waves in which the displacement of the medium is in the
same or opposite direction to the direction of propagation of the wave.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 197

V. Spiridonov, M. Curic, Fundamentals of Meteorology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-52655-9_13
198 13  Atmospheric Waves

Fig. 13.1  Schematic illustration of wave

Fig. 13.2  An example of

mechanical and
electromagnetic waves

A mechanical wave propagating along the boundary region of two different

media is called a surface wave. Electromagnetic waves do not require a medium. On
the contrary, they represent periodic vibrations of the electromagnetic field gener-
ated by charged particles, which propagate through the vacuum. These types have a
wide range of wavelengths, starting from radio waves (large wavelengths) through
microwaves, infrared, visible, ultraviolet radiation to x-rays and gamma rays (short-
est waves).

13.2  Wave Equation

The wave equation is an important second-order linear partial differential equation

for description of waves such as mechanical (water waves, sound waves and seismic
waves) or light waves (acoustics, electromagnetics and fluid dynamics). The 1-D
13.2 Wave Equation 199

wave equation was first discovered by the French scientist Jean-Baptiste le Rond
d’Alembert in 1746, and 10 years later, Euler established the 3-D partial differential
wave equation. It typically concerns a time variable t, one or more spatial variables
x1, x2, …, xn and the scalar function u = u(x1, x2, …, xn; t) as a useful approximation
for modelling the mechanical displacement of waves. It follows that the wave equa-
tion for u is

2u 2u 2  u
2
 c 
2 2
u or  c 1  d wave equation  , (13.1)
t 2 t 2 x 2

where u is the amplitude of the wave at position x and time t and c is the velocity
of the wave. Solutions of this equation describe the propagation of the disturbance
from the source region with a constant velocity (c) in one or more directions. The
1-D wave equation for any scalar function (f) can be written as

2 f 1 2 f
  0, (13.2)
t 2 v 2 t 2
where (v) is wave speed. The wave equation has the simple solution
f(x, t) = f(x ± vt).

13.2.1  Mathematical Description of 1-D Waves

When a simple harmonic motion propagates in a given direction (for example, the
positive x-axis), harmonic waves are created. On that occasion, each point in the
medium where the waves propagate achieves a uniform harmonic motion, with the
same frequency and amplitude. For the harmonic wave, the wave equation is

E  E0 cos k  x  ct  , (13.3)

where E0 is the wave amplitude (related to the energy carried by the wave),
2
k  2 is a wavenumber, λ is the wavelength and ν is the frequency. In addi-
 2 1
tion, the period τ of oscillations is given as      /  Another form of
1-D wave equation is  

E  E0 cos  kx   t  , (13.4)

2 c
where   kc   2 is angular frequency.

200 13  Atmospheric Waves

Wave Amplitude  The amplitude of a wave may be constant (in which case the wave
is a continuous wave) or may be modulated to vary with time and/or position. By
introducing phase constant ϕ, Eq. 13.4 becomes

u  x,t   A  x,t  sin  kx   t    , (13.5)

where A (x, t) is the amplitude of the wave, k is the wave number, ω is the frequency
and ϕ is the phase.
Phase and Group Velocity  It is known from kinematics that velocity is equal to the
ratio of the relative distance travelled in a unit of time. How fast is the wave ­traveling
depends on the phase velocity c, which is given by the relation c = λ/τ. As the wave
1
frequency   , then


c   , (13.6)

or in terms of k, k = 2π/λ and the angular frequency ω = 2π/τ for the phase velocity
we obtain


c . (13.7)
k

While the phase velocity gives the speed and the direction of phase propagation,
group velocity indicates the speed and the direction of energy propagation. Later we
will see that the atmospheric gravity waves are dispersive: the phase velocity is a
function of the wavenumber, and thus, the phase and group velocities differ. In con-
trast, sound waves are not dispersive. The phase and group velocities of sound
waves are equal, because they propagate in space with the speed of sound, regard-
less of their wavelength or frequency.
Standing Versus Traveling Waves
Standing (stationary) wave, represents a wave that remains in its constant position.
This happens because the medium moves in the opposite direction of the wave.
Another possible reason for the formation of a standing wave is the interference of
two waves (with equal amplitude and frequency) that travel in opposite directions.
Also, it is important to point out that standing waves are initiated when the bound-
ary blocks further wave propagation, causing reflection and propagation of a new
wave with the same characteristics but in the opposite direction. In these waves, the
surfaces with a constant phase are static in relation to the Earth. But other waves that
are not limited in a given space along the medium, i.e. surfaces move, so this type
of wave model, which moves through the medium, is known as a traveling wave. A
typical example of traveling waves are ocean waves.
13.3 Atmospheric Waves 201

13.3  Atmospheric Waves

13.3.1  History Studying Atmospheric Waves

The study of atmospheric motion in the atmosphere originated from Newton, who
was dealing with sound waves (Saha 2008; Zdunkowski and Bott 2003). Despite
such a long period in which various waves were being studied, the meteorologist’s
interest in them was especially noticeable for the past several decades. The atmo-
sphere has a wave nature, with processes manifesting in a different spatial and tem-
poral scale. For these reasons, the study of atmospheric waves is important for
several reasons:
• Linearized equations have wave-type solutions which correspond with some
observed types of waves in the atmosphere and could be mathematically solved.
• Since these waves are the solutions of our equations, they appear during the
numerical integration.
• With some type of waves, huge amount of energy is transferred from one place
of the atmosphere to another, similarly as electromagnetic waves transfer
solar energy.
• The wave’s amplitude under certain conditions rapidly increases, so some phe-
nomena are generated, typical for non-linear cases.
• Gravity waves act as a triggering factor for instability, which initiates storms.
• In many circumstances, atmospheric stability prevails due to atmospheric adjust-
ment. These are suitable conditions for the occurrence of waves.

13.3.2  Atmospheric Waves: Definition

Atmospheric waves are motions of air in the Earth’s atmosphere which have differ-
ent spatial (meters to thousands of kilometres) and temporal scales (minutes to
weeks) (Volland 1988; Pedlosky 2003). There are many definitions of atmospheric
wave. In general, an atmospheric wave is a periodic disturbance in the fields of
meteorological variables (like pressure or geopotential height, temperature, wind or
wind velocity), which may either propagate (traveling wave) or not (standing wave).
Atmospheric waves can impact the wind, density, pressure or temperature fields and
can be identified as fluctuations of these parameters. The waves are mainly formed
in the troposphere, the lower layer of the atmosphere, and the stratosphere and prop-
agate in the horizontal and vertical directions. Here, it is important to point out the
difference between propagating and breaking waves. Propagating waves transport
energy and momentum from their source regions across the atmosphere and can
dissipate under certain conditions. Refractive waves are those whose amplitude
202 13  Atmospheric Waves

reaches a critical level. As a result, sudden processes occur in which a large amount
of energy is transformed into turbulent kinetic energy. As we pointed out above,
atmospheric waves have a wide range of spatial and temporal dimensions, from
large planetary waves (Rossby waves) to the smallest minute-sound waves.

13.3.3  Factors that Form a Wave

Wave-triggering factors are specific to certain types of waves. The most common
factors are:
• Stability (expressed through density or entropy)
• Earth’s rotation (expressed by the Coriolis parameter) or its change in latitude
• Daily variation of air heating by solar energy
• Electrodynamic (which are significant for the thermosphere)
Due to the diversity of waves, it is not possible to define waves in the atmosphere
in a unique and precise way. However, they share the following characteristics: a
certain quasiperiodic oscillations and ability to transmit “information” to large dis-
tances without proper displacement of particles of air. The term “information,”
among other things, refers to mass, momentum, energy, etc.

13.3.4  Basic Wave Properties and Classification

Waves in the atmosphere can be classified according to factors that give them char-
acteristics or based on their geometric properties. So, there are sound, gravity, iner-
tial, buoyancy, Rossby and other type of waves. According to their simplest
geometry, the longitudinal, vertical-transferal and horizontal transferal waves differ.
Longitudinal waves are characterized by the movement of particles of air along
lines parallel to the direction of wave propagation. Longitudinal waves include
sound waves (pressure perturbations, particle of displacement and particle velocity
propagated in an elastic medium) and seismic P-waves (created by earthquakes and
explosions). In vertical-transferal waves, the air particles move in a vertical plane
and the wave extends horizontally. This type belongs to the most diverse wave of
gravity type. And finally, the horizontal-transfer wave is characterized by the move-
ment of air particles in the north-south direction and the wave extends west-east.
The most important waves of this type are Rossby waves. There is also another clas-
sification that distinguishes the waves: free and forcing waves. Forcing waves con-
tinuously maintain their characteristics (phase velocity and wave number) by the
forced mechanism. An example of such waves is thermal-induced waves due to
13.4 The Mathematical Concept of Atmospheric Waves 203

daily warming from the Sun, the transfer of air over mountain obstacles, the flow
around the growing convective cloud, etc. There are no such forcing mechanisms in
the free waves. The identification of atmospheric waves is provided by direct obser-
vations and measurements or by applying the complex analysis of standard or spe-
cial measurements (upper air sounding measurements, analysis of synoptic weather
maps, meteorological bulletins and reports).

13.4  The Mathematical Concept of Atmospheric Waves

In Chap. 12, we dealt with the basic concept of atmospheric motion and various
approximations to the equations of motion. However, it is very useful to look at
simple but important types of wave motion in the atmosphere, which arises from
this set of equation under different assumptions. For each case the appropriate equa-
tions are the momentum equations, the continuity equation and the thermodynamic
equation as well as the total derivative of scalar quantity:

dq 1
  p  gk  2xq  F  Momentum equation  (13.8)
dt 
1 d
   q  Divergence form of the continuity equation  (13.9)
 dt
dQ  c p dT  dp  The first law of thermodynamics  (13.10)

d 
  q    The total derivative of scalar quantity  (13.11)
dt t

13.4.1  Atmospheric Sound Waves

Sound waves are pressure perturbation waves that travel through different media,
such as the Earth’s crust, water bodies and the atmosphere (Yang 2016). The atmo-
sphere is spread in all possible directions by sound waves. Sound waves propagate
at the speed of sound, which depends on the virtual air temperature.
The human ear hears a sound source of sufficient intensity if the frequencies are
between 16 and 20000 Hz. Sound waves with a frequency of less than 16 Hz are
called infrasound and those with more than 20000  Hz are called ultrasound.
Figure 13.3 shows an example of sound waves in air as the pressure fluctuates in a
204 13  Atmospheric Waves

Fig. 13.3  A typical

illustration of sound waves

sinusoidal variation. We will assume motion along x-axis and that the y and z com-
ponents and gradients in these directions are zero. Coriolis and friction terms are
also neglected, and the motion is considered adiabatic. With these approximations,
the momentum equation (13.8) becomes

du 1 p
  0, (13.12)
dt  x
the continuity equation (13.9) transforms into

d u
  0, (13.13)
dt x
and the first law of thermodynamics for adiabatic motion (Q = const.) follows as

p    const., (13.14)

CP
where   is the specific heat ratio under constant pressure and constant vol-
CV
ume, respectively. Combining last two equations we obtain

dlnp u
  0. (13.15)
dt x
13.4 The Mathematical Concept of Atmospheric Waves 205

The perturbation method allows variables to be written as the sum of a mean

variable (given by bar) and a perturbed one (represented by prime):

u  u  u; p  p  p;      . (13.15)

Here p′  p ,     , but u is not necessarily < u as the solutions are still
valid if u = 0 .
Substituting in (13.12) and (13.15) where p and ρ appear, neglecting products of
primed quantities, and if the differentials of mean quantities are zero, then using
(13.11) we obtain

   1 p
 t  u x  u   x  0 (13.17)
 

    2 u
 t  u x  p   p 2  0. (13.18)
  x
Eliminating u′ from these equations,

2
   p  2 p
 t  u x  p     0. (13.19)
  x 2
Equation (13.19) represents a wave equation with solutions:

p  R e Aexp ik  x  ct  , (13.20)

with a constant A and
1/ 2
 p
c  u   . (13.21)
 
 p cp
The speed of sound relative to the flow u is therefore    , where   .
  cv
It is a characteristic quantity of the medium included in the system of hydrody-
namic (gas-dynamic) equations and plays a significant role in the study of wave
processes (Ćurić and Janc 2016). For these reasons, an accurate estimate of the
speed of sound is essential for further adequate description of the formation and
propagation of these waves in the medium. In the case when sound waves travel
through an ideal gas, where there is no heat exchange due to faster expansion or
206 13  Atmospheric Waves

Table 13.1  Laplace’s speed of sound as a function of virtual temperature

Tv(°C) −50 −30 −10 10 30
c (m/s) 300 313 325 338 349

compression of the gas, the longitudinal sound waves are adiabatic and the speed of
sound is also called adiabatic speed of sound. Starting from the principles of dynam-
ics and thermodynamics, we come to the speed of propagation of sound waves in the
atmosphere, given by the following relations:

p
c  or c  RT or c  Rs Tv , (13.22)


that is, speed of sound depends only on virtual temperature and does not depend on
altitude. Based on French mathematician Pierre-Simon Laplace, speed c is called
Laplace’s speed of sound. Table 13.1 gives its values for different virtual tempera-
tures. The effect of specific humidity on the speed of sound is very small. For exam-
ple, if q = 10g/kg and the speed of sound is 340 m/s for a dry air, then the speed of
sound in humid air would be approximately 341 m/s, an increase of 0.3% over that
in dry air.
So the speed of sound is a function of temperature only and to a lesser extent
humidity. The explosion-induced waves propagate faster, and the faster the propa-
gation speed, the stronger the explosion and the closer to the original location.
Moving away from the explosion site, the velocity of propagation approaches
Laplace. Because of this, sound waves propagate in all directions at the same rate in
the dry isothermal atmosphere. The axes of the sound wave beam extend perpen-
dicular to the sound source. The real atmosphere is usually not isothermal, so the
sound waves do not spread everywhere at the same speed as the sound waves bend
according to the law about breaking waves. Imagine that the two layers of air at dif-
ferent virtual temperatures touch each other sharply at a given boundary surface.
Then, sound waves in all directions extend from the sound source located in the
lower air layer. When passing over the boundary surface, the direction of propaga-
tion of the sound wave changes. If α and α′ are the angles of incidence and refraction
and c and c′ are speed of sound in the lower and upper layers, respectively, then
according to Snelius’s law of refraction,

sin c Tv
  (13.23)
sin  c Tv 

If the lower layer of air is warmer, then by the previous formula the turning angle
is less than the incidence angle, so the sound waves will break to normal. Conversely,
if there is a temperature inversion on the ground floor, which means that the lower
13.4 The Mathematical Concept of Atmospheric Waves 207

layer of air is cooler than the upper one, the sound waves will bend from the normal
to the boundary surface. It follows from the above relation that the waves arriving
normally on the boundary surface do not refract (α = α′ = 0). For larger bump angles
and refraction, it is increasing. For some value of the incidence angle, the wave
extends over the boundary surface itself (α′ = 0). That breaking angle is

Tv
sin  g  (13.24)
Tv 

In the case of surface temperature inversion, when α > αg, the sound wave does
not enter the warmer air and is already deflected according to the law of deflection
so that the incident angle is equal to the deflection angle. In the atmosphere of a true
boundary (discontinuous) surface, the direction of propagation of sound waves
across various transition layers changes gradually. Figure 13.4 shows the direction
of propagation of sound waves, when the temperature decreases with height
(Fig.  13.4a) and when it increases with height (Fig.  13.4b). In the first case, the
sound waves bend symmetrically from the source to the normal, so that two zones
of silence are formed to the left and right of the waves that bounce to the Earth’s
surface. In the case of inversion, sound waves are bounced off normal, and there are
no silence zones caused by the bending of the waves. Figure 13.5 shows the cases
of sound wave deflection, in the presence of ground temperature inversion.

Fig. 13.4  Sound refraction due to change in temperature with altitude: (a) when the temperature
decreases with altitude; (b) when the temperature increases with altitude. Areas in green are
calm areas
208 13  Atmospheric Waves

Fig. 13.5  Sound refraction in the case of temperature inversion: (a) a ground temperature inver-
sion; (b) an upper level thermal inversion. The areas in green are the zones of windless weather
conditions or calms

In the case of ground inversion, the sound waves in the inversion layer will bend
from normal to take a convex shape. A sound wave that bounces about the upper
inversion boundary at the greatest distance from the source and then returns down-
wards separates the audibility zone from the silence zone. Above the inversion layer,
where the temperature drops with height, the sound beams bend upwards. The
sound beam that will first enter the warmer air (after the boundary beam) represents
the boundary of the zone of silence and audibility that is above the inversion layer.
When the inversion is at height (Fig. 13.5b), the sound waves will first bend upwards
from the source and then downwards, so that they return to the lower layer, which is
warmer than the upper one, and then bend back to normal. The boundary of the
audibility zone and the silence zone is determined by the boundary beam that
touches the Earth’s surface and then bends upwards.

13.4.2  Gravity Waves

Since sound waves are longitudinal, only one dimension needs to be considered
obtaining the sound wave solution. Other waves exist where the oscillation transfers
to the direction of propagation. Establishing equal pressure between air parcel and
the environment leads to emission of sound waves, while establishing of equilib-
rium in air density leads to gravity waves (Nappo 2013). The existence of gravity
waves is illustrated once we considere static gravitational instability and the
13.4 The Mathematical Concept of Atmospheric Waves 209

buoyancy effect of a parcel displaced vertically from its equilibrium level with the
frequency of oscillation (the Brunt–Väisälä frequency). To get a satisfactory solu-
tion to the basic equations for gravity waves, we consider a 2-D flow and arrive at
the following approximations:
(i). A 2-D motion in only (x, z) frame.
(ii). Assume that the horizontal scale of the wave is small so that the Coriolis term
may be neglected.
(iii). Ignore the friction term.
(iv). Assume also that the atmosphere is unperturbed at rest. Under such assump-
tions, the (x, z) equations of motion (13.8) are

du 1 p
 0 (13.25)
dt  x
dw 1 p
 g0 (13.26)
dt  z
The continuity equation (13.9) becomes

1 d  u w
   0. (13.27)
 dt x z
And the first law of thermodynamics for adiabatic motion means that the poten-
tial temperature θ remains constant, that is,

dln
 0. (13.28)
dt
From the equation for the potential temperature expressed in logarithmic form in
terms of ρ and p such that

dln 1 dlnp dln 

  . (13.29)
dt  dt dt

For the unperturbed atmosphere, neither θ, p nor ρ vary in the horizontal. When
we apply perturbation method in the above equations, for the derivation of sound
waves, it becomes

u  u; w  w; p  p  p;      .

210 13  Atmospheric Waves

Then using the hydrostatic equation, the equation of state, where H is the scale
height, also neglecting the products of perturbed quantities, the four equations
(13.25), (13.26), (13.27), (13.28) and (13.29) for the unknown u, w,   /  and
p′ / p become

u   p 
 gH    0 (13.30)
t x  p 

w      p   p 
 g    gH    g    0 (13.31)
t 
  z p
   p

N B2      1   p 
 w        0, (13.32)
g t     t  p 

N B2
where is the vertical stability parameter written for ∂lnθ/∂z. In solving these
g
equations, we assume an isothermal atmosphere in which the scale height H is a
constant. We will look for the solution of the equations (13.30), (13.1) and (13.32)
for each unknown perturbed variables in the form exp (αz) exp i(ωt + kx + mz). On
1
equating the imaginary parts, we find that = . Solutions with the first condition
2H
m  =  0 have no phase variation in the vertical and are known as external gravity
waves (whose maximum amplitudes are at the boundary of fluid). When m ≠ 0, we
have internal gravity waves (oscillation occurs in a stratified fluid and develop on
1
the interfaces of density discontinuity). Substituting   into the equations, the
following dispersion relation results 2H

 N B2    a
m  k  2  1 
2 2
2 2

,
  (13.33)
  c2

where c is the velocity of sound:

  1 g
N B2  (13.34)
H
is the square of the Brunt–Väisälä frequency for the isothermal atmosphere and

1/ 2
1g c
a     (13.35)
2 H  2H
13.4 The Mathematical Concept of Atmospheric Waves 211

Fig. 13.6 Dispersion
curves for gravity waves

is known as the acoustic cut-off frequency. The dispersion relation (13.33) is illus-
trated in (Fig. 13.6), where the curves of m = 0 are plotted on a ω − k diagram. Two
regions where m2 is positive are apparent, the higher frequency region (ω  >  ωa  )
when k = 0 describes acoustic waves and the lower frequency region describes the
gravity waves.
If the assumption that the atmosphere is isothermal is omitted, (13.33) may still
be used as a reasonable approximation, with NB < ωa as the Brunt– Väisälä frequency
for the atmosphere, which is considered, provide NB < ωa as is normally the case
throughout the atmosphere. If the atmosphere is in a state of uniform zonal flow u ,
(13.33) still holds provided ω is replaced by   uk , the frequency which would be
seen by an observer moving with a basic flow and known as intrinsic frequency.
Equation (13.33) applies to waves having a wide range of wavelength, frequency
and velocity. For gravity waves of horizontal wavelength of the order of a few kilo-
metres, the first term is much larger than the second. In this case, allowing also for
the presence of a uniform zonal wind u, the dispersion relation (13.33) may be
written as

  uk 
2
k2
 . (13.36)
N B2 m2  k 2

The characteristic gravitational waves that are often observed on the leeward
sides of mountains are called lee waves; in meteorology, they are known as atmo-
spheric stationary waves. Atmospheric internal gravity waves will be stationary
with respect to the mountain and the horizontal component of phase velocity rela-
tive to the surface will be zero, in which case, for k ≪ m from (13.36), we have

NB
m= . (13.37)
u
212 13  Atmospheric Waves

Fig. 13.7  Rotor clouds

The first theory of stationary orographic waves originated from Lyre (1943) and
is therefore called Lyra’s theory of stationary mountain waves. Atmospheric internal
gravitational waves are a typical example of orographic waves. They occur when the
air is forced to flow over a mountain in a stable and continuously stratified fluid as
it moves downstream from the topography. Orographic clouds associate with strong
vertical motions, that usually develop in the form of turbulent eddies on the leeward
side of mountain are known as rotor clouds (see Fig. 13.7).
Rotors are turbulent rotating winds that form in the lower part of the atmosphere
under the crests of mountain waves and belong to the family of so-called altocumulus-­
lenticularis. On the Earth’s surface, the wind is in the opposite direction from the
gradient wind. Since the energy source is at the near surface layer, the group veloc-
ity of rotors travels upwards, while the phase velocity downwards. Consequently,
the lines of constant phase in the stationary waves tilt with height backward relative
to the mean flow; although in practice, because the mean wind varies with height,
the situation is rarely as simple as this.
13.4 The Mathematical Concept of Atmospheric Waves 213

Fig. 13.8  A thermally induced inertial-gravity waves in a simulated 3-D convective cloud

13.4.3  Inertial-Gravity Waves

Gravity waves in a rotating system with a large wavelength are referred as inertial-­
gravity waves. They usually occur when a statically stable flow is also inertial sta-
ble. Fig. 13.8 shows an example of inertial gravity waves generated in a simulated
storm using a 3-D cloud resolving (Spiridonov et al. 2020). Due to the presence of
the Earth’s rotation, for the physical description of these waves, it is necessary to
include the Coriolis parameter in the basic equations. For simplicity, we will use the
incompressible continuity equation.
Therefore, the linearized governing equations are:

u 1 p
  fv (13.38)
t  x
v 1 p
  fu (13.39)
t  y

w 1 p  
  g (13.40)
t  z 

u v w

  (13.41)
x y z

 2
  N z (13.42)
g

214 13  Atmospheric Waves

Combining (13.40) with (13.42) to eliminate ρ′ yields

 2 w 1  2 p
  N 2 w. (13.43)
t 2
 zt
Equations (13.40), (13.41), (13.42) and (13.43) are the governing equations for
inertial-gravity waves. Assuming the standard sinusoidal solutions for u′, v′, w′ and
p′ in form of Aiei(kx + ly + mz − ωt) with the corresponding amplitude (A1, A2, A3 and A4)
and substituting into (13.38), (13.39), (13.40) and (13.41) after some replacements,
the resulting dispersion relation for inertial-gravity waves is

 2

f 2
m 2  N 2 K H2 . (13.44)
2
K
In case the effects of Earth’s rotation are ignored (f = 0), then the dispersion rela-
tion becomes the same as for pure internal waves. Since inertial-gravity waves have
long wavelengths to be affected by the Earth’s rotation, we can assume that they are
in hydrostatic balance. This implies that m ≫ KH. Therefore, the dispersion relation
for inertial-gravity waves could be written as

N 2 K H2
2  f 2  . (13.45)
m2

13.4.4  Rossby Waves

From the wave motions which form into homogeneous fluid, for large-scale atmo-
spheric processes, the most important are the Rossby waves (Ćurić and Janc 2002).
They represent the very large-scale wave features which are observed on the flow
of the planetary scale (Fig. 13.9). For large-scale meteorological processes, Rossby
waves are the most significant of all waves. They are called Rossby waves after the
famous Swedish meteorologist Gustav Rossby, who was the first to bring them in
connection with meteorological phenomena. They are conditioned by a change in
the Coriolis force with latitude, which means that they are directly related to the
rotation of the Earth. In a -viscous barotropic fluid ρ = ρ (p) of constant thickness in
which the divergence of the horizontal velocity vector is equal to zero, the Rosby
wave is a motion in which absolute vorticity is conserved. The appropriate momen-
tum equations (13.8) are:

du 1 p
  fv  0 (13.46)
dt  x
13.4 The Mathematical Concept of Atmospheric Waves 215

Fig. 13.9  Rossby waves. Scheme of “air particle” reaction to meridional displacement. Zonal
movements when distorted to the south receive cyclone vorticity (to maintain absolute vorticity).
Moving the air parcels northwards, they gain anticyclone vorticity (left panel). In Fig.  13.9, a
graphical illustration of the planetary Rossby waves is represented through global distribution of
geopotential height and potential vorticity surface (gpm) in the Southern Hemisphere (right panel)

dv 1 p
  fu  0 (13.47)
dt  y

u v
  0. (13.48)
x y

Operating on (13.46) with ∂/∂y and (13.47) with ∂/∂x and subtracting

d  v u   v u  f
   f   v . (13.49)
dt  x y   y x  y

v u
The quantity  is the vertical component of relative vorticity ζ; it may be
x y
considered as a vector equal to twice the local angular velocity of fluid elements.
The second term in the last equation is zero by (13.48); that means horizontal wind
divergence is zero. Because the Coriolis parameter f (vertical component of Earth’s
vorticity relative to a fixed system) is

d   f 
 0. (13.50)
dt
The quantity ξa = ζ + f is known as absolute vorticity (vorticity due to the rotation
of the fluid itself combined with that due to the Earth’s rotation). Equation (13.50)
216 13  Atmospheric Waves

shows that under the assumption of a non-divergent and frictionless flow, absolute
vorticity is conserved. In order to solve this equation, we assume a linear relation
between f and y. It supposes that f = f0 + βy, where β = df/dy is the gradient of plan-
etary vorticity at the initial latitude, known as the β –plane approximation. If we
assume a uniform zonal flow u in the unperturbed case and introduce perturba-
tions, that is u  u  u, v  v , (13.50) becomes

    v u 
 t  u x   x  y    v  0. (13.51)
  
Since the flow is non-divergent in the horizontal, a stream function ψ can be
introduced such that using (13.48) is automatically satisfied, that is,

 
u   , v   .
y x
(13.52)

Substituting in (13.51),

   2 
 t  u x      x  0. (13.53)
 
For wave solutions ψ = Re{ψ0 exp i(ωt + kx + ly)} to be possible, the dispersion
relation

 
c u 2 2 (13.54)
k k l

must be satisfied. The velocity relative to the zonal flow is c − u, where c is the
phase velocity in the x direction. Rossby waves, therefore, drift to the west relative
to the basic flow, at typical speeds of a few metres per second. Note that the phase
speed of the waves increases with wavelength. In a more complex fluid, such as the
baroclinic atmosphere, Rossby waves are movements where the potential vorticity
is conserved, and it is formed due to the existence of an isentropic gradient of poten-
tial vorticity.

References

Ćurić, M., & Janc, D. (2002). Dynamical meteorology through exams. Physical Faculty Press. 372 p.
Ćurić, M., & Janc, D. (2016). Meteorology. Belgrade-Zemun: AGM book d.o.o. 581 pp.
Hoskins, B.  J., & James, I.  N. (2014). Fluid dynamics of the mid-latitude atmosphere (p.  408
(12)). Wiley.
Lin, Y.-L. (2007). Mesoscale dynamics. Cambridge University Press. 630 (12, 13).
13  Atmospheric Waves 217

Lyre, G. (1943). Theorie der stationären Leewellenströmung in freier Atmosphäre. Z Angew Math
Mech, 23(1), 1–28.
Nappo, C. J. (2013). An introduction to atmospheric gravity waves (p. 359). Academic Press an
imprint of Elsevier Science.
Pedlosky, J. (2003). Waves in the ocean and atmosphere (p. 259). Springer.
Saha, K. (2008). The Earth’s atmosphere. Its physics and dynamics (p. 367 (1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 11, 15)).
Berlin Heilderberg: Springer.
Spiridonov, V., Baez, J., Telenta, B., & Jakimovski, B. (2020). Prediction of extreme convective
rainfall intensities using a free-running 3-D sub-km-scale cloud model initialized from WRF
km-scale NWP forecasts. Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics, 209. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.jastp.2020.105401.
Yang, X. (2016). Atmospheric acoustics (p. 392). The Gruyter.
Volland, H. (1988). Atmospheric tidal and planetary waves (p. 358). Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Zdunkowski, W., & Bott, A. (2003). Dynamics of the Atmosphere: A course in theoretical meteo-
rology (p. 719 (12)). Cambridge University Press.
Chapter 14
Atmospheric Boundary Layer (ABL)

Atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) also known as planetary boundary layer (PBL)
also determined as the region of the lower levels of the troposphere (Sanchez-­
Lavega 2011). Before studying in detail the influence of the Earth’s surface on the
main physical processes in the atmosphere (e.g. heat, moisture and momentum
exchange through turbulence, mixing and convection), we will briefly focus on the
historical development of ABL.

14.1  ABL Historical Overview

The origin of the aerodynamic laminar boundary layer theory, starting with a semi-
nal paper of Ludwig Prandtl (1875–1953), a German engineer, who has developed
boundary layer theory in 1904. One year later Vagn Walfrid Ekman (1874–1954),
Swedish oceanographer, developed his theory of laminar Ekman layer and wind spi-
ral in ABL; Osborne Reynolds (1842–1912), Ireland mathematician, developed fluid
dynamics and Reynolds number; Andrey Nikolaevich Kolmogorov (1903–1987),
Russian mathematician, developed similarity theory of turbulence; and from 1910 to
1940, Sir Geoffrey Ingram Taylor develops basic methods for examining and under-
standing turbulent mixing. During this period also mixing-­length theory and eddy
diffusivity  approach  have been developed by von Karman,  Prandtl and Lettau.
Discovery of similarity theory of turbulence by Andrey Nikolayevich Kolmogorov
(1903–1987), Russian mathematician, advanced the understanding of turbulent pro-
cesses in that time. Buoyancy effects on surface layer were studied by Monin and
Obuhkov from 1950 to 1960. The next decade from 1960 to 1970 was the Golden
Age of Boundary Layer Meteorology; accurate observations of a variety of boundary
layer types, including convective, stable, and trade cumulus, started and verification/
calibration of surface similarity theory. The period from 1970s–1980s is marked with
development of resolved three-dimensional (3D) computer modelling of boundary
layer (BL) turbulence (large eddy simulation or LES) as well as the application of

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 219

V. Spiridonov, M. Ćurić, Fundamentals of Meteorology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-52655-9_14
220 14  Atmospheric Boundary Layer (ABL)

higher-order turbulence closure theory. Ten years later major field efforts were given
in stratocumulus-topped boundary layers, land surface vegetation parameterization,
and mesoscale modelling. The rapid technology developments from 1990 to 2000
allowed utilization of new surface remote sensing tools (e.g. LIDARs, cloud radars)
and extensive space-based coverage of surface characteristics. Advanced observation
and modelling studies significantly improve the knowledge and understanding of
boundary layer, the physical processes, deep convection, land surface processes, and
land-ocean interactions (Oke 2002). Coupled ocean-atmosphere-ice-biosphere mod-
els created new requirements for boundary layer parameterizations, e.g. better treat-
ment of surface wind stress, vegetated surfaces, BL clouds, and aerosols (Wells
2012). In order to successfully model the air flow around buildings in urban areas as
well as air pollution in complex terrains, an even more precise boundary layer simu-
lation is needed. Ensemble data assimilation enables better use of near surface and
boundary layer data over land surfaces.

14.2  ABL Definition and Basic Characteristics

Atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) is the bottom layer of the troposphere that is in
contact with the Earth’s surface (Baklanov et al. 2007; Garratt 1994; Schlichting
and Gersten 2017; Lee 2018). ABL is that region of the atmosphere in which the
surface influences fluctuations of the physical quantities (e.g. temperature, mois-
ture, wind). It is the portion of the troposphere that is directly influenced by the
Earth’s surface and responds to combined action of mechanical and thermal forcing,
in the order of 1-h time scale. The basic feature of the ABL is the presence of fre-
quent turbulence generated by buoyancy, unstable stratification, surface warmer
than air, and/or mechanical mixing due to wind shear. It is one of the main mecha-
nisms for generating positive buoyancy which is radiative heating at the Earth’s
surface. This energy is transmitted upwards to the atmosphere by conduction and
convection. Convective transfer usually takes the form of convective plumes.
Dominant processes in the PBL are as follows:
• Radiative forcing
• Large diurnal temperature variations (relative to the free troposphere)
• Subscale atmospheric processes
• Transport and exchange of heat, moisture, momentum
• Turbulence
• Mixing
• Viscosity-surface friction
In a free atmosphere, the geostrophic wind blows independently of surface con-
ditions. The geostrophic wind is influenced by the Earth’s rotation and is the driving
force for all winds in the underlying layers. The free atmosphere starts at around
1000 m depending on the thickness of the underlying atmospheric boundary layer
(varies between a few 100  m and 3000 m). The atmospheric boundary layer is
divided into two sublayers:
14.2 ABL Definition and Basic Characteristics 221

1 . the surface layer; and

2. the Ekman layer
The ground-level boundary layer (Prandlt layer) occupies about 10% of the atmo-
spheric boundary layer. Below the ground-level boundary layer, there is no wind.
The different wind directions of the geostrophic winds and the ground-level winds
lead to a rotation of the wind direction within the Ekman layer. Turbulence by itself
cannot transfer heat (or momentum, moisture) across the interface between the
atmosphere/ocean and atmosphere/earth. There are some other mechanisms respon-
sible for the transport of these variables in the lowest few millimetres of the atmo-
sphere (laminar boundary layer). Molecular conduction transfers heat between the
surface and the lowest part of the atmosphere. Once in the air, turbulence takes over
to transport heat to greater depths in the atmosphere. A similar argument applies for
the transfer of momentum and moisture in the atmosphere. When all elements of
fluid are moving along the direction of the fluid’s mean motion, the flow is laminar,
and the internal friction in the fluid will be due only to molecular viscosity. When
individual elements are moving irregularly compared with the mean motion, the
flow is turbulent. Reynolds number is a non-dimensional quantity which determines
whether the shared flow is turbulent or laminar (Fedorovich et al. 2004).

Re  LV /  (14.1)

where L is the typical length scale of the motion, V is the fluid velocity, and ν is the
kinematic viscosity. For larger values of Re = 6000, turbulence occurs. The main
sources of turbulence are:
• Thermal forcing (thermals: buoyant eddies forced by solar heating of the surface)
• Vertical wind shear (due to frictional drag by the surface on geostrophic
flow aloft).
Other processes or phenomena shown on Fig. 14.1, which also occur in the PBL,
represent:
(i). Horizontal wind shear (due to flow of wind around obstacles: trees, moun-
tains, islands).
(ii). Gravity waves (gravity).
(iii). Spiralling winds (related to neutral boundary layers and Ekman wind spiral).
(iv). Katabatic winds (downsloping or gravity winds, which blow down a slope as
the result of gravity (Markowski and Richardson 2010). It occurs at night-time
radiative cooling.
(v). Nocturnal jet (strong radiation cooling during night in a few hundred meters
this effectively decouples the higher flow from the friction associated with the
boundary layer.
(vi). Clouds (fair weather cumulus clouds (whose roots are in the BL), trade cumu-
lus (which may rain), stratocumulus clouds (which may rain) or fog.
The basic difference between the PBL and the free atmosphere is listed in
Table 14.1.
222 14  Atmospheric Boundary Layer (ABL)

Fig. 14.1  Graphical illustration of PBL phenomena. (a) Katabatic winds; (b) spiralling winds; (c)
trade cumulus clouds; (d) low-level jet stream

Table 14.1  Boundary layer vs free atmosphere

Property Boundary layer Free atmosphere
Turbulence Almost continuously turbulent over its Turbulence in convective cloud and
whole depth large horizontal extent sporadic cat in thin layers of large
horizontal extent
Friction Strong drag against the Earth’s surface. Small viscous dissipation
Large energy dissipation
Dispersion Rapid turbulent mixing in the vertical and Small molecular diffusion. Often
horizontal rapid horizontal transport by mean
wind
Winds Near logarithmic wind speed profile in Winds nearly geostrophic
the surface. Sub-geostrophic, cross-­
isobaric flow common
Vertical Turbulence dominates Mean wind and cumulus scale
transport dominate
Thickness Varies between 100 m and 3 km in time Fewer variables from 8 to 18 km.
and space. Diurnal oscillations over land Slow time variations
14.3 ABL Structure 223

14.2.1  ABL Significance

The lowest portion of the atmosphere is the most important for the human life and
activities. Emission of various gases, source, and sink region of many trace gases
(including water vapour, CO2, ozone, methane) and dusts/pollutants occur in this
layer. It is also significant for the air quality, especially urban air quality and pollut-
ants emission, transport, accumulation, and dispersion. In the near surface layer, the
main physical processes and fluxes take place. It is estimated that about 50% of the
atmosphere’s kinetic energy is dissipated in the boundary layer. It is important for
local forecasting, cloud chemistry processes, which are very important for climate.

14.3  ABL Structure

As it is shown on Fig.  14.2, atmospheric boundary layer contains the following

main sub-layers:
• Surface layer
• Mixing layer
• Stable boundary layer
• Residual layer
• Free atmosphere
In general, PBL is a layer where the air movement is mostly turbulent. The fluxes
of momentum, heat, or matter are carried by turbulent motions on a scale of the
order of the depth of the boundary layer or less (see Fedorovich et al. 2004). The
surface effects (friction, cooling, heating, or moistening) are felt on time scales < 1

Fig. 14.2  Atmospheric boundary layer (ABL structure). Credit: NikNaks [CC BY-SA 3.0 (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)]
224 14  Atmospheric Boundary Layer (ABL)

day. The main composition of ABL layer is the atmospheric gases (N2, O2, water
vapour, aerosol particles, clouds-condensed water).

14.3.1  Surface Layer

This layer is found at the bottom and affects about 1/10 of the ABL. This narrow
area shown on Fig. 14.3 is most influenced by surface properties like heat fluxes,
moisture, and mass. Intense small-scale turbulence generated by the surface is
roughness and effects of convection. Earth rotation is negligible. Roughness layer is
below the surface layer. Flow is highly irregular strongly affected by the nature of
the individual roughness features (e.g. grass, trees, woods, buildings). Surface
roughness determines to a certain extent the amount of turbulence production, the
surface stress, and the shape of the wind profile.

14.3.2  Mixing Layer

Mixing layer (see Fig.  14.4a) is associated with unstable atmospheric conditions
with strong upward heat flux from the surface of the Earth and low wind speeds.
Generally, the planetary boundary layer is associated with buoyant thermals (unsta-
ble parcels of air) rising from the surface layer.
During these unstable conditions, which usually occur during daytime, the plan-
etary boundary layer is called the mixed layer.

Fig. 14.3  Surface layer (light blue patterns); residual layer (two shaded areas with pink color)
14.3 ABL Structure 225

3.5
ICE
3.0

2.5

Height (km)
0°C FREEZING LEVEL
2.0
DOWNDRAFTS UPDRAFTS
1.5

1.0

RAIN SHOWERS AND HAIL 0.5

0.0
-10 -7.5 -5.0 -2.5 0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10
Temperature (°C)

(a) (b)

Fig. 14.4 (a) Mixing layer; (b) stable boundary layer

14.3.3  Residual Layer

It is the part of the atmosphere where mixing still takes place as a result of air flow,
although heat fluxes from the surface of the Earth are small. The top of the residual layer
was very near the elevation of an inversion in yesterday’s sounding, as one might expect.
Below that inversion, the atmosphere yesterday afternoon was relatively well mixed.

14.3.4  Stable Boundary Layer

This layer shown on Fig. 14.4b is characterized with radiation cooling of the air just
above the surface, which tends to create a low-level inversion with relatively “sta-
ble” conditions. The depth where temperatures increase from the surface of the
Earth up to the inversion level is called the stable boundary layer and ranges from
about 100 m to 500 m deep. Radiation cooling is responsible for forming nocturnal
stable boundary layers. It is also associated with formation of dew, frost, and fog if
the humidity is sufficiently high.

14.3.5  Free Atmosphere

The free atmosphere is that portion of the Earth’s atmosphere, which lies above the
planetary boundary layer. In a free atmosphere the effect of the Earth’s surface fric-
tion on the air motion is negligible. The air is usually treated (dynamically) as an
ideal gas. The base of the free atmosphere is usually taken as the geostrophic wind
level due to the balance between horizontal pressure gradient force and Earth’s
gravitation (described in Chapter 12 related to atmospheric motion).
226 14  Atmospheric Boundary Layer (ABL)

14.4  Factors Influence on ABL Structure

The structure of the atmospheric boundary layer is influenced by:

• The underlying surface
• The stability of the PBL
Stability influences the structure of turbulence. In a stable stratified boundary layer
(e.g. during night-time over land), the turbulence produced by shear is suppressed by
the stratification resulting in a weak exchange and a weak coupling with the surface.

14.4.1  The Neutral PBL

The neutral PBL is graphically illustrated on Fig. 14.5. It is defined when the surface
buoyancy flux is exactly zero (i.e. no buoyancy forcing for turbulence). More pre-
cisely we regard a boundary layer as neutral if shear production of turbulent kinetic
energy is much larger than buoyant production. This condition rarely occurs outdoors
particularly over land. After sunset, the ground becomes colder than the air above it,
the surface buoyancy flux becomes negative, and the PBL becomes “stable”. The
definition of stable or unstable clear PBL is determined by the sign of the surface
buoyancy flux, not by the potential temperature gradient within the PBL.  A well-
mixed layer where ∂Θ/∂z ∼ 0 is usually a neutral PBL because such a well-mixed
layer is likely to be maintained by strong surface heating).

14.4.2  The Ekman Wind Spiral

Wind profile in the neutral boundary layer is called the Ekman wind spiral (Ćurić
2000). An important factor in the atmospheric boundary layer is that winds are tur-
bulent. This acts as a frictional force in the momentum balance that affects the wind

Fig. 14.5  Neutral layer

Neutral

Z5
Z4
Z3
∆z
Z2
Z1 ∆u
14.4 Factors Influence on ABL Structure 227

profile. With suitable assumptions, the wind profile can be estimated through the
entire boundary layer analytically. It is rare that this is possible with the equations
of motion because of their non-linearity. In 1905, Walfrid Ekman, using some
assumptions, derived an expression for the velocity profile in a neutral boundary
layer. The resulting wind profile is a spiral, called the Ekman spiral (see Fig. 14.6).

14.4.3  Unstable Stratified Atmospheric Boundary Layer

In an unstable stratified PBL (see Fig.  14.7), during daytime over land with an
upward heat flux from the surface, the turbulence production is enhanced, and the
exchange is intensified resulting in a more uniform distribution of momentum,
potential temperature, and specific humidity.
Based on the temperature gradient using virtual potential temperature as the con-
servative variable for moist atmosphere (Fig. 14.8), PBL is classified as:
 v
1. Stable layer 0
z
2. Unstable layer  v  0
z
3. Neutral layer  v
0
z
In reality, the PBL is more often thermally stratified (non-uniform temperatures
and thus buoyancy mixing are now important in addition to mechanical).

Fig. 14.6  The Ekman spiral

228 14  Atmospheric Boundary Layer (ABL)

Fig. 14.7 Unstable
stratified PBL

Fig. 14.8  Stable vs

unstable layer

References

Baklanov, A. (et  al.) (Eds.) (2007). Atmospheric boundary layers nature, theory, and applica-
tion to environmental modelling and security, Reprinted from boundary-layer meteorology.
New York: Springer Science+Business Media B.V.
Ćurić, M. (2000). Selected chapters in dynamic meteorology (p. 244). Belgrade: University Press.
Fedorovich, E., Rotunno, R., & Stephens, B. (2004). Atmospheric turbulence and mesoscale mete-
orolology (p. 280). Cambridge University Press.
Garratt, J. R. (1994). The atmospheric boundary layer (3rd ed., p. 336). Cambridge University Press.
Lee, X. (2018). Fundamentals of boundary-layer meteorology (p.  256). Springer International
Publishing AG.
Markowski, P., & Richardson, Y. (2010). Mesoscale meteorology in midlatitudes (pp.  407 (12,
13)). Wiley.
Oke, T. R. (2002). Boundary layer climates (2nd ed.). Routledge. 435 pp.
Sanchez-Lavega, A. (2011). An introduction to planetary atmospheres (p. 588). CRC Press (Taylor
& Francis Group).
Schlichting, H., & Gersten, K. (2017). Boundary layer theory (p. 805). Ninth Edition: Springer.
Wells, N. C. (2012). The atmosphere and ocean (3rd ed., p. 425). Wiley- Blackwell.
Chapter 15
General Circulation of the Atmosphere

15.1  General Atmospheric Circulation Definition

There are two basic factors that determine the general circulation of the Earth’s
atmosphere: the latitudinal change of energy received by the Earth-atmosphere sys-
tem from the Sun and the corresponding global distribution of angular momentum
of the atmosphere (Satoh 2014). Air circulation over the Earth is mainly due to non-­
equal heating of the Earth’s surface. The Earth’s energy balance involves incoming
solar radiation (S) and outgoing thermal infrared radiation (I), which together make
up the net radiation (Rn).

R n = S (1 - a p ) + ( I ¯ -I - ) (15.1)

where αp is planetary albedo ~0.3, I↓ is downward infrared radiation, and I↑ repre-
sents upward infrared radiation. The maximum transport of both properties occurs
about the 40 degrees in each hemisphere. The total energy transport maximum is
about 6 x 1015 W, of which ocean currents account for about 6 x 1015 W. The global
atmospheric circulation, pressure distribution, and wind patterns play an integral
role in the heat balance of the Earth and the creation of global ocean currents
(Randall 2000). At the global atmospheric circulation, there is a transport of warm
air from lower latitudes to higher latitudes and cold air from high latitudes to low
latitudes. This heat exchange keeps the regions in low latitudes warmer, where there
is an excess of total flow of energy throughout the year as a result of continuous
heating, and high latitudes colder as a result of continuous cool due to the total
energy loss.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 229

V. Spiridonov, M. Ćurić, Fundamentals of Meteorology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-52655-9_15
230 15  General Circulation of the Atmosphere

15.2  C
 onceptual Model of the General
Atmospheric Circulation

The first model for the general circulation of the atmosphere was introduced by
Edmond Halley in 1685. It is thermally direct meridional cell with maximum heat-
ing in low latitudes. According to the pattern, air rises and flows towards the poles
and sinks as it cools. George Hadley in 1735 improved this concept by taking into
consideration the Earth’s rotation in flow deflection as the result of the Coriolis
force, to the right at the Northern Hemisphere, but overlooked the westerly wind
belt. A more detail picture about the global atmospheric circulation pattern was
developed by William Ferrel, who proposed a three-cell model, where the role of the
angular momentum conservation in westerlies was significant. His consideration
was like that of C.-G. Rossby in 1941, with two direct cells bounding. The indirect
one found in middle latitudes he prescribed rather to easterlies rather than wester-
lies. The solution appeared with the problem of strong westerlies was resolved in
the 1950s when the role of a short wave (horizontal eddies) in poleward energy
transfer was recognized. Because the patterns of circulation between the equator
and 30° N and 30° S cross the northern and southern latitude have a similar appear-
ance to the first single-cell model used by George Hadley in 1735, it is called
“Hadley Cell Circulation”.

15.3  Three-Cell Model of Circulation

The circulation of wind in the atmosphere is driven by the rotation of the Earth and
the incoming energy from the Sun. Wind circulates in each hemisphere in three
distinct cells which help transport energy and heat from the equator to the poles.
The winds are driven by the energy from the Sun at the surface as warm air rises and
colder air sinks. The three-cell circulation model shown on Fig. 15.1 describes the

Fig. 15.1  Basic model of atmospheric circulation. (1) Hadley cell; (2) Ferell cell; (3) Polar cell.
Credit: Sleske [CC BY-SA 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0)]
15.3  Three-Cell Model of Circulation 231

basic properties of global pressure and wind patterns (Wells 2012; Schneider and
Sobel 2007). The basic assumptions of the model are:
• Uniformed composition of the Earth’s surface
• Unequal income of solar radiation, which creates a temperature gradient between
the equator and the poles
When these conditions occur on the Earth that rotates, three cells that have char-
acteristic circulation between the equator and the poles are defined:
1. Hadley cell between the equator and 30° latitude
2. Ferrell cell medium latitudinal between (30° and 60°) latitude
3. Polar cell between (60° and 90°) latitude

15.3.1  Circulation in Hadley Cell

The Earth is surrounded by the presence of several widespread prevailing wind belts
which are separated by narrow regions on land or regions of air rising. The direction
and the location of these belts of wind are determined by the solar radiation and the
rotation of the Earth. A more detailed insight in the general atmospheric circulation
patterns and the distinct cells is illustrated on Fig. 15.2.

Fig. 15.2  Basic circulation patterns

232 15  General Circulation of the Atmosphere

1. Hadley cell – a pattern of atmospheric circulation in which warm air rises near
the equator, cools as it travels poleward at high altitude, sinks as cold air, and
warms as it travels equatorward also. This is a form of convective cell which
dominates the subtropical and tropical climates.
2. Ferell cell  – average atmospheric circulation cell, whose name was given by
Ferell in 1856. In this cell, the air flows towards the poles and the east near the
Earth’s surface and the equator and westward at higher levels in the atmosphere.
3. Polar cell air rises, diverges, and travels to the poles. When there is more than
half, air sinks, forming polar centres with high pressure. When it reaches the
Earth’s surface, air diverges outside the polar zones of high pressure. Surface
winds in the polar cell are Eastern polar winds.
At the equator or near it, where the average solar radiation increases, air warms
at the Earth’s surface and rises. This creates a zone of low air pressure placed on the
equator, known as Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). When this subtropical
air reaches the equator, it rises into the upper atmosphere because of convergence
and convection. It achieves the maximum vertical height of about 14 km (so-called
top of the troposphere), and then it begins to flow horizontally towards the North
and the South Pole. This rising air comprises one segment of the circulation model
called Hadley cell. Hadley cell returns the air to the Earth’s surface, close to 30
degrees north and south, respectively. Part with descendent air motion (air sinking)
creates Hadley cell zone of high air pressure at these latitudes known as subtropical
high. From this zone, the surface air travels in two directions. Winds are generated
between equatorial subtropical high- and low-pressure zone, the movement of air
from high-pressure to low-pressure area on the surface. The Coriolis force, in com-
bination with an area of high pressure, causes winds to blow towards the equator,
forcing them to change their direction from east to west. These prevailing winds are
called trade winds or tropical eastern winds (easterlies). Another part of the air from
the Earth’s surface moves towards the subtropical zone of high pressure. This air is
also deviated by Coriolis force, creating western winds.

15.3.2  Intertropical Convergence Zone

The equatorial region of the Earth experiences a total flow of energy throughout the
year. More intense heating occurs at lower latitudes, due to the high angle of the Sun
and the equal length of day throughout the year. In such case the incoming solar
radiation is more direct  and  concentrated over a smaller surface area, causing
warmer temperatures. Heat received by the Earth’s surface is transmitted into the air
by radiation and by the transfer of latent heat. Condensed water vapour also supplies
heat to the surrounding air. Warmer air is less dense and thus easily rises in the wet
tropical atmosphere. Convective rise of air that creates a wider area of low pressure
surrounding the equator is known as equatorial valley. The equatorial region is
called Intertropical Convergence Zone (Fig.  15.3). When air is lifting above the
15.3  Three-Cell Model of Circulation 233

Fig. 15.3  Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)

Earth’s surface, it diverges near the top of the troposphere, and it moves towards
equality. Flowing towards the poles, the air begins to converge on (25° and 35°)
north and south latitude.
The Intertropical Convergence Zone, or ITCZ, is the region that circles the Earth,
near the equator, where the trade winds of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres
converge. The intense Sun and warm water of the equator heats the air in the ITCZ,
raising its humidity and making it buoyant. The convergence of the trade winds,
causes the buoyant air to rise. As the air rises, it expands and cools, releasing the
accumulated moisture producing thunderstorms. Subtropical high-pressure belt has
a significant impact on the climate of the Earth and represents the driving force in
the general atmospheric circulation, much as the major ocean currents. In this zone
the downward movement of an air parcel (subsidence) exists as the air cools and
becomes more denser forming area of high pressure near the Earth’s surface. When
the warm compressive air descends, it causes a drop in relative humidity. Our main
deserts such as Sahara coincide with the presence of subtropical belts with high
pressure. As the air descends towards the surface, it diverges outside the centre of
subtropical high-pressure belt. Subtropical high winds in the equator are basically
weak and variable. In the Northern Hemisphere, the air is removed from the right
path when you move to the outside. Pressure gradient from subtropical high-­pressure
belt to the equator, between the top 30° N and low over the equator, creates north-
eastern trade winds. In the Southern Hemisphere, the air is turned to the left as it
diverges from the subtropical high creating the southeast trades. Air convergence at
the equator occurs between northeast trade winds in the Northern Hemisphere and
southeast trade winds in the Southern Hemisphere, creating the Intertropical
Convergence Zone. In terms of convergence, trade winds form a zone of calm and
weak winds with not dominant (or prevailing constant) direction of the wind called
doldrums between 5° north and south latitude. In the subtropical belt of the high-
pressure side of the pole, the air is advancing towards the pole, but the flow is
removed, to create a form of west wind between (30° and 60°) in the Northern
Hemisphere. This zone is known as wind belt with western winds. A similar zone in
western winds can be found between 30° and 60° south in the Southern Hemisphere.
234 15  General Circulation of the Atmosphere

The loss of energy at the poles creates very cold air that subsides towards the sur-
face. This creates a dome of high pressure called the polar high. Air moving towards
the equator is turned in an easterly direction creating the polar easterlies. The polar
easterlies collide with the westerly wind belt at about 60 N and S creating a broad
belt of low pressure called the subpolar low. This is a zone of storms and migrating
high- and low-pressure systems, the topic of the “Weather Systems” module. Global
wind belts and pressure are extremely important elements of the climate system on
Earth. They largely determine the geographical pattern of rainfall. Low-pressure
systems promote wet conditions, while high pressure tends to prevent
precipitation.

15.3.3  Zonal Pressure Patterns

In reality there is only one valid model of the zonal pressure along the subpolar low-­
pressure zone in the Southern Hemisphere. In other latitudes, especially in the
Northern Hemisphere, where there is a higher representation of land than ocean, the
zonal model of pressure is replaced by “semi-permanent” cells with high and low
pressure. Pressure and wind patterns in January illustrate the strong high-pressure
centre, which is known as Siberian anticyclone, positioned above the frozen land-
scape in northeast Asia. Also evident in January, (absent in July), two intensive
“semi-persistent” centres of low pressure and Aleutian’s Icelandic depressions
extend over the northern Pacific and over North Atlantic, respectively. In the sum-
mer, the pressure patterns over the Northern Hemisphere are changing dramatically,
and high temperatures occur over the continent, creating depressions that replace
winter centres with high pressure. During the summer season, subtropical high-­
pressure centre, which is in the North Atlantic (called Azorean anticyclone in win-
ter), is positioned near the Bermuda Islands and is known as the Bermuda
anticyclone.

15.3.4  Upper Tropospheric Wind and Pressure Patterns

In the previous chapter, we considered the global circulation of air near the Earth’s
surface. In the high layers of the troposphere, circulation is very different. Between
15 and 20 deg. latitude north and south, located east, elevated winds appear which
are considered as a continuation of trade winds. For most of the upper troposphere,
moving towards pole, there is an average westward flow, known as the upper west-
ern winds. Above the friction layer of the Earth, upper level winds blow with higher
speed. Among them, very strong winds are embedded, which surround the entire
globe, and they are called jet streams. The strong pressure gradient occurs as the
large temperature gradient. Latitudinal temperature gradient of the Earth’s surface,
and consequently latitudinal gradient of pressure, reaches a maximum in high
15.4  The Wind Patterns 235

latitudes. This coincides with the polar front, which marks the boundary between
polar and tropical air type. Here lies the region of the polar jet stream front, high-­
speed corridor of wind that is responsible for the creation and movement of large
systems with pressure (baric systems) across the middle latitudes. Additionally,
subtropical jet stream is formed at approximately 30° latitude, as a result of the
convergence of air at altitude, the same width as the one discussed earlier. At the
poles, air is very cold and subsides (sinks), to form a field with high air pressure at
the surface. Entry creates a huge area of low pressure at an altitude known as cir-
cumpolar vortex. A jet stream of the polar front lies close to the equatorial border of
the vortex. Polar vortex expands and shrinks during the year as a result of energy
flow shifting to the surface. Equatorial edge, along jet stream, takes a wave shape
with cold air, which penetrates high latitudes, and warm air blows to pole. In these
circumstances, there is a transfer of cold air to the south and a transfer of warm air
northward. In such situation, polar vortex experiences a meridian flow. Sometimes
the edge is flatter, blowing more evidently from west to east in the direction called
zonal flow. In this scenario there is little latitudinal exchange of air and energy. This
brings relatively mild maritime polar air masses over the continents, the lack of
expression temperature difference.

15.4  The Wind Patterns

Depending on the horizontal scale of motion, certain scales of wind patterns are
defined. The global wind pattern is also known as the “general circulation” (Fig.
15.4). The surface winds of each hemisphere are divided into three wind belts:
Polar easterlies: From 60 to 90 degrees latitude
Prevailing westerlies: From 30 to 60 degrees latitude (westerlies)
Tropical easterlies: From 0 to 30 degrees latitude (trade winds)

Fig. 15.4 Permanent
winds of the general
atmospheric circulation.
Credit: DWindrim
(2004-02-08)derivative
work: Burschik
(2007-05-31) [CC BY-SA
3.0 (http://
creativecommons.org/
licenses/by-sa/3.0/)]
236 15  General Circulation of the Atmosphere

The circulation which has lower horizontal scale resolution than macro-scale
circulation is called synoptic-scale circulation or scales of weather maps. Winds
associated with the mesoscale processes and phenomena, such as stormy winds,
gusts land, and sea winds, affect smaller areas and experience the intense vertical
movements. The smallest (spatial and temporal dimensions) air motion represents a
circulation in a microscale. Examples of these local, often chaotic winds are torna-
dic winds, turbulence vortices, and sandstorms.

15.4.1  Eastern and Western Winds

The circulation between (30° and 60°) latitude (north and south) results in prevail-
ing western winds. The air that moves from the poles to the equatorial polar regions
creates eastern winds on both hemispheres.
The area where the cold polar east winds collide with the warm west flow in high
latitudes is known as the polar front, and it is an important meteorological region. If
the Earth’s surface is uniformed, two belts of high pressure and two belts of low
pressure will exist, parallel to the equator. Starting from the equator, these four
belts are:
1. Equatorial belt of low pressure, known as Intertropical Convergence Zone

(ITCZ), because it is a region of trade winds convergence
2. Subtropical zone with high pressure, about (20° to 35°) width on each side of
the equator
3. Subpolar low-pressure zone, which is about 50° to 60° latitude
4. Polar high-pressure zone, near the poles

15.5  Global Distribution of Pressure, Rainfall, and Climate

Global atmospheric pressure systems play a direct role in the geographical distribu-
tion of rainfall. This influence is obviously the relationship between atmospheric
models and distribution of rainfall and climate. In general, there is a horizontal pat-
tern of climates that extends from the equator poleward; at 30° N is associated with
the location of Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), semi-permanent subtropical
high-pressure zone (STH), and cyclones in high latitudes. At the equator prevails a
climate with the greatest amount of rainfall on the Earth, tropical rainy forest (AF),
and tropical monsoon (Am). According to recorded data, the annual amounts of
rainfall often exceed (2540 mm or l/m2) in the year. Heavy rains occur as a result of
warm moist air masses which converge in the low-pressure belt, extending over the
equator and rising through convection. Monsoon climate in Africa and Asia is evi-
dent during dry periods of weak expressed sunny season. The dry period is due to
15.6  Ocean Circulation 237

the presence of air down from the subtropical high-pressure belt (STH), while the
wet season is due to the presence of the ITCZ and moisture to carry trade winds
along the coast. From the monsoon climate and the rainy forest environment in the
pole, tropical wet/dry climate (Aw) results, often known as “Savannas”, climate.
Like the monsoon climate, rainfall is seasonal, with much smaller amounts of
annual rainfall, which receives tropical wet/dry climate. During low Sun season (in
winter), tropical wet/dry climate is influenced by subtropical high-pressure belt
(STH), causing extremely dry conditions. Savannas climate is considered a climate
that is transitional between rainy and dry tropical climate. Tropical steppe climate
(BS) is dominated by STH in most of the year, through which it receives a high Sun
season, when the ITCZ rain moves into the region. From the Steppes to the pole,
tropical desert climate (BW) exists. The tropical desert climate is the driest on
Earth, so in some places there is no measurable precipitation on an annual basis.
The extreme aridity is due to the impact of subtropical zone of high air pressure
throughout the year. At about 30o north latitude, there is another area where tropical
steppe climate occurs. While climatic conditions are the same, the rule of seasonal
baric systems is reversed. During low Sun STH season it moves into the region to
create dry conditions. During the winter cyclones that produce high latitude occa-
sional short rains occur. Finally, the Mediterranean manifests dry subtropical cli-
mate summer (Cs), or sometimes known as “Mediterranean climate”. Similar to
steppe climate of equatorial border of the Mediterranean climate, there is a summer/
wet winter rainfall regime. However, the region receives more rain annually than
neighbouring steppe climate.

15.6  Ocean Circulation

Ocean circulation affects the energy balance of Earth, the general atmospheric cir-
culation and interactive processes that take place in the atmosphere, land, and water
surface (Wells 2012). About half of the transport of heat around the Earth’s planet is
going through the oceans, so the oceans have an extremely important role in con-
trolling the Earth’s climate system. The energy of the Sun falls evenly over the
entire surface of the Earth. Most of the influx of solar radiation that travels the Earth
occurs at the equator. This leads to large temperature gradients between the equator
and poles. The flow of air and oceans is controlled by the temperature differences,
and it occurs as a result of the transfer of heat from the equator to the poles.
Figure 15.5 shows Earth’s sea surface temperature obtained from 2 weeks of
infrared observations by the Advanced Very High-Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR),
an instrument on board NOAA-7 during July 1984. To understand the reason for
these temperature anomalies, we need to understand ocean currents. A part of
the large-scale circulation of water through the oceans is called the thermohaline
circulation.  It is driven by global density gradients formed by  surface heat and
ocean water fluxes. If the ocean circulation changes through global warming, major
changes in climate are likely to happen. The thermohaline circulation is also known
238 15  General Circulation of the Atmosphere

Fig. 15.5  Global sea

surface temperature (SST)

Fig. 15.6  Basic model of

global ocean circulation.
Credit: Robert
Simmon, NASA

as “meridional overturning circulation” (see Fig. 15.6) which is responsible for the

large-scale exchange of water masses in the ocean, including providing oxygen to
the deep ocean. There is a clear correlation between the pattern of ocean currents
and atmospheric circulation. Similar to the atmospheric circulation, the ocean circu-
lation is significant in the latitudinal transport and redistribution of energy. Ocean
behaves as a heating system which is like the atmosphere, but the ocean is consider-
ably less efficient. This is because the sources and sinks of heat in the oceans are
near the surface, even at approximately the same air pressure. The largest movement
of the ocean, especially at the higher layers, is a result of wind friction near the
surface. As the air moves faster through the ocean surface, water resistance reduces
the air flow in the layers close to the surface. As a result of these interactive pro-
cesses that take place between the atmosphere and oceans, friction occurs  at the
interface, which comes in the form of turbulent movements in the atmosphere. The
pattern of thermohaline circulation also known as “meridional overturning circula-
tion” resistance (friction) is most dominant in winter when the winds are strongest,
and it shows a different annual cycle. The wind friction is a very important part of
the atmosphere-ocean interaction and is a key link in the whole climate system. It is
also important to recognize that currents associated with wind are limited to the
layer of water that has a uniform temperature distribution and is known as the mix-
ing layer with an average thickness of about 70 cm.
15.6  Ocean Circulation 239

Fig. 15.6  Gulf Stream

map. Credit: RedAndr [CC
BY-SA 4.0 (https://
creativecommons.org/
licenses/by-sa/4.0)]

15.6.1  Major Ocean Currents

The main ocean currents are generated by wind. Some ocean currents result from
the changes in density and salinity of the water. Subtropical high-pressure cells are
responsible for many of the larger Earth ocean currents. Ocean influence on climate
is mostly manifested in the heating and cooling in the coastal areas. Common to
them is that the great ocean currents are classified as warm or cold, and their global
distributions are shown on Fig. 15.6.

15.6.1.1  Warm Currents

One of the most significant ocean currents which occur in the northern Atlantic is
the Gulf Stream (Fig. 15.6). It is a large, warm current that flows northeast between
Cuba and southern Florida, in parallel with the coast of Northeast America, almost
to Newfoundland, then continues as Northeast current.
The northeast ocean stream then moves east, passing the United Kingdom and
Norway on the eastern end of Scandinavia and comes in Arctic Barents Sea north of
Russia. The Gulf Stream has a profound effect on most of the European continent,
because there are a few orographic barriers at these latitudes, which retain the west-
ern winds as bearers of sea air to the east. In the Norwegian Sea in winter, Gulf
Stream causes ground temperature that can be more than (26°C) above the normal
value for this latitude. Experiences show that winters in most of the British island,
which lies north of the breadth of the Canadian border, are relatively mild. Similar
impact on the Gulf Stream is manifested in George, which is (15°C) to (20°C) lati-
tude farther south. The North Pacific current, which is an extension of the Kuroshio
current, has no strong effect on climate on the east side of the Pacific, compared to
the Gulf Stream on the east side of the Atlantic, because its impact must prevent
spreading towards the pole. High mountains that are parallel to the west coast of
240 15  General Circulation of the Atmosphere

North America do not allow penetration of the great Pacific sea air across the conti-
nent. Also, the northern Pacific is separated from the Arctic in winter by the narrow
Bering Marine freeze, which blocks any movement of surface water from the North
Pacific in the Arctic, middle and late winter. Warm currents are weekly developed in
the Southern Hemisphere. Indian Ocean flows largely under the influence of sea-
sonal monsoons. Weak, diffuse warm currents moving southwest along the east
coast of Australia.

15.6.1.2  Cold Currents

Ocean currents with the most dominant climate impact on the Southern Hemisphere
large cold currents. These are major cold currents in the oceans. Peruvian stream
has the highest volume and most important climate, currents north along the west
coast of South America around (50° S), almost to the equator. This stream has a
significant effect on the climate along most of the west coast of South America,
although its influences are limited to a narrow coastal section of the high Andes.
Cold water in the stream due to springing, in response to movement of surface water
by winds near the coast. Cold ocean water and atmospheric subsidence of subtropi-
cal high-pressure air, create a strong temperature inversion. When these conditions
occur, there is quite a poor rainfall. As a result of these processes, the coast is char-
acterized by the appearance of cold, moist surface air, with frequent occurrence of
fog and low coverage of stratus clouds. Bengal stream flows north along the south-
ern coast of Africa, the eastern South Atlantic. Cold currents in the Northern
Hemisphere are not strong. Canary’s stream flows southwest, along the banks of the
Iberian Peninsula and the northwest coast of Africa, passing the Canary Islands.
California stream flows southwest along the west coast of North America. During
the summer, the water away from the coast north of San Francisco is often coolest
along the entire North American west coast. The local wave increases are more
significant than the horizontal movement of water from Alaska to the south.
Comparing the temperature of the water surface in late August illustrates the nature
of the cold stream in relation to the warm current (Gulf Stream) along the east coast.

15.7  Ocean Waves

The waves that occur on the surface of the sea and ocean are very significant for
ocean circulation. They transport a horizontal momentum to the Ekman layer, accel-
erating vertical mixing in the upper layers of water. Waves play a prominent role in
the exchange of gas between the atmosphere and the ocean. They mediate carbon
dioxide into the oceans and oxygen into the atmosphere. Winds above the ocean
surface not only create ocean currents but also waves. When the wind blows above
the smooth surface of the water, friction occurs between air and water that seeks to
stretch a thin layer of water like that of a soapy water can. Vortex formation and
15.7  Ocean Waves 241

wrinkling, browning, water surfaces can occur at some point. The slightly uneven
surface of the water (the minimum wave propagation velocity is 0.23 m/s) allows
the wind to more easily form the waves that accompany it. The wind becomes tur-
bulent just above the surface of the water. By acting on increasingly steady surface
of the ocean, the wind raises larger and larger waves. If the speed of the wind is
greater than the speed of wave propagation, it transfers the energy to the surface of
the ocean. From the point of view of the action of forces, such waves arise because
of the force of Earth’s gravity, which acts in the sense of restoring hydrostatic equi-
librium in the ocean. Disturbance on the surface of the water in terms of height
(depth), a pressure gradient force occurs that causes the water to accelerate in a hori-
zontal direction from a place of greater water depth to less depth. Therefore, such
waves are called gravitational waves. The point of the highest wave height is the
wave front, and the lowest is the valley height. Wave height is the total vertical
change in height between the bank and the valley. The distance between two con-
secutive waves (or valleys) of a wave represents the wavelength of the wave. When
passing the bank of the wave, the particles the waters describe the trochoid (a curved
line describing the trajectory of a point on a rolling circle). This means that the wave
not only produces oscillations of the particles along circular paths on the surface,
but there is little movement of the particles in the direction of the wave propagation,
especially at large ones. These almost circular paths of water depth sections become
more ellipsoidal and smaller in size until they completely disappear at approxi-
mately the depth corresponding to the adjacent wave valley. For deep ocean waters,
the  speed of propagation of  gravitational waves depends on the wavelength. The
greater the wavelength, the greater the speed of wave propagation. So, for example,
a tsunami with a wavelength of 100  km and above can have a speed of almost
900 km / h. For deep oceans, the wavelengths of surface waves can be no more than
twice their mean depth. For shallow water, the speed of gravity wave propagation
depends on the depth of the water. The greatest waves can be produced by strong
and long winds, which all time is blowing in one direction above a certain area.
Strong winds are more turbulent and form waves more easily. Extremely high waves
are observed in the Indian Ocean in the band between 40 ° and 60 ° in the Southern
Hemisphere (Fig. 15.7). The mean wave height was about 7 m, while some waves
had twice the height. South of New Zealand the wave height was about 5 m. Area
about equatorial coils are characterized by weak winds and therefore low waves,
while islands in the tropics greatly limit the wind to blow in a constant direction.
However, huge waves below the typhoon or hurricane can also be raised in this area.
So far, there has been talk of waves on the surface of the ocean that are gravity
waves character. Otherwise, we have progressive and standing waves in the oceans.
Progressive include surface, internal, and tsunami. Sound waves propagate through
water about 4.5 times faster than through the atmosphere. Depending on the tem-
perature and salinity of the water, their velocity is approximately 1500 m/s. They
extend in all directions. If a sound wave is emitted on the surface of the water, it can
reach the bottom of a depth of 4 km in just a few seconds. The lowest waves occur
where wind speeds are lowest, around the equator, indicated by the pink colour on
this map. However, in these places, the sea water warms up, causing the birth of
242 15  General Circulation of the Atmosphere

Fig. 15.7  Global distribution of ocean wave altitude

tropical cyclones, typhoons, or hurricanes, which may send large waves in all direc-
tions, particularly in the direction they are travelling.

15.8  Large-Scale Circulation Modes

It has been found that Sir Gilbert Walker in the 1920s in his work described three
major large-scale oscillations within the general atmospheric circulation:
• The Southern Oscillation in sea level pressure across the equatorial Pacific Ocean
• The North Atlantic Oscillation between the Azores high-pressure cell and the
Icelandic low
• The North Pacific Oscillation between the North Pacific High and the
Aleutian Low

15.8.1  North Atlantic (NAO) and Artic Oscillation (AO)

The term “North Atlantic Oscillation” refers to variations in the large-scale surface
pressure gradient in the North Atlantic region, i.e. (low pressure around Iceland/
high pressure around the Azores). Another related mechanism focuses on “storm
tracks”. These are the relatively narrow paths over land and sea through which storm
weather systems tend to be pushed by prevailing winds. In the Northern Hemisphere,
the position of storm tracks is affected by a natural fluctuation known as NAO. This
natural weather phenomenon  consists of two pressure centres in the North Atlantic:
one is an area of low pressure typically located near Iceland and the other an area of
high pressure over the Azores (an island chain located in the eastern Atlantic Ocean).
15.8  Large-Scale Circulation Modes 243

Fig. 15.8  Negative and positive phases of NAO. Courtesy: UCAR

Figure  15.8 shows a different NAO phases. When the pressure difference is low,
NAO is negative. When both the sub-polar low and the subtropical high are stronger
than average positive phase of NAO is dominant. The NAO is also associated with
changes in temperature and rainfall in Europe and North America.
When the pressure difference is large, the NAO is positive, and the westerly
winds are strong, and storms tend to be stronger, more frequent, and travel across
north Western Europe. Fluctuations in the strength of these features significantly
alter the alignment of the jet stream (discussion follows) and ultimately affect tem-
perature and precipitation distributions in this area. AO is a climate index of the
state of the atmospheric circulation over the Arctic (Fig. 15.9). It consists of a posi-
tive phase, featuring below average geopotential heights, which are also referred to
as negative geopotential height anomalies and a negative phase in which the oppo-
site is true. In the negative AO phase, the polar low-pressure system (also known as
the polar vortex) over the Arctic is weaker (see Fig. 15.10), which results in weaker
upper level winds (the westerlies). The result of the weaker westerlies is that cold,
Arctic air can push farther south into the US continent and Europe, while the storm
tracks also remains farther south. It is also important to note that the AO and NAO
are two separate indices that are ultimately describing the same phenomenon of
varying pressure gradients in the northern latitudes and the resultant effects on tem-
perature and storm tracks across the continent. There is debate over whether one or
the other is more fundamentally representative of the atmosphere’s dynamics.
244 15  General Circulation of the Atmosphere

Fig. 15.9  Artic Oscillation

Fig. 15.10  Polar vortex

15.8  Large-Scale Circulation Modes 245

15.8.2  El Niño-Southern Oscillation

The phenomenon “El Niño”-Southern Oscillation is a major climatic disturbance,

generated in the tropics of the Pacific, and it occurs every 3 to 7 years. This phenom-
enon has a strong influence on the continents around the tropical Pacific, and there
is some climatic influence on half of the planet Earth. The development of El Niño-­
Southern Oscillation is characterized by raising the temperature a few degrees, the
ocean surface (3 to 6 °C), and the coasts of Peru and Ecuador to the centre of equa-
torial Pacific Ocean. Because of this warming, long-term perturbations of weather
systems over the surrounding land, expressed heavy precipitation in normally arid
areas, drought in the normally moist areas occur. El Niño-Southern Oscillation is
also observed as a hot phase of irregular climatic oscillation, known as ENSO (El
Niño-Southern Oscillation/Southern Oscillation), which is caused by the unstable
interaction of the ocean and atmosphere (Fig. 15.11).

15.8.3  La Nina

Conversely, “La-Nina” is the cold phase of ENSO recurring climate pattern. During
the “La Nina” episode trade winds strengthen, warm water and rainstorms are shifted
far away towards western equatorial Pacific Ocean, resulting in cooling of surface
waters and below averaged sea surface temperature in the equatorial Pacific Ocean.
(Fig. 15.12). La Nina case may follow El Niño-Southern Oscillation, but not always.
When surface sea surface temperatures in the central and eastern Pacific Ocean are
lower than average, appears a phenomenon called “La Nina”. It represents typical
winter blows colder than constant air over the north-western Pacific and over north-
ern high plains, simultaneously heating the rest of the American continent.

Fig. 15.11  El Niño (warm phase)

246 15  General Circulation of the Atmosphere

Fig. 15.12  La Nina (cold phase)

Fig. 15.13  Summer Indian monsoon circulation. Credit: Chang (2004)

15.9  Winds at the Regional Scale: Monsoon

The largest seasonal change in global circulation on Earth is the development of mon-
soons, wind systems that experience highly seasonal deviation in direction. The term
“monsoon” means wind changing direction with season. Monsoon conditions are
found in different regions around the world. European atmospheric circulation
induced by temperature differences between the continent and the North Atlantic
Ocean causes thermodynamic and climatic conditions that initiate a European mon-
soon. Аs it is illustrated in Fig. 15.13, most notable is the characteristic wind pattern
over Asia, called Indian monsoon (Clift and Plumb 2008; Chang 2004; Chang et al.
2011). During summer, the continent of Asia is more heated than the surrounding
ocean, as a result of the asymmetric differential heating of land and sea. Heated sur-
face forms a large area of low pressure in the northern part of Central Asia and smaller
area than India. This creates a coastal wind that carries the mainland marine air rich
with moisture from the Pacific and Indian Ocean. As air flows through the land, warm
surface converges in areas with low  pressure.  It  causes  air  rising and formation
15.9  Winds at the Regional Scale: Monsoon 247

Fig. 15.14 Weather
conditions in
monsoon season

of strong updrafts along the major mountain systems such as the Himalayas, where

severe thunderstorms are initiated with a heavy rainfall during the wet monsoon sea-
son. In winter, the air flow is opposite. Continent rapidly cools forming a large area of
high pressure over north central Asia, known as the Siberian Anticyclone, and less
area than India. Drier and colder air blowing out of the continent from the coast is
creating monsoon dry season.
Monsoon conditions also manifest in eastern central Africa. This region experi-
ences seasonal rains, caused by the variation influence of global atmospheric pres-
sure systems. During the high Sun season, the ITCZ moves inside carrying a warm
and moist unstable air-conditioned heavy rain (Fig. 15.14). During low Sun season,
the ITCZ moves to the outside, and the impact of descendent movements of sub-
tropical high-pressure air (anticyclone) dominates the region. During this period,
subtropical anticyclone prevents the development of precipitation.
Deserts southwest of the North American continent experience pseudo-monsoon
during the summer. This monsoon (often called Arizona monsoon and south-­western
monsoon) is a relatively small seasonal shift of wind, which creates a dry spring,
followed by comparatively rainy summer, affecting large areas of the southwest of
the continent and north-western Mexico. Intense daytime  heating of the surface
depression (low pressure), creates a favorable conditions for initiation of thunder-
storms and rainfall  over the desert areas,  typically occurring between June and
September. During winter the desert area is cooling, low pressure centre disappears,
and dry conditions prevail. It is important to note that there is a European monsoon
in eastern and Western Europe as a result of the temperature difference between the
northern Atlantic Ocean and the continent. Therefore, it is rainy early summer in
Eastern Europe and rainy early winter in Western Europe. Dry periods occur in
winter in Eastern and in spring in Western Europe. Due to the presence of mon-
soons, large floods are frequent in some parts of central Europe (Radinovic and
Ćurić 2012).
248 15  General Circulation of the Atmosphere

15.10  Jet Streams

Jet currents are relatively narrow belts of strong winds in the upper levels of the
atmosphere (Shapiro and Keyser 1990). Winds blow from west to east in jet streams
but flow often moved to the north and the south. Jet streams follow the boundaries
between warm and cold air. Because these warm and cold air boundaries are mostly
highlighted in the winter, jet streams are strongest in the Northern and the Southern
Hemisphere during the winter. The temperature difference between the equator and
the poles is causing western winds located in high latitudes. The narrow belt of
high-speed winds, trapped inside the western flow of height, covering thousands of
kilometres, is called jet streams. Jet streams in high latitudes arise as a result of large
temperature differences on the Earth’s surface. In the middle latitudes between 30°
and 70°, smooth polar strength accompanied by a polar front (Fig. 15.15) appears.
Because the slopes of cyclone systems are managed by the flow of the height, posi-
tion of the polar jet stream has a strong influence on the weather, especially tem-
peratures, the surface. Because winds are the basic driving force of ocean currents,
it reveals a link between ocean circulation and atmospheric general circulation. In
general, as response to the circulation associated with subtropical high-pressure
centres, ocean currents form a spiral clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and
counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.

Fig. 15.15  Polar and

subtropical jet stream.
Credit: https://en.
wikipedia.org/wiki/
Lyndon_State_College_
Meteorology
15.11  Rossby Planetary Waves 249

15.10.1  A Waiver Jet Stream

Fluctuations in the strength of the NAO and AO patterns significantly alter the align-
ment of the jet stream and ultimately affect temperature and precipitation distribu-
tions in this area. The theory goes that these changes contribute to an increase in
unusual and extreme weather across the North America, Europe, and Asia. The dif-
ferent theories of how Arctic amplification could be affecting the mid-latitudes fall
broadly into three main categories: those that focus on a “wavier” jet stream, the
stratospheric polar vortex (sudden stratospheric warming), and “wave resonance”
relate to the jet stream in the troposphere, which only occurs during summer and can
trigger extreme weather (e.g. heatwave, severe storms, and floods). According to
this theory, the troposphere is the most significant – lowest layer of the atmosphere,
where most of the day-to-day weather occurs.
In particular, it concerns the polar “jet stream” – a band of fast-flowing air high
up in the atmosphere. The strength of the jet stream is driven by the difference in
temperature between the cold air over the Arctic to the north and the milder air to
the south. Since the Arctic is warming more rapidly than the mid-latitudes, the tem-
perature difference is declining, which leads to a weaker jet stream. “A weaker jet
stream is more easily deflected from its generally west-to-east trajectory by obsta-
cles in its path, such as mountain ranges, varying sea surface temperature patterns
and injections of energy from dying tropical storms”. These diversions from its path
increase the likelihood of a wavier jet stream pattern, says Francis. When the jet
stream takes larger north-south meanders – known as “Rossby waves” – warm air
can penetrate north, and cold air can plunge south. Larger waves also mean the sys-
tems moving from west to east tend to travel more slowly, “effectively making
weather conditions more persistent”. “When a particular weather pattern stays in the
same place for a long time, it can become an extreme event – think drought, pro-
longed rainfall leading to flooding, persistent cold spells, and long-lived heat waves”.

15.11  Rossby Planetary Waves

Oceanic and atmospheric Rossby waves (Fig.  15.16), also known as planetary
waves, naturally occur largely due to the Earth’s rotation. These planetary (ocean
and atmospheric) waves play a significant role on the planet’s weather and climate.
Slow-moving oceanic Rossby waves are significantly different from ocean surface
waves. Rossby waves are large, disturbing movements of the ocean that extend hori-
zontally across the planet for hundreds of kilometres in a westward direction. Along
with rising sea levels, oceanic Rossby waves contribute to high tides and coastal
flooding in some regions of the world.
The horizontal speed of Rossby waves is dependent upon the latitude of the
wave. In the Pacific, for instance, waves at lower latitudes (closer to the equator)
may take months to a year to cross the ocean. The vertical motion of Rossby waves
250 15  General Circulation of the Atmosphere

Fig. 15.16  Rossby waves

generated by a source with
vortex oscillation. Credit:
Puncinus [CC BY-SA 4.0
(https://creativecommons.
org/licenses/by-sa/4.0)]

is small along the ocean’s surface and large along the deeper thermocline – the tran-
sition area between the ocean’s warm upper layer and colder depths. This variation
in vertical motion of the water’s surface can be quite dramatic: the typical vertical
movement of the water’s surface is generally ~0.1 m, while the vertical movement
of the thermocline for the same wave is approximately 100 m or greater. Due to the
small vertical movement along the ocean surface, oceanic Rossby waves are diffi-
cult to observe. Scientists typically rely on satellite radar altimetry to detect the
massive waves. Atmospheric Rossby waves form primarily as a result of the Earth’s
geography. Rossby waves help transfer heat from the tropics towards the poles and
cold air towards the tropics to return atmosphere to balance. They also help locate
the jet stream and mark out the track of surface low-pressure systems. The slow
motion of these waves often results in long, persistent weather patterns.

References

Chang, C.  P. (2004). East Asian monsoon (p.  572). Hardback: World Scientific Publishing Co
Pte Ltd.
Chang, C.- P., Ding, Y., Lau, N.- C., Johnson, R. H., Wang, B., & Yasunari, T. (Eds.). (2011). The
global monsoon system – Research and forecast (2nd ed.). World Scientific. 594 pp.
Clift, P. D., & Plumb, R. A. (2008). The Asian monsoon – causes, history and effects (p. 270).
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Radinović, D., & Ćurić, M. (2012). Some evidence on European monsoon existence. Theor Appl
Meteor, 110, 11–15.
Randall, D. A. (2000). General circulation model development – Past, present and future (p. 803
str). San Diego: Academic Press.
References 251

Satoh, M. (2014). Atmospheric circulation dynamics and general circulation models (Vol. 730,
2nd ed.). Springer-Praxis Publishing.
Schneider, T., & Sobel, A. H. (2007). The global circulation of the atmosphere (p. 400). Princeton
University Press.
Shapiro, M. A., & Keyser, D. (1990). In C. W. Newton & E. Holopainen (Eds.), Fronts, jet streams
and the tropopause, extratropical cyclones, Erik Palmen memorial volume (pp.  167–191).
Amer Met Soc.
Wells, N. C. (2012). The atmosphere and ocean (Vol. 425, 3rd ed.). Wiley- Blackwell.
Chapter 16
Air Masses and Fronts

16.1  Definition of Air Masses

Synoptic map analysis, Swedish meteorologist Tor Bergeron (Bergeron) found that
in the air above the vast areas, the values of certain meteorological elements change
very little in the horizontal direction. He called these large masses of air masses of
air. The horizontal dimensions of the air masses are of continental scale (from 500
to 5000 km), while in the vertical direction, they can cover the entire troposphere.
Air masses are characterized by temperature, humidity, temperature stratification,
and degree of turbidity. Large, synoptic air masses will obviously be discussed here.
It should be noted that meteorology also refers to smaller air masses. Air mass is
defined as a widespread body of air with uniform physical properties situated over
a particular region of the Earth’s surface called air mass source region (e.g. Ahrens
2007; Lupikasza 2000; Hoskins and James 2014; Lackmann 2012). It represents a
large volume of air with temperature and moisture regime that tend to be relatively
homogeneous in the horizontal direction over wide area. In addition, the vertical
temperature and moisture variations are approximately the same over its horizontal
extent. Air masses usually undergo specific modifications while in transit away
from the source region. The stagnation or long-continued motion of air over a source
region permits the vertical temperature and moisture distribution of the air to reach
relative equilibrium with the underlying surface. The air mass is separated from the
adjacent air mass through the border area, which might be more accurately defined.
Where two air masses of different temperatures meet, a boundary forms which is
termed a “front”. The air mass is covering thousands of square metres, and it extends
vertically through the troposphere.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 253

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254 16  Air Masses and Fronts

16.1.1  Air Mass Source Region

The temperature of an air mass will depend largely on its point of origin and its
subsequent displacement over the land or sea. This might lead to warming or cool-
ing by the extended contact with a warm or cool surface. Warm air mass is produced
by prolonged contact with a warm surface, and conversely a cold air mass is pro-
duced by prolonged contact with a cold surface. The heat transfer processes that
warm or cool the air take place slowly. It may take a week or more to warm up the
air by 10°C right through the atmosphere, and for these changes to take place, a large
mass of air must stagnate over a region. Parts of the Earth’s surface where the air can
stagnate and gradually gain properties of the underlying surface are called source
regions. The main source regions are the high-pressure belts in the subtropics (giv-
ing rise to tropical air masses) and around the poles (the source for polar air masses).

16.1.2  Formation Criteria

Air mass source regions are geographic areas where an air mass originates. Two
criteria should be satisfied for air masses formation:
• Large and physically uniformed
• Air mass stagnation (presence of light surface winds)
The longer the air mass stays over its source region, the more likely it will acquire
the properties of the surface below.

16.2  Air Mass Classification

Air masses are classified into different types primarily by the area in which they
originate and depending on their basic temperature and humidity characteristics
(Hoskins and James 2014). Also, the classification depends on the distribution of
the source region and the nature of the surface of the source region (continent-­
ocean). The Bergeron classification is the most widely accepted form of air mass
classification. Air mass classification involves three letters.
The first letter describes its moisture properties, with c used for continental air
masses (dry) and m for maritime air masses (moist). Its source regions are denote
with T for tropical, P for polar, A for Arctic or Antarctic, M for monsoon, and E for
equatorial. The generalized map of global air masses is illustrated on (Fig. 16.1).
16.2  Air Mass Classification 255

160 120 100 60 20 0 20 60 100 120 160

60 cP + cA
cP + cA

mP
mP mP
cT
30
mT cT mT
mT

0 mE
mE mE
cT
cT
30 mT mT mT mT

mP
60 mP

cAA

Fig. 16.1  Source regions of common air masses (Bergeron classification). Credit: Public Domain,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=12526643

16.2.1  P
 olar Continental and Artic Continental Air Masses
(cP and cA)

These air masses have its origins over the snow fields of Eastern Europe and Russia
and are only considered a winter (November to April) phenomena. During the sum-
mer with the land mass considerably warmer, these air masses would be classed as
a tropical continental. Daily manifestation of weather depends on temperature sta-
bility and moisture content of the air masses. Polar continental (cP) and Artic conti-
nental (cA) air mass as their classification indicates is cold and dry. Although cP-air
masses are not strictly associated with heavy rainfall, those who pass the Great
Lakes during the late autumn and winter sometimes bring snow to the effects at the
upwind side of coast on the lake.

16.2.2  Maritime Polar Air Masses (mP)

Polar maritime air masses (mP) are formed over the ocean at higher latitudes, and
they are wet and cool, to cold. Instability is caused by torrential rains over the sea
and permanent rain in exposed western and northern British Isles. During the winter
months, when convection is initiated over the sea, hail and thunders are common in
these mountainous areas. This air mass has its origins over northern Canada and
Greenland and reaches the British Isles on a north-westerly air stream. In summer
months, temperatures on the mainland are higher than the temperature of the sea,
and intense showers occur over the eastern part of the British Isles. This air mass
starts very cold and dry, but during its long passage over the relatively warm waters
of the North Atlantic, its temperature rises rapidly, and it becomes unstable to a
256 16  Air Masses and Fronts

great depth. This air mass is characterized by frequent showers at any time of the
year. In the winter months when instability (convection) is most vigorous over the
sea, hail and thunder are common across much of the western and northern side of
the British Isles. However, eastern Britain may see fewer showers as here the sur-
face heating is reduced. During the summer, the reverse is true, land temperatures
are higher than sea temperatures, and the heaviest showers occur over eastern
England.

16.2.3  Tropical Maritime Air Masses (mT)

Tropical maritime (mT) air masses, which cover North America, form over the
warm waters of the Atlantic Ocean, Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean Sea, and between
the Azores and Bermuda. Tropical maritime air is warm and moist in its lowest lay-
ers and, although unstable over its source region, during its passage over cooler
waters becomes stable and the air becomes saturated. During the winter, when the
cP air dominates the central and eastern parts of the United States, tropical maritime
air only occasionally enters this part of the country. However, the summer-mT air
masses from the Gulf, Caribbean, and neighbouring Atlantic cover a widespread
area over the continent and persist for a longer period. mT air masses from the Gulf-­
Caribbean-­Atlantic source region also receive a lot of rainfall in the eastern two-­
thirds of the United States. Each of these types of air masses has some specific
features associate with temperature and moisture distribution and air stability.

16.3  Air Mass Modification

As the air masses move away from the source region, can become modified. In its
source region, an air mass gains properties which are characteristic of the underly-
ing surface. It may be cold or warm, and it may be dry or moist. Modifications of air
masses may arise from:
(a) Temperature differences between air mass and surface
(b) Vertical movements induced by cyclones and anticyclones
(c) Topography of the terrain
An air mass moving over the sea is said to have a maritime track. This air mass will
typically increase its moisture content, particularly in its lowest layers, by evapora-
tion of water from the sea surface (as seen in the above diagram). On the other hand,
an air mass moving over the land (with a continental track) will remain relatively
dry. A cold air mass flowing away from its source region over a warmer surface will
be warmed from below making the air more unstable in its lowest layers. A warm
air mass flowing over a colder surface is cooled from below and becomes stable in
its lowest layers.
16.4  Fronts (Frontal Boundaries) 257

16.4  Fronts (Frontal Boundaries)

Frontal zones (fronts) form between a two contrasting air masses. They represent
boundaries surfaces which separate air masses of different densities. Weather fronts
mark the boundary or transition zone between two different air masses, which often
have contrasting properties (Carlson 1991; Spiridonov and Ćurić 2011; Bott 2012;
Ćurić and Janc 2016). For example, one air mass may be cold and dry, and the other
air mass may be relatively warm and moist. Weather fronts mark the boundary or
transition zone between two air masses and have an important impact upon the
weather. One air mass is generally warmer and wetter than the other.

16.4.1  Types of Weather Fronts

According to the characteristics of air masses that occur at border areas, there are
four (4) basic types of fronts:
• Warm
• Cold
• Stationary
• Occlusion
In the atmosphere of the border area between two air masses, other forms of
fronts are manifested, such as the line of instability and vertical movements induced
by cyclones and anticyclones or topography of the terrain.
Warm front occurs when the position of the front of the country is so warm that
the air takes the territory previously covered by the colder air (Fig. 16.2). The pres-
ence of a warm front means that warm air is advancing and rising over cold air. This
is because warm air is “lighter” or less dense than cold air. Warm air is replacing
cooler air at the surface.
Cold front occurs where cold continental polar air actively progresses in the
region, which is occupied by hot air (Fig. 16.3). The presence of a cold front means
that cold air is advancing and pushing underneath warmer air. This is because the
cold air is “heavier”, or denser, than the warm air. Cold air is thus replacing warm
air at the surface.
Stationary front occurs when air flow from both sides of the front is not the cold
air mass or the warm air mass (Fig. 16.4).
Occluded front (see Fig. 16.5) develops when an active cold front is overtaking a
warm front and gradually presses the top.
These are slightly more complex than cold or warm fronts. The word “occluded”
means “hidden”, and an occlusion occurs when the cold front “catches up” with the
warm front. The warm air is then lifted from the surface and therefore “hidden”. An
occlusion can be thought of as having the characteristics of both warm and cold
fronts. The main features of surface fronts and their respective characteristics are
illustrated in (Fig. 16.6).
258 16  Air Masses and Fronts

Fig. 16.2  Warm front

Warm air advancing Cirrus

Cirrostratus

Altostratus
Cold Air

Nimbostratus

Warm Front

Fig. 16.3  Cold front

16.4  Fronts (Frontal Boundaries) 259

Fig. 16.4  Stationary front

Cold Front Cold Occlusion

The warm sector air mass has
been uplifted above the ground
surface.
Warm Front

Cold polar Cool polar

maritime air maritime or polar
continental air

Fig. 16.5  Occluded front. Credit: Pierre_cbderivative work, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/

index.php?curid=27925717

Fig. 16.6  Weather fronts.

(1) Cold Front; (2) warm
front; (3) stationary front;
(4) occluded front; (5)
surface trough; (6) squall
line; (7) dry line; (8)
tropical wave; (9)
trowel – trough of warm
air aloft
260 16  Air Masses and Fronts

16.4.2  Occluded Fronts

There are two types of occluded fronts:

1. Cold-type occluded front, where the air behind the cold front is colder than the
fresh air that it is overtaking
2. Warm-type occluded front, where the air behind the cold front that is moving
forward is warmer than the cold air that is overtaking
At the moment when they formed “the wave”, the warm air is advancing towards the
pole, taking the area previously affected by colder air.
This change in direction of flow causes surface modification (re-adjustment) in
the field of pressure, resulting in almost circular isobar, low pressure placed on top
of the wave. Usually, the position of the cold front moves faster than that of the
warm front, and the warm front begins to rise.
This process is known as occlusion forming occluded front. In addition to these
basic forms of atmospheric fronts, there are also other types or transient forms (e.g.
height warm front, height cold front, squall lines, trough line, convergence line,
wedge line, etc.).
The instability line or a squall line represents a linearly oriented transition zone
between the dry, dense air and less dense, moist, often associated with the occur-
rence of severe thunderstorms (potential tornadoes), especially during a warm season.
Upper warm front. A high-altitude warming represents the same physical process
as a warm front; however, the air mass change takes place only in height.  The
passage of an upper warm front may bring warmer air at an altitude of 3,000 m,
without front signals on the ground such as an increase in temperature or bringing a
change of air mass at the surface.
Upper cold front. A vertical cold front represents the same physical process as a
cold front, but the air mass change takes place only in height. So, there are no front
signals on the ground, such as a decrease in temperature to observe, clouds and rain
are of course also from the ground out.
Trough line. A trough line marks the trough of a pressure wave in higher layers
(e.g. 500 hPa levels). In this area, an advance of cold air takes place in the height;
on the other hand, the air is stabilized at the front by dynamic lifting. This often
results in rain or snow showers and thunderstorms.
Wedge line (wedge of relative topography). The relative topography is a measure
of the energy content of an air mass. With a wedge in the relative topography, the
most energetic area within an air mass is found. In summer, thunderstorms usually
develop on these lines.
References 261

Convergence line. A convergence line describes the air convergence at the near
surface layer. Basically, the convergence line is a narrow band of cloud that remains
stationary and can produce large amounts of rain across a relatively small area. This
phenomenon can be identified by the surface wind. When air masses flow together,
they are forced to ascend, which, given enough humidity, is accompanied by cloud
formation and, subsequently, precipitation formation. In summer, thunderstorms are
often triggered along convergence lines.

References

Ahrens, C. D. (2007). Meteorology today: An introduction to weather, climate and the environment
(p. 296). Cengage Learning: ISBN 978-0-495-01162-0.
Bott, A. (2012). Synoptische Meteorologie, Methoden der Wetteranalyse und-prognose (Vol. 23,
p. 485). Berlin\Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag.
Carlson, T. N. (1991). Mid-latitude weather systems (Vol. 17, p. 512). London: Unwin Hyman.
Ćurić, M., & Janc, D. (2016). Meteorology (p. 581). Belgrade-Zemun: AGM book d.o.o.
Hoskins, B. J., & James, I. N. (2014). Fluid dynamics of the midlatitude atmosphere (pp. 408 (12)).
Chichester: Wiley.
Lackmann, G. (2012). Midlatitude synoptic meteorology  – dynamics, analysis, and forecasting
(p. 345). American Meteorological Society.
Łupikasza, E. (2000). The climatology of air-mass and frontal extreme precipitation, study of
meteorological data in Europe (p. 313). Springer Narure.
Spiridonov, V., & Ćurić, M. (2011). An introduction to meteorology. ISBN 978-608-65175-0-2
COBISS.MK-ID 83607306, pp. 241 (1, 2,3,4,6, 10, 11, 12, 16, 17, 18).
Chapter 17
Cyclones and Anticyclones

17.1  General Terms

The terms cyclone and anticyclone are used to describe organized atmospheric sys-
tems with circular flow areas with low and high atmospheric pressure (e.g. Martin
2006; Russell and Thompson 2002; Wallace and Hobbs 2006; Holton 2004). In the
Northern Hemisphere, wind in the low-pressure systems (cyclones) is blowing
counterclockwise, while anticyclones spin clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere
and counterclockwise in the Southern. The main structure and the circulation of the
cyclone and anticyclone are shown on Fig. 17.1. In the case of the cyclones, the
pressure is lowest the centre (depression), while in the case of the anticyclones, the
pressure is highest at the centre. In the first case, the pressure gradient is directed
towards the centre, while in the latter case, the pressure gradient force is directed
from the centre of high pressure to the periphery. When cyclone or anticyclone is
associated with the wave front, then it is called a wave or frontal storm or mid-lati-
tude anticyclone. Cyclones are associated with unstable atmospheric conditions and
vertical movements of air. In cyclones, the air near the Earth moves towards the
inside, the centre of the cyclone, where pressure is lowest, and then it starts rising.
At the same height, the lifted air starts to diverge to the surrounding environment,
away from the centre of cyclone.
One of the key factors which determine the formation of cyclones and anticy-
clones may be the development of irregularities in jet stream (Carlson 2012). When
jet streams in the upper atmosphere start to oscillate back and forth along the east-­
west axis, they can affect cyclone or anticyclone systems that already exist in the
lower troposphere. As a result, a relatively stable cyclones (or anticyclones) may
develop, and they travel in the eastern or north-eastern direction through the conti-
nent. In relatively rare circumstances, such systems can gain enough energy, which
can be destructive to human life and infrastructure. Storms, tornadoes, and vigorous
hurricanes are examples of such extreme conditions.

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264 17  Cyclones and Anticyclones

Fig. 17.1  Low- and

high-pressure systems

Fig. 17.2  Structure of the

flow field of the cyclone

17.2  Low-Pressure Systems: Cyclones

A low organized pressure system, also known as a depression, occurs when the
weather is dominated by unstable conditions. Under a depression air is rising, form-
ing an area of low pressure at the surface. This rising air cools and condenses and
helps encourage cloud formation, so the weather is often cloudy and wet. In the
Northern Hemisphere, winds blow in anticlockwise direction around a depression.
Isobars are normally closely spaced around a depression leading to strong winds.
Depressions can be identified on weather charts as an area of closely spaced iso-
bars, often in a roughly circular shape. If isobars are along the centre of the lowest
pressure, they are called troughs. Cyclones are often accompanied by fronts. As the
air enters the area with low pressure from all directions, as the result of the Coriolis
force, the cyclonic flow is deflected towards the right (Fig. 17.2). This creates a
17.2  Low-Pressure Systems: Cyclones 265

counterclockwise rotation around the centre of low air pressure, while causing con-
vergence near the centre of the system. Convergence is occurring in the bottom area
of low pressure. Near the Earth’s surface, friction plays a major role in redistribution
of air inside the atmosphere, by changing the direction of its flow. As a result, move-
ment of air angle occurs, which is normal with isobars, the area with lower pressure.
Therefore, resultant wind is blowing counterclockwise to the surface cyclone in the
Northern Hemisphere. Convergence occurs when the air coming from different
directions moves towards individual location. As the air collides near the centre, it
is forced to rise, and thus, by divergence air is removed from the centre of the sys-
tem. Surface winds around the Northern Hemisphere cyclone (low air pressure)
blow counterclockwise and converge. In that stage the wet air rises.

17.2.1  Formation of Extratropical Cyclone

Extratropical cyclones develop in an old stationary front, i.e. on the polar front
where large horizontal temperature gradients with a forcing air lifting exist. In this
stage there is convergence in cyclone, which causes air rising from the Earth’s
surface (LaBeau 2009). The second stage begins with the formation of instability.
Warm air moves towards the northeast, while cold air moves towards the south-
west. In this way the fronts are formed. Warm front moves northeast and cold front
moves southeast. The region between the fronts is called warm sector. The low
pressure continues deepening. A widespread rainfall appears in front of the warm
front and a narrow band of snow at the cold front. Consequently, wind speed suc-
cessively increases. The development stage takes place for about 12 to 24 hours.
The warm front moves northeast. The region between fronts is called warm sector.
At this stage low pressure continues to decline, and widespread rain occurs in front
of the warm sector and a narrow band of snow at the cold front. Wind speed
increases.

17.2.2  Life Cycle of the Extratropical Cyclone

Cyclones formed at high latitudes, near the polar front, take the form of a develop-
mental wave (Byers 1944; Bjerknes and Holmboe 1944). These cyclones are called
extratropical cyclones (Fig. 17.3).
The theory of cyclogenesis (formation of cyclones) was first developed by
Norwegian meteorologists  – Bjerknes, Solberg, and Bergeron. In 1922, well
before routine upper air observations began, they transferred experience from
analysing surface weather maps over Europe into the Norwegian cyclone
model, a conceptual picture of the evolution of an extratropical cyclone and
associated frontal zones at ground. They noted that the strongest temperature
gradients usually occur at the warm edge of the frontal zone, which they called
the front.
266 17  Cyclones and Anticyclones

Fig. 17.3 Extratropical
cyclones

According to the Norwegian model of the polar front, cyclones are formed along
fronts and continue through a generally anticipated lifecycle.
The two air masses that have different densities are moving parallel to the front
but in opposite directions. In that stage, cyclogeneses occur, as well as the formation
of the frontal surface with the wave form, which is several hundred kilometres long
(Bishop and Thorpe 1994). According to the theory of polar front, the front between
cold polar air and warm sea air naturally creates wave shape form of the initial
cyclone. The open wave with well-defined warm and cold front is deepening. Cold
front then advances faster than the warm front, and it generates the occluded front.
The occluded front is finally completed (Fig. 17.4). The lifecycle of extratropical
cyclone or cyclone in high latitude is based on the school model of Bergeron. A
more detailed illustration of all stadiums of the life cycle of the cyclone is given in
(Fig. 17.5). According to this model, several successive stages in the life cycle of the
storm or extratropical cyclone, which occurs in high latitudes, are separated:
• Frontogenesis (frontal wave)
• Mature stage (open wave)
• Developing stage (occluded storm)
• Dissipation of the cyclone
According to the values of sea level pressure in the centre of the cyclones in its
earliest stage of development, it is evident that the pressure is reduced (990–1000mb).
The maximum enhancement occurs in the developed stage of the cyclone
(960–990 hPa), the final phase of decay slowly growing in the interval (960–990) to
1010 hPa.
There are three types of cyclones:
• Wave cyclone (occurs in high geographic latitudes, Arctic, Antarctic zones)
• tropical storm (it occurs in tropical and subtropical zones)
• Tornado
17.2  Low-Pressure Systems: Cyclones 267

Fig. 17.4  Four stages of the classical polar front theory (Credit: http://www.eumetrain.org/sat-
manu/polar_front_theory/index.html)

A wave cyclone is a cyclone that travels at high latitudes and includes interaction
of cold and warm air masses along the tightly defined fronts. A typical example of
wave cyclone is shown in (Fig. 17.6).

17.2.3  Cyclone Movement

A cyclone usually moves towards east (or north-east). Driven by the western winds
aloft, cyclones usually move through Eastern Europe. When idealized wave storm
moves over the region through which the warm front sets the area under the influ-
ence of tropical maritime air mass (mT), which is usually characterized by high
temperatures, there are southern winds and clear skies. Passage of cold front is eas-
ily detected by the shift of wind, the replacement of air over southern or southwest
winds with wind from west or northwest. Also, there is a significant fall in tempera-
ture. As shown by the model of the polar front, cyclogenesis occurs where the fron-
tal area is in a wave-shaped discontinuity. Flow of air at a height (divergence and
convergence) plays an important role in maintaining and cyclonic and anticyclones
circulation. Divergent field of cyclone aloft contributes air flow to be directed
268 17  Cyclones and Anticyclones

Fig. 17.5  Life cycle of extratropical cyclone, (Norwegian model) (Credit: https://slideplayer.com/
slide/2550292/)

towards the outside in all directions. Usually, winds blowing from west to east are
widespread along the curves. During colder months, when temperature gradients
are expressed, cyclonic storms are frequent. Furthermore, the western air flow at a
height that tends to manage the pool of bilge systems is usually developed in the
direction west east. During the cold months, when temperature gradients are steep,
cyclonic storms are more frequent. Western flow of air at a height aims to streamline
these systems developed pressure in the general direction from west to east. In
spring, stressed temperature gradient of the Earth from north to south can generate
intense cyclonic storms. In mid-latitude areas when the storm passes into summer
with its accompanying fronts, temperatures can change quickly, from non-seasonal
warm to non-seasonal cold, and thunderstorms with hail may occur, even followed
by snow. In the final phase, the warm sector of the cyclone redraws, and occlusion
grows. All energy from the temperature difference is used for lifting the warm air.
Then, the cold air descends, so that it comes to stabilize atmospheric conditions.
Dissipation of the cyclone begins when almost all the warm sector moves up and
cold air surrounds the cyclone at lower levels. At this point, the cyclone is exhaust-
ing its source of energy, and suddenly, cyclonic highly organized system of circula-
tion ceases to exists.
17.2  Low-Pressure Systems: Cyclones 269

Fig. 17.6  Wave cyclone

17.2.4  Upper Level Low

Upper Level Lows are closed cyclonically circulating eddies in the middle and
upper troposphere. They are sometimes also called “cold drops”, because the air
within an Upper Level Low is colder than in its surroundings. The development of
a typical Upper Level Low goes through four stages, during its evolution, starting
from the initial formation of upper air level trough, which a bottom of an upper
trough is separated from the main flow, until it finally fills up or merges with another
trough (Fig. 17.7):
• Upper level trough
• Break-off
• Cut-off
• Final stage
1. Upper level trough stage. The main driving forces of the forming of the Upper
Level Low are unstable waves within the mainstream, where the temperature
wave is behind the geopotential wave. There is cold advection within the trough
and warm advection on the ridge of the geopotential wave. The vertical axis of
the trough has a backward-oriented inclination with height. The amplitudes of
the waves increase; the wavelength can decrease.
2. Break-off stage. The amplitudes of the waves increase further. The isohypses
form an inverse omega shape, and the cold air flows into the middle of this
omega. Often at the same time, the ridge behind the main upper trough continues
270 17  Cyclones and Anticyclones

Fig. 17.7 Upper
Level Low

to move eastwards faster than the trough, appearing to “fall forward”. In the end
of this stage, the cold bottom of the trough is separated from the mainstream.
3. Cut-off stage. The bottom of the upper trough is completely detached from the
mainstream forming a closed circulation. If there is a strong forward-falling
ridge behind, it may also separate from the mainstream and form an upper level
high (a counterpart for the Upper Level Low). This happens in most of the ULL
cases. The cold core of the Upper level Low warms up slowly because of the
diabatic warming of the sinking clod air. If a cold Upper Level Low is situated
over a warm surface, convection arises within the core. Another location for
convection is ahead of the low within the area of a thickness ridge.
4. Final stage. Within an Upper Level Low, there is convection, unless the surface
is very cold. The air near the surface is warm, and the circulation is slowed down
by the friction. The convection brings warm air and friction upwards.
Consequently, the Upper Level Low weakens slowly. In most cases the Upper
Level Low merges with the mainstream before it has completely dissolved by the
convection. Usually a large trough in the mainstream approaches from the rear
and catches the upper level low. The Upper Level Low can also merge with
another Upper Level Low.
17.3  High-Pressure System: Anticyclone 271

17.3  High-Pressure System: Anticyclone

A high-pressure system with organized-closed circulation, also known as an anticy-

clone, occurs when the weather is dominated by stable conditions. Under an anticy-
clone air is descending, forming an area of higher pressure at the surface. Because
of these stable conditions, cloud formation is inhibited, so the weather is usually
settled with only small amounts of cloud cover. In the Northern Hemisphere, winds
blow in a clockwise direction around an anticyclone. As isobars are normally widely
spaced around an anticyclone, winds are often quite light.
Anticyclones can be identified on weather charts as an often-large area of widely
spaced isobars, where pressure is higher than surrounding areas. Anticyclone is a
system with high air pressure in the centre, which causes a stable, quiet, and fair
weather. Isobars are nearly circular, and if found along the centre with the highest
pressure, they are called ridges. In areas with high pressure, air is found on the surface
as a result of convergence, which occurs in the upper layers. As air approaches the
surface, it diverges from the centre (Fig. 17.8). Coriolis effect deflects the air to the
right, and its path creates rotation around the centre of the high air pressure clockwise.
Divergence happens at the centre of the system with high air pressure on the
Earth’s surface. Divergence occurs when air is directed towards the outside of a
specific location in different directions. Wind divergence in the high layers of the
system held like the area with low air pressure. Without the presence of divergence,
the system would be filled with air, and horizontal differences in pressure would be
equalled, causing it to disappear. Figure 17.9 shows a high-pressure system (anticy-
clone). The high surface pressure area, with a high of about 1031 hPa, and clear
clouds are well evident from the satellite image.

Fig. 17.8 Anticyclone
structure
272 17  Cyclones and Anticyclones

Fig. 17.9 High-pressure
area seen from the satellite

Unlike cyclones, which tend to move towards the northeast, anticyclones often
move southwest. As a result of the gradual pressure increase towards the centre,
anticyclones cause clear skies and stable and calm weather conditions. Large sys-
tems with high pressure, called blocking anticyclones, are found in high latitudes
each winter, and they approximately distance themselves with zonal flow from west
to east and go towards the pole. Stagnant anticyclones move eastward, keeping one
part dry naturally in the duration of 1 or more weeks, while the other region remains
constantly under the influence of cyclonic storms. Also, due to the air subsidence,
large stagnant anticyclones can create temperature inversion, which contributes to
increasing the level of air pollution. In winter the clear, settled conditions and light
winds associated with anticyclones can lead to frost and fog.
The clear skies allow heat to be lost from the surface of the Earth by radiation,
allowing temperatures to fall steadily overnight, leading to air or ground frosts.
Light winds along with falling temperatures can encourage fog to form; this can
linger well into the following morning and be slow to clear. In summer the clear
settled conditions associated with anticyclones can bring long sunny days and warm
temperatures. The weather is normally dry, although, occasionally, very hot tem-
peratures can trigger thunderstorms.

17.4  W
 eather Conditions Associate with Cyclones
and Anticyclones

Weather in the area of baric systems depends on their dynamic structure and ther-
modynamics. Different forms of weather tend to be associated with cyclones and
anticyclones. The characteristic signs of cyclones or low-pressure systems are
unstable and variable weather conditions. The weather is cloudier, wetter, windier,
and occurrence of rainy, stormy, and unfair weather. The anticyclone systems or
References 273

high air pressure systems (highs) are mainly associated with appearance of stable,
stagnant, calm, and fair weather conditions.

References

Bishop, C. H., & Thorpe, A. J. (1994). Frontal wave stability during moist deformation.
Bjerknes, J., & Holmboe, J. (1944). On the theory of cyclones, J. Meteorol., 1, 1–22.
Byers, H. R. (1944). General Meteorology. New York: McGraw-Hill, 645 pp.
Carlson, T. N. (2012). Mid-latitude weather systems. Penn State University Press; Reprint edition,
pp. 507.
Ćurić, M., & Janc, D. (2016). Meteorology (p. 581). Belgrade-Zemun: AGM book d.o.o.
Holton, J.  R. (2004). An introduction to dynamic meteorology. Elsevier Academic Press,
pp. 535 (12).
LaBeau, T. G. (2009). Cyclones: Background, history and impact (Vol. 17, p. 269). Inc New York:
Nova Science Publishers.
Longshore, D. (2008). Encyclopaedia of Hurricanes, Typhoons and Cyclones (3rd Ed.), Facts on
File, pp. 468.
Martin, J. E. (2006). Mid-latitude atmospheric dynamics: A first course. Wiley, pp. 324.
Frontogenesis. Part II: The suppression of nonlinear wave development. Journal of the Atmospheric
Sciences, 51(6), 874–888.
Russell D., Thompson, R. D. (2002). Atmospheric processes and systems. pp. 194.
Shapiro, M. A., & Keyser, D. (1990). Fronts, jet streams and the Tropopause, Extratropical
cyclones, Erik Palmen memorial volume (C.W.  Newton & E.  Holopainen, Eds). American
Meteorological Society, pp. 167–191.
Wallace, J. M., & Hobbs, P. V. (2006). Atmospheric science: An introductory survey (2nd Ed),
Academic Press, pp. 483.
Chapter 18
Tropical Storms

18.1  General Overview

Tropical cyclones represent the most severe storms (Longshore 2008a, b). By defi-
nition, tropical storm is a system with low air pressure in the centre and organized
circulation (Fig.  18.1) which develops over tropical and subtropical ocean
(Krishnamurti et al. 2013; Allaby 2014; Anthes 2016). This term encompasses trop-
ical depressions, tropical storms, hurricanes, and typhoons. At mature stage, the
tropical cyclone is one of the most intense and tropical storms, with winds which
exceed 90 m s−1 and torrential rains. Its dimension usually ranges in diameter from
100 to well over 1000 km in a fully mature stage up to 2000 km in developing stage.
A tropical cyclone is characterized by a warm core in the centre, very steep pres-
sure gradients, and strong spiral cyclonic inward winds near the Earth’s surface
becoming more nearly circular near the centre (Terry 2007). Pressure gradients, and
resulting winds, are nearly always much stronger than those of extratropical storms.
The cloud and rain patterns vary from storm to storm, but in general there are spiral
bands in the outer vortex, while the most intense rain and winds occur in the eye-
wall. Depending on the speed of wind, tropical cyclones are divided into:
• Tropical depression (tropical cyclones whose maximum wind speed is less than
60 km/h)
• Tropical storms (when the maximum wind speed ranks between 60 and
110 km/h
• Tropical cyclones (when the maximum wind speed exceeds 110 km/h)
In the North and the North Pacific region, tropical cyclones are called “hurri-
canes” (Fig. 18.2); in the Western North Pacific region, they are named as “typhoons”,
while in the region of the Indian Ocean, they are known as cyclones. Figure 18.3
shows a sequence of typhoon Soulik near Japan, on August 20, 2018, using the
Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA’s Terra
satellite.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 275

V. Spiridonov, M. Ćurić, Fundamentals of Meteorology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-52655-9_18
276 18  Tropical Storms

Fig. 18.1  Tropical storm

Fig. 18.2 Hurricane
Katrina (Courtesy: NOAA/
NESDIS: http://www.nnvl.
noaa.gov/)

18.2  Tropical Cyclone Formation

The formation of tropical cyclones is still a topic of intense research and is not fully
understood, although research has shown that certain factors must be present for
cyclones to intensify to hurricane strength. The process of disturbance formation in
the field of pressure and subsequent strengthening of the tropical cyclone depends
on the following conditions:
1. Contact of the tropical storm in the warm ocean waters, where the phase of
development is. This usually occurs between 5 and 20  deg. north and south
latitude.
18.2  Tropical Cyclone Formation 277

Fig. 18.3  Satellite image

of Typhoon Soulik
(Source: https://
earthobservatory.nasa.gov/
images/92628/
typhoon-soulik)

2. Flow of moisture through evaporation of warm ocean waters near the equator, as
significant source of latent heat energy used for intensification of the tropical
cyclone.
3. Shape of the wind flow near the ocean surface, which forces the air vortic-
ity inside.
As a result of these processes, a vertical column of air occurs, with very low pres-
sure at its centre. In this form, groups of storms are allowing air to be further heated
and raise high into the atmosphere.

18.2.1  General Factors

Basic factors for the formation of tropical cyclones are atmospheric disturbances
that occur as a result of wave movements, atmospheric disturbances (instability
lines or squall lines), thermobaric systems, and frontal boundaries (Oouchi and
Fudeyasu 2013). Some of them are listed and described below:
• Eastern waves (tropical waves): waves that are turned into valleys with low air
pressure, they move westwards in the tropical belt of the eastern winds (eastern
winds). The rough is a region with relatively low pressure. Much of the tropical
cyclones are formed by the waves of the eastern winds.
• West Pacific line disturbances: represent a line of convection (like a line of
instability), which is formed over the West African continent and is moving into
the Atlantic Ocean, usually faster than tropical waves.
• Tropical-upper troposphere upper trough: a trough or cold core low air pres-
sure (depression) in the upper atmosphere, which creates favourable conditions
for convection and developing tropical storm;
• Old frontal boundary occurs in the remnants of the polar front, where lines of
convection as precursors to the formation of tropical storm are created. In the
278 18  Tropical Storms

Atlantic Ocean storms, it occurs in early or late season hurricanes in the Gulf of
Mexico or the Caribbean Sea.

18.2.2  The Basic Ingredients

The basic ingredients which serve as a triggering mechanisms for initiation of for-
mation of tropical cyclones (hurricanes, typhoons, tropical depressions, tropical
storms) are the sea surface temperature (SST) distribution, the geographical loca-
tion, some pre-existing mesoscale atmospheric disturbance, prevailing winds, ther-
modynamic conditions, environmental instability parameters, and vertical
stratification of the atmosphere (Longshore 2008a, b; Galvin 2015). It is well
accepted that interannual perturbations in sea surface temperature (SST) in the
ocean waters (Atlantic Ocean) are associated with variations in seasonal tropical
cyclone frequency. Sea surface temperature distribution is an important factor as it
represents an important source of latent heat release through evaporation of warm
ocean waters. Therefore, the formation of tropical cyclone requires sufficiently
warm sea surface temperatures (SSTs) usually greater than 26 °C. Because SST are
seasonally changing, thus the likely locations of tropical storms formation also
change. However, the most convenient areas are over tropical ocean waters away
from the equator. Other significant ingredient is a pre-existing low-level atmo-
spheric disturbance that could be generated as the result of energy transfer from
microscale to mesoscale or some other scale interaction processes such as genera-
tion of internal mesoscale instabilities or interactions of cloud physical processes
with mesoscale. Other factors include a high mid-level moisture, weak vertical
wind shear.

18.3  Areas of Formation

Considering that the temperature of sea level should be at least (27 °C) for tropical
cyclogenesis, it is natural that they are formed near the equator. However, only in
rare circumstances, tropical cyclones form at distance 5 degree latitude from the
equator.
1. Atlantic basin (including the North Atlantic Ocean, Gulf of Mexico, and

Caribbean Sea)
2. North-eastern Pacific basin
3. Pacific Northwest basin, including the South China Sea
4. North Indian basin (including the Gulf of Bengal and Arabian Sea)
5. South-western Indian basin from Africa to about 100 E
6. Southeast Indian/Australian basin (100 ° E to 142 ° E)
7. Australian/Southwest Pacific basin (from 142 ° E to 120 ° W)
18.4  Classification of Tropical Cyclones 279

Fig. 18.4 Regions of formation of tropical cyclones (Credit: http://basins.ghkates.com/

tropical-cyclone-basins/)

This is due to the weak influence of Coriolis force, which causes cyclone fluctua-
tions. There are seven standard basins where tropical cyclones form (Fig.  18.4).
Table 18.1 provides a brief description of the area of formation, the main character-
istics, and the period of activity of tropical cyclones.

18.4  Classification of Tropical Cyclones

Tropical cyclones with organized low-pressure systems accompanied by thunder-

storms, with a clearly defined circulation and permanent winds of about 60 km/h or
less, are called “tropical depressions”. In case when cyclonic circulation becomes
more organized and maximum sustained winds gust between 60 and 120 km/h, it is
commonly called “tropical storms”. If persistent winds reach a maximum speed of
about (120 km/h), tropical cyclones are named as follows:
• Hurricane (North Atlantic Ocean, northeast Pacific Ocean, and southern Pacific
Ocean east of 160 degree E). The word “hurricane” comes from the Caribbean
Indians of Western India, who called the Storm “huracan”. It is assumed that
Taint’s ancient tribe in Central America called their god of evil “Huracan”.
Spanish colonists modified the word to “hurricane”.
• Typhoon (Northwest Pacific). Super typhoon occurs if maximum winds are con-
stant at least 241 km/h.
• Tropical storm (southwest Pacific, west of 160 °E, and the southeast Indian
Ocean, east of 90 ° E).
• Storm cyclone (in the northern Indian Ocean).
• Tropical storm in the south-western Indian Ocean.
280 18  Tropical Storms

Table 18.1  Basic features of tropical cyclones

Atlantic basin, which The hurricane season officially starts on June 1 and lasts until
includes the North Atlantic November 30. Weak activity since mid-September
Ocean, Gulf of Mexico, and
Caribbean Sea
North-eastern Pacific basin Wide peak activities, which began in late May or early June and
last until late October or early November, with a maximum
intensity of storms in late August
North-western Pacific basin, It happens regularly throughout the year, with a minimum
including the South China intensity in February and the first half of March. The main season
Sea lasts from July to November, with a maximum intensity of
tropical cyclones in late August
North Indian basin Double maximum intensity (peak) of the activity of tropical
(including the bay of Bengal cyclones is noticed in the period (May–November) and (April–
and Arabian Sea) December). Powerful cyclones with storm winds (> 119 km / h)
usually occur in (April–June) and again in late September until
early December
South-western Indian basin Begins in late October (early November). Achieves double peak in
(from Africa to about 100 activity, one in the middle of January and another in mid-February
E) and lasts until the beginning of March and then ends in May
South-eastern Indian-­ Begins in late October (early November). Achieves double peak
Australian basin (100 ° E to procedure, one in the middle of January and another in mid-­
142 ° E) February and lasts until the beginning of March, and it ends in
May
A delay in activities of the Australian/Southwest Indian basin in
February is more emphasized than the delay of the south-western
Indian basin
Australian-Southwest Begins in late October (early November). Single peak reaches the
Pacific basin. From 142 ° E end in February and then weakens in early May
to about 120 ° W

18.5  Tropical Storm Structure

The key parts of the rainy tropical storm tracks are eye and eye layer (eyewall) as it
is shown in Fig. 18.5. The air rotates towards the centre of the cyclone counterclock-
wise in the Northern Hemisphere (and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere) and
then comes on the top in the opposite direction.
At the centre of the storm, air descends and forms an “eye”, which is usually not
accompanied by the appearance of clouds. The air rotates towards the centre of the
cyclone counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere (and clockwise in the
Southern Hemisphere), and then comes on the top in the opposite direction.
18.5  Tropical Storm Structure 281

Fig. 18.5  Structure of tropical storm

18.5.1  Cyclonic Eye

Cyclonic eye is found at the centre of strong tropical cyclone. It is usually circular
and typically 40–65 km in diameter. It is surrounded by the vertical wall of thunder-
storms (eyewall), where the most severe weather of a cyclone occurs. The eye is
possibly the most recognizable feature of tropical cyclones. In strong tropical
cyclones, the eye is characterized by light winds and bright, clear skies, and warmer
weather condition. In weaker tropical cyclones, the eye is less well-defined and can
be covered by the central dense overcast, which is an area of high, thick clouds
which show up brightly on satellite pictures. Weaker or disorganized storms may
also feature an eyewall which does not completely encircle the eye or have an eye
which features heavy rain. In all storms, however, the eye is the location of the
storm’s minimum barometric pressure: the area where the atmospheric pressure at
sea level is the lowest. Near the sea surface, air temperature is almost uniformed
throughout the storm. It is assumed that the eye of the tropical storm is formed with
a combination of maintaining angle moment and centrifugal force. In this case, the
air increases its speed when it points towards the centre of the tropical storm. With
increasing the speed, strength appears to be directed towards the outside, and it is
called centrifugal force. It occurs because of the angle moment that the wind tends
to carry through the line. As the wind flows around the centre of the tropical storm,
the force is removed to the outside. A more pronounced curve and/or faster rotation
results in stronger centrifugal force. The strong rotation of air around the cyclone,
with wind speeds of ~119 km/h, fits the air in the centre, forcing its rapid rising to
the higher layers, at the height of about (16–32 km) from the centre, forming a wall
eye. This strong rotation also creates a vacuum of air at the centre, causing part of
the air flows to the top of the eye wall, to replace lost air mass near the centre. By
this lowering, the air tends to create a clean air zone in the centre, without the
282 18  Tropical Storms

presence of clouds. People often perceive the passage of the cyclonic eye at night,
watching the stars in the sky. Sudden change with the emergence of very strong
winds, which occur immediately after the silent condition, is dangerous to people
who neglect the structure of tropical cyclone (hurricane). They usually notice the
occurrence of weak wind and a fine weather in the eye, maybe for moment thinking
that the hurricane has passed, but storm is only half the opposite side, with danger-
ous winds for a few minutes back in the wall of the eye, this time from the opposite
direction.

18.5.2  Eyewall

The most dangerous and destructive part of a tropical cyclone is the eyewall shown
on Fig.  18.6. Here winds are strongest, rainfall is heaviest, and deep convective
clouds rise from close to Earth’s surface to a height of 15 km. As noted above, the
high winds are driven by rapid changes in atmospheric pressure near the eye, which
creates a large pressure gradient force. Winds reach their greatest speed at an alti-
tude of about 300 metres above the surface, while closer to the surface they are
slowed by friction. Higher than 300 metres, they are weakened by a slowing down
of the horizontal pressure gradient force as the results of temperature structure of
the storm. Air is warmer in the core of a tropical cyclone, and this higher tempera-
ture causes atmospheric pressure in the centre to decrease at a slower rate with
height than occurs in the surrounding atmosphere. The reduced contrast in atmo-
spheric pressure with altitude causes the horizontal pressure gradient to weaken
with height, which in turn results in a decrease in wind speed. Friction at the sur-
face, in addition to lowering wind speeds, causes the wind to turn inwards towards
the area of lowest pressure. Air flowing into the low-pressure eye cools by expan-
sion and in turn extracts heat and water vapour from the sea surface. Areas of maxi-
mum heating have the strongest updrafts, and the eyewall exhibits the greatest

Fig. 18.6  Eyewall of

tropical storm
18.5  Tropical Storm Structure 283

vertical wind speeds in the storm – up to 5 to 10 m/s. While such velocities are much
less than those of the horizontal winds, updrafts are vital to the existence of the
towering convective clouds embedded in the eyewall. Much of the heavy rainfall
associated with tropical cyclones comes from these clouds. The upward movement
of air in the eyewall also causes the eye to be wider aloft than at the surface. As the
air spirals upward, it conserves its angular momentum, which depends on the dis-
tance from the centre of the cyclone and on the wind speed around the centre. Since
the wind speed decreases with height, the air must move farther from the centre of
the storm as it rises. When updrafts reach the stable tropopause, the air flows out-
ward. The Coriolis force deflects this outward flow, creating a broad anticyclonic
circulation aloft. Therefore, horizontal circulation in the upper levels of a tropical
cyclone is opposite to that near the surface.

18.5.3  Rain Bands

In addition to deep convective cells (compact regions of vertical air movement) sur-
rounding the eye, there are often secondary cells arranged in bands around the cen-
tre. These bands, commonly called rain bands, spiral into the centre of the storm.
In some cases, the rain bands are stationary relative to the centre of the moving
storm, and in other cases, they seem to rotate around the centre. The rotating cloud
bands often are associated with an apparent wobbling of the storm track. If this hap-
pens as the tropical cyclone approaches a coastline, there may be large differences
between the forecast landfall positions and actual landfall. Sometimes there are
delays between the spiral belts, which lead to no occurrence of rain or strong wind.
As the tropical cyclone makes landfall, surface friction increases, which in turn
increases the convergence of air flow into the eyewall and the vertical motion of air
occurring there. The increased convergence and rising of moisture-laden air is
responsible for the torrential rains associated with tropical cyclones, which may be
in excess of 250 mm in a 24-hour period. At times a storm may stall, allowing heavy
rains to persist over an area for several days. In extreme cases, rainfall totals of
760 mm (30 inches) in a 5-day period have been reported.

18.5.4  Dimensions of the Tropical Cyclone

Tropical cyclones usually extend over large area from 100 to 2000 km in diameter,
although they can significantly change their dimension. In principle, the size (diam-
eter)  is not a basic indication of the intensity of the hurricane.  For example,
Hurricane “Andrew” (1992), second strongest, devastating hurricane that hit the
North American continent, and then hurricane “Katrina” in 2005 that was a rela-
tively small hurricane. According to a record, the largest storms like “typhoon”
occurred in the north-western Pacific on October 12, 1979. They were accompanied
284 18  Tropical Storms

by strong storm winds that are dispersed 1087 km in radius. The smallest tropical
cyclone is “Tracy”, manifested with strong storm winds which are dispersed only
48 km in radius, which affected Darwin, Australia, on December 24, 1974. Hurricane
destructive winds and rains cover a wide belt. According to data for the Atlantic
basin, the strongest storm was Hurricane “Wilma” in 2005, with the pressure of
882 hPa at the centre of the tropical storm, with permanent winds for about 280 km/h.

18.5.5  Tropical Cyclone Life Cycle and Tracks

Most tropical cyclones last for a few days, though some may take a while signifi-
cantly longer or disappear within 12 hours. Although strong winds blow inside the
cyclones, the cyclones themselves move very slowly (about 5 m/s), and their speed
increases in the mature phase to about 20 m/s. Tropical cyclones, when they reach
land, are weak and disappear rapidly as the flow of energy from the warm water
surface stops. Rarely do they occur in temperate latitudes already transform into
extant cyclones. Typical tropical cyclone trajectories are given in Fig. 18.7. Although
tropical cyclone occurrence regions are known, as well as the fact that they move
mainly westward, their exact trajectories are different and often difficult to predict.
Hurricane movement also depends on the winds normal to their trajectories. Thus,
if it forms in the tropical region of the eastern Atlantic, it moves westwards with the
trade winds. In the Gulf of Mexico region, it turns northwest and poses a potential
threat to the east coast of America and the Gulf Coast.

Fig. 18.7  Global Tropical Cyclone Tracks between 1985 and 2005
18.5  Tropical Storm Structure 285

18.5.6  The Weather Associated with Tropical Cyclones

Tropical cyclones are always accompanied by heavy rain. Single storm can provide
up to 3000 mm of rain. Intensive rainfall sometimes occurs several days after the
overrun across the land and can also be very destructive and cause flooding. Due to
steep pressure gradient, strong winds appear. The wind velocity rapidly increases
from near zero in the eye of the cyclone to a maximum value at a radius between (10
and 100 km) from the bottom. The strongest winds occur near the head of storm.

18.5.7  Tropical Cyclone Disasters

Each year, beginning on June 1, Gulf countries and the east coast are in great danger
of occurrence of tropical cyclones. Although many people know that the tropical
cyclones occur with winds of destructive power, many hardly know that tropical
cyclones directly or indirectly create other types of accidents that endanger life and
material goods (Collins and Walsh 2019).
For that purpose, information and education about the formation, activities, and
destructive power of tropical cyclones for better preparedness and taking preventive
measures to reduce the risk of disasters are required.

18.5.8  Large Storm Wave

Destructive strength of tropical cyclones occurs not only due to the strong forcing
wind but also as a result of the large storm wave and the accompanying waves it
creates. Storm surge is water from the ocean that is pushed towards the shore by the
force of the winds swirling around the hurricane (Fig. 18.8.) Storm surge combined
with waves can cause extensive damage. It can severely erode beaches and coastal

Fig. 18.8 Hurricane
storm wave
286 18  Tropical Storms

highways. Stormy wave is manifested by rapid sea level water rising (sometimes
more than 6 metres). Many of the accidents associated with tropical cyclones appear
due to the large storm wave. Large storm wave represents a water mass, which
moves to shore, forced by the strength of the winds, which blow around the storm.
This great leading wave is combined with ordinary waves, which create a hurricane
storm wave.
The wave intensity is determined depending of slope of the continental shelf.
Shallow slope of the shore allows flooding of coastal areas by the most powerful
wave. Areas with steeper continental shelf reduce the likelihood of major flooding
in the strong wave of hailstorms, although large destructive waves can still cause
serious problems.

18.5.9  Windstorms and Flooding

Hurricanes are known by their destructive winds. Their intensity is measured by the
rate of flow of the wind. The National Hurricane Centre issued a notification in
respect of the wind and the category of hurricane.
This hurricane scale does not include wind shots or storms. Blows are brief, but
with rapid breaks of the wind speed, which arises as a result of the disturbances.
Cyclonic wind causes great damage to marine traffic and infrastructure on the main-
land. Many homes were damaged and destroyed when strong wind simply raises the
roofs of housing. The strong wind that moves over the top of the roof creates a lower
pressure on its exposed side, the loft. Higher pressure in loft helps to cover rising.
When loading, the roof part is blown away from the residence. When the roof is
plucked, the walls are easier to waggle by the hurricane wind. Besides leading storm
waves and strong winds, tropical cyclones are accompanied by strong rainfall and
the occurrence of floods (Fig. 18.9). Even when the wind is turned down in several

Fig. 18.9  Tropical storms

severe winds and flooding
References 287

subsequent days, there remains a potential threat of flooding from these storms.
Tropical cyclones can also cause sudden flooding, urban flooding, and meat or river
flooding. Sudden floods are weather situations that occur quickly. This type of
flooding may begin within minutes or hours of heavy downpours. The rapid rise of
water can reach up to 10 metres, and it can pull trees and destroy buildings and
bridges. Urban floods are fast atmospheric phenomena; although not as intense as
flash flooding, they may cause flooding down the street and flooding of basements
and other structures. River floods are more lasting phenomena that occur when the
expiration of torrential rains caused by the dissolution of hurricanes or tropical
storms will reach the rivers. River flooding can happen in just a few hours, and it
also lasts for a week or longer.

18.5.10  Names of Tropical Cyclones

Tropical cyclones have been given names, in order to provide easy communication
between forecasters and the public, in terms of weather forecast, observations, and
announcements. The first appropriate name for a tropical storm was used by
Australian forecaster in the early twentieth century. He suggested that names of
tropical cyclones are given “according to political figures”. During World War II,
the tropical cyclones were given female names by the US Army and the Navy mete-
orologists (after their girlfriends or wives) who observed and gave forecast of tropi-
cal cyclones over the Pacific. From 1950 to 1952, tropical cyclones in the North
Atlantic Ocean were identified by phonetic alphabet, but in 1953 female names
were back. The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the US National
Weather Service (NVS) progressed to list names that also included male names. The
tropical cyclones in the Pacific Northwest region, officially from 1945, were given
female names, and male names were also involved in the early 1979. From January
1, 2000, tropical cyclones in the north-western Pacific were named with new and
very different list of names. The new names were Asian names from all nations and
territories given by the Typhoon Committee of WMO. These newly selected names
have two major differences from the rest of the world’s lists of names of tropical
cyclones. Tropical cyclones have several male and female names, but the majority
are names of flowers, animals, birds, trees, or even food. Finally, the names are not
given in alphabetical order but arranged by the contributor in alphabetical order.

References

Allaby, M. (2014). Hurricanes (p. 209). New York: Infobase Publishing.

Anthes, R. (2016). Tropical cyclones: Their evolution, structure and effects volume 19 of meteoro-
logical monographs. American Meteorological Society, pp.208.
Collins, J. M., & Walsh, K. (2019). Hurricane risk (p. 260). Cham: Springer.
288 18  Tropical Storms

Galvin, J. P. F. (2015). An introduction to the meteorology and climate of the tropics (Vol. 328).
Hoboken, Wiley-Blackwell.
Krishnamurti, T. N., Stefanova, L., & Vasubandhu, M. (2013). Tropical meteorology-Introduction
(p. 422). Dordrecht: Springer.
Longshore, D. (2008a). Encyclopedia of hurricanes, typhoons and cyclones (3rd Ed.). Facts on
File, 468 pp.
Longshore, D. (2008b). Encyclopedia of hurricanes, typhoons, and cyclones (p. 481). New York:
Infobase Publishing.
Oouchi, K., & Fudeyasu, H. (2013). Cyclones: Formation, triggers and control (p. 264). New York:
Nova Science Publishers.
Terry, J.  P. (2007). Tropical cyclones  - climatology and impacts in the South Pacific (p.  210).
Dordrecht: Springer.
Chapter 19
Thunderstorms, Lightning, and Tornadoes

19.1  Basic Definition

Storm is any disturbed state of the atmosphere, affecting the earth’s surface and
causing destructive weather. In general storms represent clouds with vertical devel-
opment where the process of convection is dominant.
Convection is the vertical transport of heat and moisture in the atmosphere as
mode of the energy transfer. According to another definition, convection is a ther-
mally driven turbulent mixing in the atmosphere. There is a free convection, defined
as a self-sustained flow driven by the presence of a temperature gradient (buoyancy
force) or forced convection as mechanism in which fluid motion is generated by an
external or mechanical factors (forced air lifting, horizontal mass convergence, cold
air slides down over warm air, organized air circulation). We also distinguish a dry
convection (as thermally driven-thermal lows) without clouds and precipitation and
moist convection, where convective processes produce clouds and precipitation
(Smith 1996; Pruppacher and Klettt 2010). In unorganized convection, there is a
non-regular spatial distribution of cloud evolution generated by differential heating
and air rising as less denser and warmer than environment. An organized convection
is associated with occurrence of the regular spatial distribution of convective clouds
evolution in a wider area. It usually occurs over surface boundary layer (1–2 km)-
shallow convection, where Cu and Sc clouds are forming. In shallow convection
exists a thermally driven turbulent mixing, where vertical lifting is capped below
500 hPa. Shallow convection is important for many aspects: cloud cover, vertical
moisture transport, and surface precipitation in some regions and also as environ-
ment precursor for deeper modes of convection. In addition to shallow, also deep
convection occurs that affects whole tropospheric layer, where thermally driven tur-
bulent mixing and vertical lifting take place from lower atmosphere above 500 hPa.
Triggering factors for their formation are frontal boundaries, shear lines, tropical
cyclones, and tropical waves. They also develop under deep upward vertical motion
(ahead of a polar front, organized tropical cyclone, positive scale Interaction, i.e.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 289

V. Spiridonov, M. Ćurić, Fundamentals of Meteorology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-52655-9_19
290 19  Thunderstorms, Lightning, and Tornadoes

tropical wave moving under divergent side of upper trough/ridge) or during large
scale air subsidence (behind Polar trough/ahead of block ridge, over continent gen-
erally inhibits convective development). General conditions for their formation are
low-level convergence, upper level divergence, relative humidity in excess of 70%,
unstable PBL layer. Storm initiation depends on the atmospheric instability and
thermodynamic-environmental parameters as triggering factors for their initiation,
evolution, and dissipation.
Thunderstorm or electrical storm is a local storm, produced by a cumulonimbus
cloud and always accompanied by lightning and thunder, usually with strong gusts
of wind, heavy rain, and sometimes with hail. It is usually of short life cycle hours
for any one storm. A thunderstorm is a consequence of atmospheric instability. A
strong convective updraft is a distinguishing feature of this storm in its early phases.
A strong downdraft in a column of precipitation marks its dissipating stages.

19.2  Thunderstorm Formation

There are three important factors for the formation of thunderstorms: moisture,
instability, and the mechanism of rising (Cotton et  al. 2010). Typical sources of
moisture are large water bodies such as the Atlantic and Pacific Ocean, Gulf of
Mexico, Indian Ocean, and other large water areas. The sea surface temperature also
plays an important role in controlling the source of moisture. Instability of the atmo-
sphere occurs when air near the surface is heated or when the amount of cold air is
moved to an area with a heated surface. In these situations, if the individual air
particle is forced to move upwards, it will continue to rise independently by impact
of the strength of displacement. As the air particle rises, so it cools, and some water
vapour will condense, forming characteristic cumulonimbus cloud which represents
thunderstorm. The basic features of storm are unstable air mass with heated moist
air near the surface, with a cooler and dry air aloft. The air is forced upwards and
will continue to rise, and the air that is driven downwards will continue to descend.
For thunderstorm to occur, there should be a mechanism which initiates upper verti-
cal movement. These are the main favourable conditions for lifting air: a) front-­
boundary between cold and warm air mass, as an ideal place for an outbreak of
upward movements in the atmosphere as a place where instability occurs; b) dry-­
line boundaries between two air masses containing different amounts moisture; and
c) constraints; if the wind blows over the obstacle, it will be forced to rise upwards.

19.3  Life Cycle of a Thunderstorm

Cumulus clouds appear before the formation of thunderstorms. Lifted cumulus

cloud is associated by lifting of the air. Such lifting may be due to convergence of
air associated with the anomaly in the heat on the Earth’s surface or occurs as a
19.4  Thunderstorm Classification 291

result of inclined terrain. At this mature stage if rains occur, it would be quite a low
rainfall, which would last about 10 minutes. The air continues to rise to the tropo-
pause. The upper lid forces the air to spread out, resulting in the emergence of a
form of “anvil”. Then, it is probably time for the occurrence of hail, heavy rain,
often lightning, strong winds, and tornadoes. Storms are occasionally characterized
by a dark green appearance. Duration is approximately 10 to 20 minutes, but some
storms can last longer in the absence of wind shearing. This stage marks the disap-
pearance of thunderstorms, and it is manifested by the characteristic descendent
currents (downdrafts). Rainfall intensity decreases but still creates breakthroughs
with strong descending movements near the surface, thus preventing the internal
flow at lower levels. Lightning still represents a potential danger.

19.4  Thunderstorm Classification

Based on the number of primary convective cores, thermodynamic environmental

conditions, and the microphysical structure (Pruppacher and Klettt 2004), storms
can be classified into following groups: single cell, multicell, and supercell
(Fig. 19.1). Formation of different types of storms is caused by different combina-
tions of the above conditions.
(a) Single cell. In single cell storms, there is a core with vertical movement, called
“cell”. Such a single cell is usually formed in isolation to other cells. Very often,
more than one cell appears if the environment is suitable for development. They
are typically driven by heating on a summer afternoon. Single cell storms pro-
duce hail, rain, and lightning. The lifetime is usually 20–30 min. Pulse storms
can produce severe weather such as downbursts, hail, heavy rainfall, and weak
tornadoes. Their evolution I spassing through three stages: cumulus, mature,
and dissipation. The have weak wind shear and veering.
(b) Multicell. A group of cells mainly moving as a single units with each cell in a
different stage of the thunderstorm life cycle. They have a multiple convective
updrafts and downdrafts. According to their structure and evolutionary

Fig. 19.1  Storms classification

292 19  Thunderstorms, Lightning, and Tornadoes

p­ roperties, they are classified as ordered, weak-ordered, and unordered multi-

cell. They produce moderate hail, flash-floods, and weak tornadoes.
(c) Supercell. A special type of single cell storm that lasts longer than several
hours. It has a very organized and strong vertical updrafts and downdrafts cores.
Severe thunderstorms with rotating updrafts-mesocyclone (Ćurić 2001a;
Spiridonov and Ćurić 2019). They are characterized with strong wind shear and
veering, large CAPE, and storm helicity. In addition the directional wind shear
(veering) at the near surface layer, high storm helicity index and differential
heating induced by the strong local forcing environment serve as triggering fac-
tors for initiation of supercell storm with rotational updrafts-mesocyclone.
Supercell storms can produce strong downbursts, large hail, flash floods, and
weak to violent tornadoes and can be very destructive phenomena. It is extremely
dangerous and responsible for heavy rainfall, hailfall, flash floods, and even torna-
does. Thunderstorms are responsible for the development and formation of many
severe weather phenomena. They are usually accompanied by strong winds and
often produce heavy rainfall, hailfall, flash floods, wind gusts, tornadoes, and atmo-
spheric electrical discharges (lightning).
Today it is more common to classify storms according to the characteristics of
the storms themselves, and such characteristics depend largely on the meteorologi-
cal environment in which the storms develop. Based on the thermodynamic, envi-
ronmental characteristics, convective instability parameters, and physical processes,
they are also classified as the air mass thunderstorms, squall lines, convective bands,
mesoscale convective complex (MCC), convective clusters, mesoscale convective
systems (MCS) (Markowski and Richardson 2010) (Fig. 19.2).
Air mass thunderstorms are also known as the local thunderstorms. They are
mostly vertical in structure, are relatively short-lived, and usually do not produce
violent weather at the ground. This type of storms is composed of one or more con-
vective cells, each of which goes through a well-defined life cycle. Early in the
development of a cell, the air motions are mostly upward, not as a steady, uniform
stream but as one that is composed of a series of rising eddy. Cloud and precipitation
particles form and grow as the cell grows. When the accumulated load of water and
ice becomes excessive, a downdraft starts. The downward motion is enhanced when
the cloud particles evaporate and cool the air – almost the reverse of the processes
in an updraft. At maturity, the cell contains both updrafts and downdrafts in proxim-
ity. In its later stages, the downdraft spreads throughout the cell and diminishes in
intensity as precipitation falls from the cloud. Isolated thunderstorms contain one or
more convective cells in different stages of evolution.
Squall line thunderstorms (multicellular line storms) are many single cell
storms arranged in a line. They are like mesoscale convective complexes in that they
are a cluster of storms, but, instead of a circular-shaped cluster, they form in a multi-­
cell linear cluster. Squall lines form along cold fronts or as far as 80 miles ahead of
a cold front. They form in a similar way to mesoscale convective complexes. If the
air at or in front of the cold front is unstable, humid, and warm, squall line
19.4  Thunderstorm Classification 293

Fig. 19.2  Sequence of general appearance of (a) a squall line (Credit: Nicholas A. Tonelli from
Northeast Pennsylvania, USA [CC BY 2.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0)]); (b)
convective band; (c) mesoscale convective system (MCS); and (d) mesoscale convective com-
plex (MCC)

thunderstorms can develop. They usually have heavy precipitation, strong winds,
small hail, and lightning. In some rare cases, tornadoes can develop.
Mesoscale convective complexes are groups of thunderstorms that form in a
large cluster that can span an entire state. Usually, they develop from a thunderstorm
outbreak in the area of unstable air that is warm and humid. In the areas where they
form, there is enough heat and moisture for air to rise and storms to form.
Multicell cluster are often associated with convective, vertical flow near the
mountain slopes or to clearly express the cold fronts. Multicell clusters consist of a
group of cells moving along. Most are short lived, but since these cells have formed
in a cluster, the region in which they formed must have been conducive to thunder-
storm formation. As such, individual cells will constantly form up and dissipate, but
the cluster as a group will retain the same general characteristics. Multicell storms
are usually more potent than single cell storms but are generally not severe.
294 19  Thunderstorms, Lightning, and Tornadoes

Individual storms form in close vicinity of each other, and the storm cells feed off
the outflow from other nearby storms. The result is a nearly circular, large cluster of
storms that are often severe. They form in the late afternoon due to daytime heating
and last into the night, but the most severe weather happens early in storm develop-
ment. The storms can travel great distances before they dissipate and last at least 6 h.
Mesoscale convective system (MCS) is an organized system of thunderstorm,
with excessive rainfall over larger mesoscale area and life cycle of several hours or
more. They have a different form visible on satellite images. MCSs have regions of
both convective and stratiform precipitation, and they develop mesoscale circula-
tions in their mature stage. The upward motion takes the form of a deep-layer ascent
as the result of latent heating and cooling in the convective region. A middle level
layer of inflow enters the stratiform region of the MCS from a direction determined
by the large-scale flow and descends in response to diabatic cooling at middle-to-­
low levels. A middle-level mesoscale convective vortex (MCV) develops in the
stratiform region, prolongs the MCS, and may contribute to tropical cyclone devel-
opment. The propagation of an MCS may have a discrete component but may fur-
ther be influenced by waves and disturbances generated both in response to the
MCS and external to the MCS.

19.5  Atmospheric Electricity

The phenomenon of atmospheric electricity in the clouds with vertical development

is called atmospheric electricity or lightning. This is one of the oldest observed
natural phenomena on Earth.

19.5.1  General Features of Lightning

Lightning is a transient, high-current electric discharge with path lengths measured

in kilometres (Rakov and Uman 2003). It is a discharge of atmospheric electricity
caused by formation of a strong electrical field in a thunderstorm cloud between the
ice crystals, usually found in the cloud negative temperature region, near the cloud
top, and negatively charged hail near the cloud base. The most common source of
lightning is the electric charge separated in ordinary thunderstorm clouds or cumu-
lonimbus clouds (see Cooray 2015). Well over half of all lightning discharges occur
within the thunderstorm cloud and are called intracloud discharges. Scientists do
not have complete knowledge as to how it occurs, or whether it is a reaction to sun-
light affecting the upper atmosphere of the Earth or the electromagnetic field.
Lightning can be seen in volcanic eruptions, extremely intensive in forest fires, sur-
face nuclear detonation in heavy snowstorms in large hurricanes. It is often noticed
during thunderstorms. Indeed, lightning and thunder, which manifests itself later,
are an integral part of thunderstorms (Fig. 19.3).
19.5  Atmospheric Electricity 295

Fig. 19.3 Atmospheric
electricity, lightning

19.5.2  Origin of Atmospheric Currents

The source of the large negative currents must flow from the “top” to the surface of
the Earth in order to keep charging it up negatively. Where is the main source for
this negatively generated charge? Thunderstorms and lighting storms serve as bat-
tery which carries out negative charge to the Earth in large amounts. Thunderstorms
charging the Earth with an average 1800 amperes, which is then being discharged
through regions of fair weather. There are about 40,000 thunderstorms per day all
over the world, and we can imagine them as batteries pumping the electricity to the
upper layer and maintaining the voltage difference. However, thunderstorm esti-
mates are very difficult to make because the lack of observations on the seas and
oceans over all parts of the world to know the accurate number of thunderstorms.
But according to some evidence, there are 100 lightning flashes per second, world-
wide with a peak in the activity at 7:00 p.m. GMT.

19.5.3  The Mechanism of Charge Separation

We will discuss now about the most important aspect-development of the electrical
charges. Based on many experiments including flying airplanes through thunder-
storms, the charge distribution in a thunderstorm cell is something like that shown
on Fig. 19.4. A typical feature of storms is the presence of turbulent area and the
presence of strong updrafts and downdrafts currents (Cotton et al. 2010). Vertical
upward currents transport small liquid water droplets from the lower regions of the
storm to the higher layers of the cloud. Meanwhile, descendent currents transport
hail and cloud ice from frozen upper regions of the storm.
When these collide, the water droplets freeze and release heat. This heat
sometimes keeps the surface of things and ice slightly warmer than its surrounding
environment and is taking up “wet hail,” or “graupel.” When this hail or groupel
296 19  Thunderstorms, Lightning, and Tornadoes

Developing thunderstorm stage

14.00

12.00

10.00
Height (km)

8.00

-10 -10 Storm motion

6.00
0 0

4.00 0

2.00

16.00 18.00 20.00 22.00 24.00 26.00 28.00 30.00 32.00 34.00 36.00

Horizontal distance (km)

Fig. 19.4  Charge formation and the mechanism of charge separation in simulated storm

collides with additional water droplets and ice particles a critical phenomenon
occurs. Electrons that deviate from ascendant particles are collected on descendant
particles. Because electrons carry a negative charge, the result is a negative storm
cloud electrification base and a positively charged top and the bottom a negative
charge. Except for a small local region of positive charge in a bottom of cloud,
which has caused everybody a lot of worry? One assumption is that it is probably
due to a secondary effect of rain coming down. Anyway, the predominantly charge
at the bottom and the positive charge at the top have the correct sign for the battery
needed to drive Earth negative. The positive charges are 6–7 km upper in negative
temperatures about −20  °C, whereas the negative charges are 3 or 4  km high in
temperature ranges between 0 and − 10 °C. The charge at the bottom of the cloud is
large enough to produce potential difference of 20–100 million volts between the
cloud and the Earth and thus much bigger than the 0.4 million volts from the “sky”
to the ground in a clear atmosphere. These large voltages break down the air and
create giant arc discharge. When the breakdown occurs the negative charges at the
bottom of the thunderstorm are carried down to the Earth in the lightning strokes.
Now we will describe in some detail the character of lightning. There is large
voltage difference around (one piece of cloud and another, or between only cloud
and another or between the cloud and ground), so that the air brakes down. In each
of the independent discharge flashes, the lightning strikes that we are seeing there
are approximately 20 or 30 coulombs of charge brought down. It takes a thunderstorm
only 5 sec after each lightning stroke to build its charge up again. Another important
aspect is that under certain conditions electric field can have considerable influence
19.5  Atmospheric Electricity 297

Fig. 19.5  Formation of

charge of falling drop

on the drops. The strokes occur irregularly, but the important point is that it takes
about 5 seconds to recreate the original condition. Thus, there are approximately 4
amperes of current in the generating machine of the thunderstorm. There are two
theories which have been invented to account for the separation of the charges in a
thunderstorm: Breaking-drop theory and Wilson theory. All the theories involve the
idea that there is some charge on the precipitation particles and different charge in
the air. Then by the movement of the precipitation particles, the water or the ice
through the air there is separation of electric charge (Fig. 19.5).

19.5.4  Creation of a Field

The most common source of lightning is the electric charge separated in ordinary
thunderstorm clouds (cumulonimbus). The atmosphere is a very good insulator that
prevents the electrical flow, so a huge amount of charge should be created before
lightning can appear. When the threshold has reached the charge, the strength of the
electric field exceeds insulating properties of the atmosphere and lightning appears.
Electric field inside the storm is not unique, and it is developed there. Under nega-
tive discharge of storm base, the surface of the Earth begins to form positive charge.
This positive charge will follow the storm wherever it moves, and it is responsible
for lightning from cloud to Earth. However, the electric field inside the storm is
much stronger than the one between the base of the cloud and the Earth’s surface,
so lightning mostly (~75–80%) occurs within the storm. The storm which moves
accumulates another region with positively charged particles along the ground. As a
result of differences in charges, positively charged particles rise high objects such as
trees, houses, and telephone lines. Those channelled with a negative charge will be
lowered from the bottom of the storm to the Earth’s surface in a series of rapid
impulses, invisible to the human eye. As a leading negative charge is approaching,
positive charge collects at the ground and the objects found there. This positive
charge goes to the negative charge and “lightning” forms. When these channels are
298 19  Thunderstorms, Lightning, and Tornadoes

merged, electric transmission appears as a result, which is visualized as atmospheric

lightning.

19.5.5  Lightning Stroke

Lightning stroke is the direct discharge of an electrical charge between the

atmosphere and the object of Earth. It is a sudden flow of electric charge between
the electrical charge area of a cloud also called intra-cloud and another cloud called
(CC lightning) or between the charged cloud and the ground (CG lightning).
Lightning is caused by electricity moving in between clouds or between the clouds
and the ground.

19.5.6  Mechanism of the Lightning Discharge

The process of ionization and polarization are dominant in the formation of charged
suspended particles and water drops in the air which also causes charging of clouds
(Ćurić 2001b). There is a difference in distribution of electric charge in a calm sky
conditions and clouds. While in a calm sky, the positive (+) and negative (−) charges
are evenly spaced throughout the atmosphere causing a neutral charge, in thunder-
storm due to a presence of different type of hydrometeors.
The ice crystals have a positive charge, and the hailstones have a negative charge.
An updraft moves the ice crystals to the top of the thunderstorm cloud, while the
hailstones are moved to the bottom of the thunderstorm by its downdraft (Fig. 19.6).

Fig. 19.6 Lightning
formation. Credit: Thundercloud
Pearce, (1989)
1.Ice and water
particles separate.

2.Negative charges
fall to Earth.

3. Positive
electricity rises
from the ground.

4. The two join and

hit the ground.

Earth
19.6 Tornado 299

These processes initiate the charge separation into two levels: the positive charge at
the top and the negative charge at the cloud base that induces a positive charge at the
ground level. As the result of the potential difference in the cloud the initial dis-
charge originates in the cloud called pilot leader. The first discharge moves to earth
in steps of about 50 metres, therefore, termed the stepped leader. When the pilot
leader reaches near the Earth, the electric field intensity increases, and due to this,
the charges of an opposite polarity in the form of a short steam rises from the earth
to meet the tip of downward leader. When a contact is made between the pilot leader
and the short upward steamer, a return streamer travel from the Earth to cloud along
the ionised channel formed by the pilot leader. When the stepped leader and the
positive charge from the Earth meet, a strong electric current carries positive charge
up into the cloud. This electric current is known as the return stroke that moves very
fast producing well known, intensely luminous lightning flash.

19.6  Tornado

Cyclones can produce tornadoes that complement destructive power of storm

(Fig. 19.7). Tornadoes are often embedded in rainy zones in the right frontal quad-
rant, well away from the centre of tropical storm in terms of movement. A thunder-
ous tornado is a stormy wind in the form of rotating vortex which extends downwards
from a cumulonimbus cloud.
Tornado is a very prominent rotating column of air (usually counterclockwise in
the Northern Hemisphere), which descends from thunderstorm cloud, and encoun-
ters Earth. Although tornadoes are usually short in duration, only a few minutes,
they can sometimes be manifested more than an hour and travel several miles

Fig. 19.7  Tornado over land

300 19  Thunderstorms, Lightning, and Tornadoes

causing considerable damage. Tornado consists of drops of water, sand, and dust
from various objects which are raised from the soil with the help of strong wind.
Tornadoes often occur in the United States and Mexico and usually move with
speed of up to 50 km/hour. Vortex in the air rotates at a speed of 160 km/hour. If a
tornado occurs at sea, it is called waterspout or thrombus and lasts from several
minutes to an hour. Tornadoes inflict heavy damage and leave a wasteland behind.
The United States experience more tornadoes than any other country. During the
tropical year around 1000 tornadoes affect the United States. The peak of the tor-
nado season is April–June. They are characterized by continuous vertical rotation
and formation of strong vertical shearing in the surrounding air. Searing represents
a change of wind speed and/or direction with height. Vertical movement raises rotat-
ing column of air generated by shear of wind speed. This provides two different
rotations in supercell storm, cyclonal rotation, or counterclockwise rotation and
anticyclonic rotation or clockwise rotation. Oriented wind shear intensifies cyclonic
rotation and reduces anticyclonic rotation (rotation to the right side of the vertical
movement). Supercell storm is a rotating thunderstorm. The most dangerous prod-
ucts of thunderstorms are tornadoes. By definition, a tornado is a strongly rotating
column of air that spreads from the storm towards the ground. A tornado is charac-
terized by:
• Winds speeds of 64–176 km/hour
• Radius, which changes from a few hundred metres up
• Wind speeds greater than 480 km/h
• Counterclockwise rotation in the Northern Hemisphere and vice versa in the
Southern Hemisphere

19.6.1  Classification of Tornadoes

The most common acceptable scale for determining the damage is the Fuji’s scale
(F) for classification of tornadoes, which is based on the damage that the tornado
has caused. A recently revised scale is used to assign the speeds of the tornado in
1971, known as enhanced Fuji’s (EF) (Table 19.1). Based on their physical charac-
teristics, there are several different basic types of tornadoes: multilevel rotating tor-
nado, accompanying tornado and tornado over water.

Table 19.1  Classification of tornadoes according to EF scale

EF scale Class Wind speed (km/h) Description
EF0 Weak 105–137 Storm
EF1 Weak 138–177 Moderate
EF2 Cool 178–217 Significant
EF3 Cool 218–266 Dangerous
EF4 Strong 267–322 Destructive
EF5 Strong > 322 Catastrophic
References 301

Fig. 19.8  Tornado over water

Multilevel rotating tornado: a tornado in which there are two or more columns of
vortex air, which rotates around a common centre. This tornado is often con-
trolled with intensive tornadoes. These spins often form small areas of damage
expressed along the main path of the tornado.
Accompanying tornado: a weak tornado formed very close to a large, strong tornado.
It is possible that the accompanying tornado rotates around the strong tornado.
Waterspout: tornado that occurs over water surface (Fig. 19.8). This type of tornado
can be divided into two smaller types: a fountain of fine weather and a fountain
in the tornado.

References

Cooray, V. (2015). An introduction to lightning (p. 386). Dordrecht/Heiderberg/New York/London:

Springer. (19).
Cotton, W. R., Bryan, G. H., & van den Heever, S. C. (2010) Storm and cloud dynamics (2nd ed.),
Academic Press, pp. 809.
Ćurić, M. (2001a). Cloud dynamics. RHMS: Belgrade, pp. 262 (9, 10).
Ćurić, M. (2001b). Cloud microphysics. RHMS: Belgrade, pp. 306 (9,10).
Markowski, P. & Richardson, Y. (2010). Mesoscale meteorology in midlatitudes. Wiley, pp. 407
(12, 13).
Pruppacher, H.  R., & Klett, J.  D. (2010). Microphysics of Clouds and Precipitation (2nd ed.).
Atmospheric and Oceanographic Sciences Library; Springer: Heidelberg/Dordrecht, pp. 954
(9,10, 22).
Rakov, V.  A., & Uman, M.  A. (2003). Lightning: Physics and effects (p.  688). Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
302 19  Thunderstorms, Lightning, and Tornadoes

Smith, R. K. (1996). The physics and Parameterizaton of moist atmospheric convection (p. 498).
Berlin: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Spiridonov, V., & Ćurić, M. (2019). Evaluation of supercell storm triggering factors based on a
cloud resolving model simulation. Asia-Pacific Journal of Atmospheric Science, 55, 439–458.
Chapter 20
Meteorological Hazards

20.1  Natural Disasters

Natural hazards are severe and extreme weather and climate events. Although they
occur in all parts of the world, some regions are more vulnerable to certain hazards
than others. Natural hazards become disasters when people’s lives and livelihoods
are destroyed. According to the main driving force of the event, natural hazards are
classified into four main groups: geological hazards, meteorological hazards, hydro-
logical hazards, and biological hazards.
1. Geological hazards occur because of geological processes such as movement in
the tectonic plates and volcanic activity. These events include earthquakes, vol-
canic eruptions, and landslides.
2. Meteorological hazards occur as a result of processes in the atmosphere (Ahrens
and Samson 2011). Meteorological hazards include extreme temperatures, heat
waves, cold spells, hurricanes, tornadoes, droughts, and severe storms.
3. Hydrological hazards are hazards involving water processes. Examples include
floods, droughts, and tsunamis.
4. Biological hazards occur due to the biological processes of the earth and primar-
ily involve the spread of diseases and pests. Epidemics, pandemics, and airborne
diseases all fall into the biological hazard’s category.
Each year, natural disasters cause great material damage in various areas of the
Earth’s Planet. Figure 20.1 shows the distribution of natural hazards, based on sta-
tistical evidence for the period 1980–2005. According to data provided from the
World Meteorological Organization (WMO), the following percentage of hazards
was estimated: floods (32%), storms (22%), epidemics, hunger (17%), dry (9%),
earthquakes (9%), landslides (5.3%), extreme temperatures (2.5), fire (1.9%), vol-
canoes (1.8%), and tsunami (0.5%). It is obvious that nearly 90% of all-natural
disasters are from meteorological origin related to weather, climate, and water.
Human and material losses caused by such disasters are a major obstacle to

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 303

V. Spiridonov, M. Ćurić, Fundamentals of Meteorology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-52655-9_20
304 20  Meteorological Hazards

Fig. 20.1  Distribution of 1,8 0,5 5,3 9,0

the natural hazards, 1,9 Earthquake
according to the statistical 2,5 Storms
data evidence 1980–2005 Floods
17,0 22,0
Droughts
Epidemics
Heat Waves
Fires
9,0 Volcanoes
Tsunami
Slippery Ground
32,0

sustainable development. By issuing accurate forecasts and warnings in a form that

is readily understood and by educating people on how to prepare against such haz-
ards, before they become disasters, lives and property can be protected. Emphasis is
on disaster risk reduction: one dollar invested in disaster preparedness can prevent
seven dollars’ worth of disaster-related economic losses – a considerable return on
investment. Having regard to the amount of damages and their continuity on the
Earth as a whole, the United Nations General Assembly designated the 1990s as the
International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR). Its basic objective
was to decrease the loss of life, property destruction, and social and economic dis-
ruption caused by natural disasters, such as earthquakes, tsunamis, floods, land-
slides, volcanic eruptions, droughts, locust infestations, and other disasters of
natural origin. The decade was intended to reduce, through concerted international
action, especially in developing countries, loss of life, property damage, and social
and economic disruption caused by natural disasters. The first objective was to
emphasize the significance of these phenomena for human life and properties. It
was recommended for each country, the experts to make efforts and to address this
problem associate with the natural disasters by individual study of a given area or a
region. From the obtained knowledge they need to develop and formulate proce-
dures for continuous monitoring of the evolution of a given phenomenon. The next
step is determination of the thresholds of various categories of natural disasters and
definition of procedures for early warnings. The goal of the above-mentioned pro-
cedures is to reduce the number of fatalities and to mitigate the material damages by
natural disasters. In this systematic process of disasters examination, two important
elements were considered significant. First, some natural disasters can be only mon-
itored and announced. Second, some disasters can be monitored in order to take
appropriate actions and reduce their harmful effect. In the first case, it is a passive
measure of protection, while in the latter case, an active measure of protection.
According to the recommendation of the United Nations, many countries have taken
serious steps towards meeting the goal of reducing damage from natural disaster.
For example, to specify that Mexico, Canada, and the United States formed a team
of 50 scientists in order to formulate a project for reducing damage from elemental
disasters in 3 years. Recently, as signatories to the Sendai Framework for Disaster
Risk Reduction 2015–2030, WMOs Members have undertaken to prevent new and
20.2  Meteorological Hazards 305

reduce existing disaster risk through the implementation of a range of integrated and
inclusive measures that prevent and reduce hazard exposure and vulnerability to
disaster, increase preparedness for response and recovery and thus strengthen
resilience.

20.2  Meteorological Hazards

Disasters caused by extreme weather conditions are referred to as meteorological

disasters (Spiridonov and Ćurić 2011; Spiridonov et al. 2013). Such disasters are
usually related to sudden and adverse changes in the weather or weather-forming
processes. Extreme heat, excessive rainfall, and strong winds affecting the Earth’s
atmosphere in a negative manner and causing negative effects are called as meteo-
rological disasters.

20.2.1  Droughts

Droughts are a prolonged dry period in the natural climate cycles that can occur
anywhere in the world. It is a slow onset phenomenon caused by a lack of rainfall.
When drought causes water and food shortages, there can be many impacts on the
health of the population, which may increase morbidity and result in death. The
main reason for any drought is a deficit of rainfall or extended periods without the
occurrence of rainfall (Fig.  20.2). This deficit results in water shortage for some
activity, some groups or some environmental sectors. Drought is also related to the
period of rainfall deficit in some specific area. Other climatic factors such as high
temperature, strong wind, and low relative humidity are often linked to drought.
Drought differs from other disasters that develop slowly, sometimes for months and
years. Drought is a characteristic of the climate feedback. It occurs in virtually all
climatic zones, and its characteristics change significantly between regions. Drought
differs from aridity in that it is an occasional feature, and aridity is a constant char-
acteristic of regions with little rainfall. Drought is more of a natural phenomenon,
or more of a natural disaster. Experience of droughts confirms the sensitivity of
human communities to this natural disaster. There are two kinds of drought
definitions:
1. Conceptual definition
2. Technical definition
Conceptual definitions help to understand the importance of drought and its
effects and damage to agriculture, food production, and others. Operational defini-
tions help to identify the beginning and end of droughts and the degree of danger.
They also specify the degree of deviation from average rainfall in a climate period.
There are different types of drought, which are briefly described hereafter:
306 20  Meteorological Hazards

Fig. 20.2  Drought (Credit:

Tomas Castelazo, www.
tomascastelazo.com /
Wikimedia Commons / CC
BY-SA 4.0)

Meteorological drought is defined on the basis of the degree of aridity, compared to

the average normal value, and based on the duration of the dry period.
Meteorological definitions of drought must be region specific, because the atmo-
spheric conditions that affect the lack of rainfall are largely specific to each region.
Agricultural drought links various characteristics of the meteorological drought to
agricultural impacts, focusing on the lack of rainfall, the difference between
actual and potential evapotranspiration, the deficit of water in the land, the
reduced level of groundwater and or surface water levels in reservoirs, and others.
Hydrological drought is associated with continuous low flow and/or volume of
water in catchments and reservoirs, which lasts for months or years. The hydro-
logical drought is a natural phenomenon that can be worsened by human activity.
Hydrological droughts are usually linked to meteorological droughts and their
recurrence interval of compliance changes. Changes in land use and degradation
of the same may affect the size and frequency of hydrological drought.
Socio-economic drought links the provision and the need for some economic goods
with elements of meteorological and hydrological and agricultural drought. It
differs from other types of drought that its occurrence depends on the process of
assistance and requests. Energy supply with many economic goods, such as
water, food, grains, fish, and hydropower energy, depends on weather. As a result
of natural variability of climate, water supply is extensive in some years but not
enough to satisfy human and environmental needs in other years. Socio-­economic
drought occurs when the demand for economic goods exceeds supply as a result
of the collapse in the water supply associated with the weather.
20.2  Meteorological Hazards 307

20.2.2  Tropical Cyclones

A tropical cyclone represents a system with low air pressure in the centre and orga-
nized circulation that develops over tropical and sub-tropical ocean waters. Its hori-
zontal dimension is usually 200–2000 km. A tropical cyclone is characterized by a
warm core in the centre, very steep pressure gradient, and strong cyclonic (clock-
wise direction on the Southern Hemisphere), and very strong destructive surface
winds, with a maximum speed of (300 km/h). Large storm waves rise with the wind
causing severe flooding in coastal areas. That is especially occurs when the storm
surge coincides with normal high waves. Hurricanes are known for their destructive
winds. Cyclonic wind causes great damage to marine traffic and infrastructure on
the mainland. Many homes were damaged and destroyed when strong wind simply
raised the roofs of houses. Tropical cyclones can also cause flash flooding, urban, or
river flooding. For example, Fig. 20.3 shows a numerical simulation of an absolute
vortex field at 700 mb, of the tropical storm Pabuk on 5 Jan 2019 03UTC, which hit
coastal villages and world-famous tourist resorts on southern Thailand’s east coast
causing flooding, winds and surging seawater.

20.2.3  Floods and Flash Floods

Weather systems such as cyclones, storms, fronts, or other forms of clouds can, under
certain unstable atmospheric conditions, increase their frequency and strength and
cause intense rainfall and flooding. Heavy rainfall is the most frequent adverse
weather phenomena. Floods occur in the case of intense torrential rainfall, when there
is significant accumulated rainfall or extremely high daily rainfall in a few hours
(Fig. 20.4).

Fig. 20.3 Numerical
simulation of tropical
storm (WRF-ARW
forecast of tropical storm
Pabuk that hit Pucket on 3
Jan 2019)
308 20  Meteorological Hazards

Fig. 20.4  Skopje flash

flood on August 6, 2016.
(Credit: Ministry of
Interior, Macedonia)

A single extreme weather event cannot be attributed to climate change. However,

according to the analysis of statistical trends, climate change is expected to increase
the intensity of the water cycle in many parts of the world, causing more droughts
and more floods. Floods occur in all possible forms, from small sudden floods to
waterspouts that cover large areas. Floods result from the interaction of precipita-
tion, surface runoff, snow melting, evaporation, wind, and local topography. In
inland areas, the flood regime varies greatly depending on the size of the basin,
topography, and climatic characteristics. One of the most common incidences of
flash flooding occurs when there is a heavy period of rainfall following a period of
drought. This is because the ground is very dry and cannot absorb so much water at
once. Heavy rainfall can lead to several risks, to human life, damage to buildings
and infrastructure, and loss of crops and livestock. Landslides that could threat
human lives disrupt transport and communications and cause damage to buildings
and infrastructure. Extreme storms bring heavy rainfall or hail fall, severe winds,
and occasional snowfall. Thunderstorms cause sudden electrical discharges in the
form of lightning and thunder. In some parts of the world, they cause tornadoes.
Violent storms and flash floods, besides the direct consequences in terms of human
health, have indirect effects, such as increased stomach and intestinal illness among
evacuees, and an impact on mental health, depression, and post-traumatic disorders.
The consequences of the damages from extreme storms and floods sometimes
include fatalities and injuries, but these usually are counts of drownings, vehicle
accidents, and other immediate injuries. Such extremely severe weather developed
on August 6, 2016, and affected a wider urban and rural areas of Skopje. The super-
cell storm (Spiridonov and Ćurić 2019) was associated with torrential rainfall, wind
gusts, strong lightning, and flash flooding. During this disastrous heavy rainfall
event, 23 people lost their lives with huge material and economy damage and inju-
ries. Less reported, but often more numerous, are illnesses and even deaths from
consumption of contaminated water. Neglecting direct and indirect health impacts
may result in inadequate preparation for an appropriate response in future extreme
weather events. Embankments (dams) may flood because they cannot withstand the
blows of rising water in rivers and streams that carry large amounts of melted snow.
20.2  Meteorological Hazards 309

Floods caused by heavy storms threaten the lives of people and goods around the
world. Floods contaminate sources of fresh drinking water, increasing the risk of
diseases transmitted through water, and create conditions for the propagation of
diseases that are transmitted by insects such as mosquitoes. They also cause drown-
ing and physical injury, damage to homes, and disrupt the supply of medical and
health services.

20.2.4  Landslides or Slippery Ground

Landslides or slippery ground represent a gravity-initiated process of transport of

mainly dry material (e.g. rock, debris, sand, soil, or sediment) downslope. It is con-
sidered as local scale phenomena which occur suddenly and cause severe threats
and damages. This type of hazard does not explicitly belong to the group of meteo-
rological disasters, but certain weather events associated with heavy rainfall, flash-­
flooding, and rapid snow melting with combination of warming and rainfall can
accelerate the process and can serve as a triggering factor of landslide. Landslide
complexes, specific mountain slopes, river valleys, and dams are as most vulnerable
to landslides and favourable conditions for the generation of debris flows and
flash-floods.
A landslide happens as the result of a disbalance between gravity force and fric-
tion which causes movement of the material downhill. Precipitation significantly
fastening the process due to larger weight to the slope and consequently increase of
gravitational force making it easier to move material downhill. These processes are
more dominant during the rainy season and especially common during severe storms.

20.2.5  Avalanches

Avalanche is a mass of snow and ice that suddenly falls down the mountain slope,
often carrying side, rocks, and waste (Fig. 20.5). Avalanches can be very destruc-
tive, with speeds that exceed (150 km/h). The snow that is moving also pushes air
forward so that the avalanche wind becomes strong enough to cause major damage
to infrastructure, buildings, forests, and mountain resorts. Thousands of avalanches
occur each year, and they kill an average of 500 people worldwide.

20.2.6  Desert and Dust Storms

Desert and dust storms are a set of dust or sand particles, which can be collected to
major heights by strong and turbulent wind (Fig. 20.6). They occur mainly in parts
of Africa, Australia, China, and the United States. They affect the lives and health of
people, especially busy people in the open away from shelter.
310 20  Meteorological Hazards

Fig. 20.5  A powder snow

avalanche in the Himalayas
near Mount Everest

Fig. 20.6  Dust storm.

(Credit: Roxy Lopez [CC
BY-SA 3.0 (https://
creativecommons.org/
licenses/by-sa/3.0)])

They have a particularly negative impact on transport, because visibility is

reduced to just a few meters.

20.2.7  Heat Waves and Cold Spells

Heat waves represent the most dangerous phenomena in regions of high latitudes,
where there are extreme values of temperature and humidity over a longer period
which may last several days in the warmest months. A favourable condition for the
occurrence of heat waves are anticyclones, calm, and fair weather, expressed a high
air pressure and advection of hot air and the occurrence of very high temperature.
Stable, slowly moving and stagnant-air mass in the urban environment can cause
deaths, particularly of the youngest, and the older and infirm people. In 2003 much
of Western Europe was under the influence of heat waves during the summer
20.2  Meteorological Hazards 311

months. In France, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, and Britain, they have
caused about 40,000 losses of human lives. Extreme cold waves cause hypothermia
and circulatory and respiratory diseases.

20.2.8  Severe Storms, Lightning, and Tornadoes

Dangerous storms are a source of sudden atmospheric electrical discharges that are
manifested in the form of lightning and thunders (Fig. 20.7). They often bear strong
heavy rainfall or strong winds and occasional snow. In some parts of the world,
tornadoes occur regularly. Tornadoes are especially common in the great plains of
the North American continent, but they also appear in temperate latitudes. They can
cause enormous damage. Flash floods are accompanying phenomena of tornadoes.
Widespread lightning during dry periods is an important factor in the initiation of
wildfires in forests and grasslands.

20.2.9  Forest of Wildland Fires

Massive and devastating fires can be initiated by lightning or by human activity dur-
ing and after periods of drought in almost all parts of the world. Favourable condi-
tions for the formation of fire (Fig. 20.8) are very hot and dry, high temperatures,
and low relative humidity. Occurrence of wind in the atmospheric conditions could
further inflame and reinforce the existing fire. When fires destroy forests, pastures,
and corn, they kill livestock and wild animals, and they damage or destroy the settle-
ments and put at risk the lives of the residents.

Fig. 20.7  Dust storm

(Credit: Roxy Lopez [CC
BY-SA 3.0 (https://
creativecommons.org/
licenses/by-sa/3.0)])
312 20  Meteorological Hazards

Fig. 20.8  Forest fires

(wildfires)

Fig. 20.9  Heavy snowfall

20.2.10  Heavy Rainfall and Snowfall and Strong Winds

Heavy rain and snow weather are dangerous for vulnerable groups (Fig.  20.9).
They cause problems in the traffic, the infrastructure, and the communication
networks.
The accumulation of snow can cause destruction of roofs at the buildings. Strong
winds are hazardous to aviation, sailors, and fishermen, also for high buildings
such as towers, cranes, and skyscrapers. Blizzard conditions are strong storms
accompanied by low negative temperature, with strong winds and snowing. They
are dangerous to humans and livestock. Blizzard conditions cause airports to be
closed for taking off and landing operations and cause chaos in the streets and
sidewalks.

20.2.11  Extreme Air Pollution

Atmospheric pollutants include matters and harmful gases from industry, from vehi-
cles and human activities. Smoke and haze arise as a result of forest fires, cleansing
grains, or ash from volcanic explosions in stable conditions. Smoke, haze, and
20.2  Meteorological Hazards 313

Fig. 20.10  Air pollution in urban areas and industrial zones

pollution have a serious impact on human health, especially in urban and industrial
areas (Fig. 20.10). They reduce visibility and thus air and road traffic may be inter-
rupted. Smoke, acid rain, ground floor harmful ozone, the ozone hole, and the
adverse growth in the greenhouse effect are also caused by air pollution. A persis-
tent high-pressure system associated with stable atmospheric conditions and tem-
perature inversion often leads to pollution accumulation and appearance of extreme
air pollution episodes with high concentration, poor air quality and harmful health
impact. That is usually case in the urban areas with a specific topography, environ-
mental conditions, urban structure, and uncontrolled emissions.

20.2.12  Tsunami

Tsunami is a wave phenomenon generated by a meteorological or atmospheric dis-

turbance. The term “tsunami” is taken from the Japanese tsunami, which means
“harbour wave”. They are initiated by moving air pressure disturbances associated
with atmospheric gravity waves, pressure oscillation, frontal passages, squalls,
gales, typhoons, hurricanes, and other atmospheric sources. These disturbances
generate barotropic ocean waves in the open ocean through resonance, which can
subsequently be amplified near the coast through shoaling and basin resonance. In
general tsunami is a series of ocean waves, which are created as a result of under-
water earthquakes, landslide, or volcanic eruptions. Although tsunami belongs in
the category of a marine geo-hazard, such severe ocean waves have devastating for
the coasts and their communities. They can also have lasting and damaging effects
on the coastal landscape, causing long-term coastal erosion, and on marine ecosys-
tems. These waves may reach large sizes and have enough energy to move oceans
across and manifest negatively when they reach the mainland. Tsunami is common
in the Indian Ocean (Indonesia, Sumatra, Japan, etc.). Because of the enormous
water mass and energy, which they carry with them, tsunami waves can destroy
whole coastal regions. The number of victims can be very high, because it creates
314 20  Meteorological Hazards

Fig. 20.11  Tsunami (tidal

ocean waves)

huge waves which are flooding the coastal areas and destroying infrastructure
(Fig. 20.11).

References

Ahrens, C. D., & Samson, P., (2011). Extreme weather & climate. Brooks / Cole, pp.508.
Spiridonov, V., & Ćurić, M. (2011). An introduction to meteorology. ISBN 978-608-65175-0-2
COBISS.MK-ID 83607306, pp. 241 (1, 2,3,4,6, 10, 11, 12, 16, 17, 18).
Spiridonov, V., & Ćurić, M. (2019). Evaluation of supercell storm triggering factors based on a
cloud resolving model simulation. Asia-Pacific Journal of Atmospheric Sciences, 55, 439–458.
Spiridonov, V., Ćurić, M., & Zafirovski, O. (2013). Weather and human health. Fonko-Press,
Skopje, ISBN 978–608–65175-2-6, COBISS, MK-ID 95152138, pp. 344 (20, 24, 25).
Chapter 21
Atmospheric Optics

Before to start with description on the atmospheric optics, we will briefly explain
the basic principles of energy which comes from the Sun and the radiation. The
energy emitted by the Sun provides almost (99.9%) of the total energy that heats the
Earth’s surface. The large changes in solar heat run the winds in the atmosphere and
currents in seas and oceans. Therefore, first it is necessary to understand the way the
Sun heats the Earth, and this warming is changing the geographical space and time.
For this purpose, we primarily study the heat and the temperature as variables, and
the mechanisms for their transfer.

21.1  Basic Properties of Sunlight

Sunlight is characterised by very high intensity and continuous movement. The

brightness of direct sunlight varies by season, time of day, location, and sky condi-
tions (Zuev 1995; Andrews 2019). The basic properties of light when it passes
through different environments in the atmosphere are:
• Reflection
• Refraction
• Scattering
• Diffraction
• Interference
Skylight is characterised by sunlight scattered by the atmosphere and clouds,
resulting in soft, diffuse light. In a cloudy climate, the diffuse sky is often the main
source of useful daylight. If a single wavelength is present, we say that we have
monochromatic light. If all wavelengths of visible light are present, our eyes inter-
pret this as white light. If no wavelengths in the visible range are present, we inter-
pret this as dark.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 315

V. Spiridonov, M. Ćurić, Fundamentals of Meteorology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-52655-9_21
316 21  Atmospheric Optics

21.1.1  Light Velocity and Refractive Index

The energy of light is related to its frequency and velocity as follows:

E  h  hC /  (21.1)

where E is energy, h - Planck’s constant, 6.62517 x 10**-27 erg.sec, ν – frequency,

C is a speed of light which is equal to 2.99793 x 10**10 cm/sec, and λ is a wave-
length. The speed of light, C in a vacuum is 2.99793 x 10**10 cm/sec. Light cannot
travel faster than this, but if it travels through a substance, its velocity will decrease.
Note that from the equation given above:

C   (21.2)

The frequency of vibration, ν, remains constant when the light passes through a
substance. Thus, if the velocity, C is reduced on passage through a substance, the
wavelength, λ, must also decrease. We here define refractive index, n, of a material
or substance as the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum, C to the speed of light in
a material through which it passes, Cm.

n = C / Cm (21.3)

Note that the value of refractive index will always be greater than 1.0, since Cm can
never be greater than C. In general, Cm depends on the density of the material, with
Cm decreasing with increasing density. Thus, higher-density materials will have
higher refractive indices. The refractive index of any material depends on the wave-
length of light because different wavelengths are interfered with to different extents
by the atoms that make up the material. In general, refractive index varies linearly
with wavelength.

21.1.2  Dispersion

The velocity of light in a material, and hence the index of refraction of the material,
depends on the wavelength of the light. Since the refractive index depends on the
wavelength of the light, light waves with different wavelengths and therefore differ-
ent colours are refracted through different angles. This is called dispersion, because
white light is dispersed into its component colours while traveling through the mate-
rial. Snell’s law combined with a wavelength-dependent index of refraction n
explains the dispersive properties of a prism (Fig. 21.1).
The sides of a prism are not parallel and light changes direction when it passes
through it. A ~ 1% variation in the index of refraction over the entire visible range
of electromagnetic radiation still results in a significant change in the direction of
the emerging red and blue rays. Since in general the index of refraction is bigger for
21.1  Basic Properties of Sunlight 317

Fig. 21.1  Light dispersion

mechanism

Fig. 21.2 Reflection

shorter wavelengths, blue light bends more than red light. Starlight passes from
vacuum where refraction index n = 1.000, while into the atmosphere, n = 1.0003. As
density of air increases at lower altitudes n changes. As n increases, light is bent
continuously, deflecting light. From all colour a blue light bent the most.

21.1.3  Reflection

The law of reflection states that when light rays are reflected, they always bounce
off the reflecting surface at the same angle (the angle of reflection) at which they
meet that surface (the angle of incidence). Internal reflection occurs when light that
is traveling
through a transparent material, such as water, reaches the opposite surface and
reflects into the transparent material. Internal reflection is an important factor in the
formation of optical phenomena, such as rainbows. Figure 21.2 shows a graphical
illustration of the reflection process.
318 21  Atmospheric Optics

21.1.4  Refraction

Refraction is the bending (reflecting) of light due to a change in velocity as it passes

obliquely from one transparent medium to another (see Fig.  21.3). Furthermore,
light will also gradually bend as it traverses a material of varying density. The bend-
ing of light by refraction is responsible for such common optical illusions as the
apparent displacement of the position of the stars, Moon, and Sun.

21.1.5  Scattering

In the air, part of the sunlight is scattered. The small particles (molecules, tiny water
droplets and dust particles) scatter photons the more, the shorter their wavelength is.
Therefore, in the scattered light, the short wavelengths predominate, the sky appears
blue, while direct sunlight is somewhat yellowish, or even reddish when the sun is
very low. Light is scattered, generally in all directions when it passes aerosol parti-
cles or air molecules. Scattering of sunlight in the atmosphere (Fig. 21.4) can be
categorized into two types: Rayleigh and Mie scattering. As it is described previ-
ously in Chap. 5, Rayleigh scattering refers to the light scattering from the mole-
cules of the air and can be extended to scattering from particles up to about a tenth
of the wavelength of the light, resulting in appearance of a blue sky. Mie scattering
is caused by pollen, dust, smoke, water droplets, and other particles in the lower
portion of the atmosphere. It occurs when the particles causing the scattering are
larger than the wavelengths of radiation.

n=1

cθ n = 1.5

Fig. 21.3 Refraction
21.1  Basic Properties of Sunlight 319

Fig. 21.4 Schematic
illustration of scattering

21.1.6  Diffraction

Diffraction is a physics concept. It occurs when waves bend around small obstacles,
or when waves spread out after they pass through small openings. Generally, dif-
fraction effects are most pronounced when the dimensions of the obstacle nearly
agree with the wavelength of the wave. Diffraction occurs with all waves, including
sound waves, water waves, and electromagnetic waves such as light that the eye can
see. Augustin-Jean Fresnel (1788–1827) was a French engineer and physicist who
contributed significantly to the establishment of the theory of wave optics. Fresnel
studied the behaviour of light both theoretically and experimentally. There are some
differences between diffraction and refraction. As it is shown on Fig. 21.5, diffrac-
tion is bending or spreading of waves around an obstacle, while refraction is bend-
ing of waves due to change of speed. Both are wavelength dependent.
However, diffraction produces a colorize pattern, whereas refraction creates
visual illusions but not fringe patterns and can make objects appear closer than they
really are, but diffraction cannot do that. Light interference. In physics, interference
is a phenomenon in which two waves superpose to form a resultant wave of greater,
lower, or the same amplitude. Interference effects can be observed with all types of
waves, for example, light, radio, acoustic, surface water waves, or matter waves. In
physics, absorption of electromagnetic radiation is the way in which the energy of a
photon is taken up by matter, typically the electrons of an atom. Thus, the electro-
magnetic energy is transformed into internal energy of the absorber, for example,
thermal energy. When a light wave with a single frequency strikes an object, several
processes occur. The light wave could be absorbed by the object, in which case its
energy is converted to heat.
320 21  Atmospheric Optics

Fig. 21.5 Diffraction

21.2  Photometeors

Photometeors are atmospheric optical phenomena that occur as the result of physi-
cal processes (e.g. reflection, diffraction, scattering, interference) and their interac-
tion with sunlight or moonlight under some particular circumstances (Timofeyev
and Vasilev; Ćurić and Janc 2016; Spiridonov 2010; Spiridonov and Ćurić 2011;
Heidorn and Whitelaw 2010). The most common examples include halos, rainbows,
mirages, cloud iridescences, glories, coronas, sun dogs, and aurora.

21.2.1  Mirage

Mirage is an optical effect caused by atmospheric refraction of light when it passes

from the medium (air) of a certain density to the medium (air) of another density. In
this process, the object appears displaced from its true position (Fig. 21.6). Light
travels through air of different densities at different speeds. The density of air
changes with temperature, with cold air being denser. Near a surface such as a hot
road, or an ice field, there can be a strong temperature gradient which produces a
density gradient which causes the air to act like a lens near the surface. However,
these two examples are very different. In the case of the ice field, the density gradi-
ent will cause surface features a long distance off to appear stretched upwards.
While in the case of the hot road the density gradient will be in the other direction
which results in the sky being reflected, or bent back up, towards the observer just
near the hot surface. The result can be the false appearance of water in the distance
21.2 Photometeors 321

Fig. 21.6 Mirage

and thus the most commonly known idea of a mirage. The mirage known as low
mirage occurs when the image appears below the actual location of the observed
object. During the phenomenon of vision, objects sometimes appear as if floating
above the horizon. Appearance is considered as the upper mirage as the image seen
above its real position. Mirage, which changes the visible side of the object, is
called ascent. A type of ascent, known as fatamorgana is often observed in coastal
areas, lofty towers that appear out of thin air layer.

21.2.2  Rainbow

The most spectacular and well-known atmospheric optical phenomenon is the rain-
bow. Rainbows are among the most remarkable effects in the atmosphere. Sunlight
and water drops are necessary factors for the formation of the rainbow. Furthermore,
the observer must be located between the Sun and rain. Since the colours of the
spectrum are all bent at different angles, this refraction causes the colours to dis-
perse or separate, as in a prism. The full spectrum of colours is then reflected off the
back of the raindrop into the air. As the colours pass from the raindrop into the air,
they are refracted for a second time. This second refraction causes the different
bands of colours to become more distinct. Figure 21.7 shows a visual appearance of
rainbow (left panel) and the schematic illustration how primary and secondary rain-
bows are formed due to light propagation in spherical droplets (right panel). The
corresponding numbers denote spherical droplet (1), places where internal reflec-
tion of the light occurs (2), primary rainbow (3), places where refraction of the light
occurs (4), secondary rainbow (5), incoming beams of white light (6), path of light
contributing to primary rainbow (7), path of light contributing to secondary rainbow
(8), observer (9), region forming the primary rainbow (10), region forming the sec-
ondary rainbow, (11) and zone in the atmosphere holding countless tiny spherical
droplets (12). A rainbow is produced as the net result of this sequence of events
repeated over and over when the atmosphere is filled with billions of tiny raindrops
(such as after a storm). The curved form of a rainbow occurs because its rays always
travel to the observer at an angle between 40° and 42° from the path of sunlight.
322 21  Atmospheric Optics

Fig. 21.7  Rainbow formation (Credit: Peo [CC BY-SA 3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/
by-sa/3.0/)])

Fig. 21.8  Sun halo

(Credit: Gabor Szilasi [CC
BY-SA 4.0 (https://
creativecommons.org/
licenses/by-sa/4.0)])

21.2.3  Halo

Sunny halo refers on a narrow ring with a diameter of the sunset (Fig. 21.8). That
usually happens when the sky is covered with a thin layer of cirrus clouds. The most
common halo is the 22° halo, so named because its radius subtends an angle of 22°
from the observer. Less observed is the growing 46° halo. 22° halo around the Sun
and the Moon occurs because of refraction of light in thin hexagonal ice crystals in
the air. The main difference between 22° and 46° halo is the path that takes the light
through ice crystals. One of the most spectacular effects associated with Halo is
“Sun dogs” or perihelia. These two clear regions, or “false-false Suns” as often
called, can be seen near 22° Halo. Sun pillar often present near the sunrise or the
sunset of the Sun, a vertical ray of light that appears to some range up from the sun.
Set of optical phenomena in the form of a ring, which occurs with the reflection of
sunlight or moonlight, the ice crystals that float in the atmosphere. Halo with all the
accompanying phenomena is often seen at polar ends.
21.2 Photometeors 323

Observations showed that Halo is often seen in front of the cyclone and can serve
as a sign of the emergence of the storm.

21.2.4  Glory

Glory is atmospheric optical phenomenon, noted by the pilots. This photometer

consists of one or more colour rings surrounding the shadow of the observer (air-
craft) projected on the clouds (Fig. 21.10). It is formed in a manner different from
that of the rainbow.
Gloria can also be seen by observers in terms of fog on the Earth’s surface when
the sun is at its rear side.

21.2.5  Corona

Corona represents a series of colour rings with relatively small radiuses that are
available through visible clouds around the Sun and the Moon (Fig. 21.11).
Solar corona is a unique optical phenomenon, often seen accompanied by the
Moon and the Sun. This is clear photometeor whitening disk placed on the Moon or
the Sun. The corona is created when water droplets in the thin layer of water clouds,
usually altostratus have scattering light from the light body. Colours of the crown
are the result of a process called diffraction, slight violation of the light when it
passes through the cloudy droplets. Refracted light from all sides of cloudy drops
will go into the shadow of the drops. Here light rays meet and interferes with the
other rays that produce various components of white light, which generates colours
that make a crown.

Fig. 21.10  The glory of

the sunset (Credit: Shuvam
swapnil [CC BY-SA 4.0
(https://creativecommons.
org/licenses/by-sa/4.0)])
324 21  Atmospheric Optics

Fig. 21.11  Sun corona

(Credit: Christos
Doudoulakis [CC BY-SA
4.0 (https://
creativecommons.org/
licenses/by-sa/4.0)])

Fig. 21.12  Aurora borealis

(Credit: Rafal Konieczny
[CC BY-SA 3.0 (http://
creativecommons.org/
licenses/by-sa/3.0/)])

21.2.6  Aurora

Aurora is a natural light display in the Earth’s sky mainly seen in the high-latitude
regions (the Arctic and Antarctic). These beautiful optical effects are produced
when the magnetosphere is sufficiently disturbed by the solar wind that the trajecto-
ries of charged particles in both solar winds, mainly in the form of electrons and
protons, precipitate them into the upper atmosphere.
They are one of nature’s most stunning displays, appearing as luminous stream-
ers, arcs, curtains, or shells in the night sky (Fig. 21.12). Those that occur in the
Northern Hemisphere are known as aurora borealis or northern lights; those in the
Southern Hemisphere are known as aurora australis or southern lights. The energy
particles at the Earth that form aurora come from aerospace middle-magnetosphere.
These energetic particles are mostly electrons, but protons also produce aurora.
Electrons travel along the lines of magnetic fields. Earth’s magnetic field looks like
a field of dipole magnet where the field lines appear and go into the Earth near the
poles. Aurora’s electrons in this way are referred to the high latitudes of the
21.2 Photometeors 325

atmosphere. As they penetrate the upper atmosphere, the chance of collision with
the atom or molecule increases as they go deeper. At the moment when the collision
occurred, the atom or molecule takes part of the energy of the particle energy and
keeps it as internal energy while the electron goes to a reduced speed. The process
of preserving energy molecule or atom is called the “excitement” of the atom. An
excited atom or molecule can return to non-exited state (initial state) by sending the
photon out of each other, i.e. by creating light.

21.2.7  Colour of the Sky

Most of the molecules of the gas atmosphere contain oxygen and nitrogen. When
sunlight strikes these molecules, the larger wavelengths of the light pass right
through them, but the smaller wavelengths (violet, indigo, blue, and green) reflect
(Fig. 21.13).When we look at the sky, only to see these scattered tapes, which appear
as various shades of blue.

21.2.8  Cloud Iridescence

It is a colourful optical phenomenon that occurs in a cloud and appears in the gen-
eral proximity of the Sun or Moon. Cloud iridescence represents beautiful optical
phenomena (see Fig. 21.14). It is a type of photometeor, as a common optical effect
that is most often observed in altocumulus, cirrocumulus, lenticular, and ice-crystal
cirrus clouds that have brilliant spots of colours, usually red and green, observed up
to about 30° from the Sun. Cloud iridescence is caused by water droplets diffracting
light (within 10 degrees from the Sun and by interference effects. It can extend up
to 40 degrees from the Sun. The cloud droplets are very thin (a few micrometres)

Fig. 21.13  The blue sky

326 21  Atmospheric Optics

Fig. 21.14 Cloud
iridescence

and almost the similar size. They result from local adiabatic lifting and condensa-
tion process in moist air often in a lenticular (wave) cloud, above a developing
cumulus, or occasionally in irregular spots of uniform colour in a region of shallow
convection.

References

Ćurić, M., & Janc, D. (2016). Meteorology (p. 581). Belgrade-Zemun: AGM book d.o.o.
Spiridonov, V. (2010). Meteorology. ISBN 976-9989-57-642-331, COBBIS.MK-ID 79389450,
pp. 317.
Spiridonov, V., & Ćurić, M. (2011). An introduction to meteorology. ISBN 978-608-65175-0-2
COBISS.MK-ID 83607306, pp. 241 (1, 2,3,4,6, 10, 11, 12, 16, 17, 18).
Timofeyev, Y.  R., & Vasilev, A.  V. (2008). Theoretical fundamentals of atmospheric optics.
Cambridge International Science: Publishing. 480 pp.
Zuev, V. E. (1995). Selected papers on atmospheric optics (Spie Milestone Series), Society of
Photo Optical, pp. 553.
Andrews, L. C. (2019). Field guide to atmospheric optics, 2nd ed., SPIE PRESS BOOK, pp. 182.
Heidorn, K., & Whitelaw, I. (2010). The field guide to natural phenomena: The secret world of
optical, atmospheric and celestial wonders, firefly books; 1st ed., pp. 224.
Chapter 22
Atmospheric Chemistry

22.1  Units of Measurements

Atmospheric chemistry is an important scientific branch that studies the basic ele-
ments of the Earth’s atmosphere, particularly the air pollution and its impacts (e.g.
Warneck 2000; Finlayson-Pitts and Pitts 2000; Visconti 2016; Lamb and Verlinde
2011; Hobbs 2000; Bonan 2015). It specifically looks at the atmospheric chemical
composition, the reactions, and interactions as driven mechanisms of the Earth-­
climate system. Atmospheric chemistry incorporates the significant topics as labo-
ratory experiments, field measurements, and modelling. The main intention of this
chapter is to introduce readers in basic elements of atmospheric chemistry, encom-
passing the chemical principles used to describe a complex system such as the
Earth’s atmosphere. According to Jacob (1999), one of the main objectives of atmo-
spheric chemistry is to understand in general the chemical concept, measures, and
factors that control the concentrations of chemical species in the atmosphere. Here
we start with a brief description of basic units of measurements: mixing ratio, num-
ber density, and partial pressure.

22.1.1  Mixing Ratio

It is usually denoted as ri of species (i) is defined as the ratio of the amount of the
chemical specie in each volume to the total amount of all constituents in that volume
or number of moles of r per mole of air:

number moles (i )
ri = (22.1)
mole of air

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 327

V. Spiridonov, M. Ćurić, Fundamentals of Meteorology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-52655-9_22
328 22  Atmospheric Chemistry

The units are volume of gas per volume of air or mol/mol. The mixing ratios of
the permanent gases are as follows:
(N2) with CN2 = 0.78 mole/mole; or N2 or 78% of all molecules in the atmosphere
(O2) with CO2 = 0.21 mole/mole or 21% of all molecules in the atmosphere
(Ar) with CAr = 0.0093 mole/mol
Mixing ratios of trace gases are commonly given in units of:
parts per million volume (ppm), where 1 ppmv = 1x10−6 mole/mole
parts per billion volume (ppb), where 1 ppbv = 1x10−9 mole/mole
parts per trillion volume (ppt), where 1 pptv = 1x10−12 mole/mol

22.1.2  Number Density

Since air is a mixture of gases, the volume mixing ratio of gas element (i) in the air
rVi is given as the ratio between the number of molecules of gas (i), given as Ni
divided by number of air molecules or unit volume of the atmosphere Na, or usually
given as a number of molecules of (i), per cm3 of air:

Ni
rVi = (22.2)
Na

This quantity is referred to us as a number density. It is an important measure for
calculating gas-phase reaction rates or column density for measuring the absorption
or light scattering by gases, given as the integral over the depth of the atmosphere:
0
rcol _ i   ni dz (22.3)
z
The number density and the mixing ratio of a given gas component are related by
the number density of air na (molecules of air per cm3 of air):

nX = ri na (22.4)

Utilizing ideal gas law pV = NRT, with some replacements for the number den-
AV p
sity of air we get na = where Av = 6.023x1023 molecules mol−1 is Avogadro’s
RT
number. After substitution in (Eq. 22.4), we obtain:

AV p
ri = Ri (22.5)
RT
22.1  Units of Measurements 329

22.1.3  Partial Pressure

The partial pressure px of a gas i in a mixture of gases of total pressure p is defined

as the pressure that would be exerted by the molecules of i if all the other gases were
removed from the mixture. Dalton’s law states that pi is related to p by the mixing
ratio Ri:

pi = ri p (22.6)

For our applications, p is the total atmospheric pressure. By making use the ideal
gas law to relate pi to ni:

ni
pi = RT (22.7)
AV

The partial pressure of a gas determines the exchange rate of molecules between
the gas phase and a coexistent condensed phase or aqueous-phase atmospheric
chemistry. Concentrations of water vapour and other gases that are of most interest
because of their phase changes are often given as partial pressures.
The absorption of a gas phase chemical species into the cloud water and rainwa-
ter is determined either by the equilibrium according to Henry’s law or by mass
transfer limitation calculations in order to include the possible non-­equilibrium states.
Gases (with an effective Henrys law constant  H  103 moldm 3 atm 1 ) in cloud
water and rain are assumed to be in equilibrium with the local gas-phase concentra-
tions. These liquid-phase concentrations of each chemical component (i) are calcu-
lated according to Henry’s law, i.e.:

i   K H pi (22.8)

i 
where [i] is given in units of mol H 2O or M, KH is Henry’s law coefficient
L
(Matm−1) and pi is the partial pressure of the species [i] given in units atm. All equi-
librium constants and oxidation reactions are temperature dependent according to
van’t-Hoff’s relation:

H  1 1 
KT  KT 0 exp[     (22.9)
R  T T0 

where ∆H is the increase of enthalpy induced by chemical reactions, is the equilib-
rium constant at a standard temperature T0  =  298  K, and R is the universal gas
constant.
330 22  Atmospheric Chemistry

22.1.4  Dry and Wet Deposition

For many gases and for particles as well, deposition to surfaces competes with
chemical reaction for the depletion of those species. We will consider dry and wet
deposition. Dry deposition refers to the flux into surfaces in the absence of precipi-
tation. Wet deposition of chemical species is associated with atmospheric moisture
processes and applies to deposition into weather phenomena such as fogs, clouds,
rain, or snow where the gas is incorporated in the bulk solution. In both cases, the
relationship between the concentration of species (i) and the vertical flux, ϕi to a
surface is given by:

i  Vd  Ci  (22.10)

where Vd is deposition velocity of species (i) with units of, most commonly, cm/s.
The deposition velocity is difficult to define by first principles, depending on land-
scape, the type of ground surface, vegetation, the atmospheric conditions (tempera-
ture, pressure, wind), and the reference height at which the concentration of species
(i) is measured.

22.1.5  Gas-Particle Partitioning

Both, gas and particles can be a function of the solubility of the gas. Hence, an
important parameter that determines the deposition velocity is the Henry’s law con-
stant, KH, for the gas. Henry’s law is the expression that defines the partitioning of
a species between gas and solution phase:

Csol   K H Cgas  (22.11)

22.2  Chemical Composition of the Atmosphere

Atmosphere is an envelope of air surrounding the Earth and bound to the Earth by
the Earth’s gravitational attraction. It extends from the surface into space with
decreasing density with height. For about 3/4 of the atmosphere by mass is in the
lowest 10 km. About 99% of the mass of the atmosphere is located below 50 km, in
the stratosphere and the troposphere. Gases other than N2, O2, Ar, and H2O are pres-
ent in the atmosphere at extremely low concentrations and are called trace gases.
Despite their low concentrations, these trace gases can be of critical importance for
the greenhouse effect, the ozone layer, smog, and other environmental issues. The
bulk composition of the air (99.997% by volume) consists of mainly N2, O2, Ar, and
22.2  Chemical Composition of the Atmosphere 331

Fig. 22.1  Absorption rate in (%) of all atmospheric species in short and longwave radiation

CO2. These are stable species with the little or no interesting chemistry. The remain-
ing 1% of the atmospheric gases is known as trace gases because they are present
in such small concentrations. CO2 is a greenhouse gas (very effective absorber and
emitter in the infrared). For example, O3 is a good in stratosphere (protects from
UV), but bad near the surface (corrosive to lungs and more).
SO2 is emitted by volcanoes and participate in production of sulphate aerosols
and acid rain, while NO2 is produced by combustion and forms acid rain and smog.
Figure 22.1 shows absorption of solar and terrestrial radiation by all atmospheric
components and by water vapour.

22.2.1  Water Vapour as a Greenhouse Gas

Atmospheric water vapour has several significant direct and indirect effects on both
weather and climate. It plays important roles in the radiation and the energy budgets
of the atmosphere and in the formation of clouds and precipitations. About 70% of
total absorption of the incoming shortwave solar radiation, particularly in the infra-
red region, and about 60% of total absorption of longwave radiation by the Earth are
realized by water vapour; thereby it is the most significant greenhouse gas. Water
vapour also influences heat energy transfer on the surface-atmosphere system
through the latent heat flux. It plays an important role in the heat transfer from
Earth’s surface into the atmosphere. Relative concentration expressed through the
mixing ratio as mole fraction CX [mole mol−1] remains constant when air density
changes. Consequently, it represents a powerful measure of atmospheric composi-
tion. Air also contains variable H2O vapour (10−6–10−2 mole mol−1) and aerosol
particles.

number moles of i
ri = (22.12)
mole of air

332 22  Atmospheric Chemistry

Table 22.1 lists the main atmospheric species and their mixing ratios. Trace gas
(e.g. CO2, Ne, O3, He, CH4, and Kr) concentrations are given in the following units:

1 ppm  1  mole mol 1  1x10 6 mole mol 1 1 ppb  1 nmol mol 1  1x10 9 mole mol 1
1 ppt  1 pmol mol 1  1 x 10 12 mole mol 1

The amount of water vapour in the atmosphere is (~ 0 to 4%). It is critically
important variable gas for clouds and precipitation formation and important way to
move energy around. Water vapour and methane (CH4) are major greenhouse gases.
There are also non-gaseous constituents in the atmosphere:
• Hydrometeors-rain clouds, hail.
• Particulates and aerosols.
• Aerosol is a liquid or solid dispersed in a gas, usually air.
• Particulates which can be inorganic (soil, smoke, dirt, sea salt, volcanic dust,
surface acid aerosol) or organic (seeds, spores, pollen, bacteria).
The particles in the air are important as they act as condensation and freezing
nuclei. Water likes to condense on/or freeze on to particles. They can absorb or scat-
ter radiation, reduce visibility, and scatter solar radiation to space causing cooling of
our Earth’s planet. The particles can also impact human health through irritation of
lungs and initiate asthma and heart disease.

22.3  Ozone Photochemistry

The layer above the troposphere which lies between 10 and 50 km above the Earth
surface is called stratosphere (ozonosphere). As the result of absorption of solar
radiation by the stratospheric ozone layer, air temperature is constant or higher with

Table 22.1 Atmospheric Species Mixing ratio (dry air) [mol mol-1]

species
Nitrogen (N2) 0.78
Oxygen (O2) 0.21
Argon (Ar) 0.0093
Carbon dioxide (CO2) 400 × 10-6
Neon (Ne) 18 × 10-6
Ozone (O3) (0.01–10) × 10-6
Helium (He) 5.2 × 10-6
Methane (CH4) 1.8 × 10-6
Krypton (Kr) 1.1 × 10-6
22.3  Ozone Photochemistry 333

height. It is mainly stable (not a lot of vertical mixing) and dry layer. Only occasion-
ally get overshooting tops from convection pushing into this layer. Maximum ozone
(O3) is found in the layers between 20 and 30 km. Ozonosphere protects the surface
from harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Ozone is produced photochemical. A pho-
tochemical reaction is a chemical reaction in which radiation affects the chemical
composition of a substance. The first slowly moving process is photolysis (separa-
tion of molecules by the action of light) under influence of the Sun, when oxygen
molecules are photolysis, yielding one oxygen atoms. The process follows by
mutual conversion of the ozone and oxygen atoms to solar UV breaks ozone. During
this fast process, the oxygen atom reacts with another oxygen molecule. This inter-
conversion processes transforms UV radiation into thermal energy, heating the
stratosphere. The ozone layer is monitored both by satellites and ground-based
instruments that are dedicated to observing the destruction of stratospheric ozone.
The TOMS satellite measures the ozone levels using the back-scattered sunlight
method in the ultraviolet (UV) range (Fig. 22.2). Thickness of ozone layer is mea-
sured as a column concentration expressed in “Dobson Unit (DU)” = 2.69x1016
molecules cm–2.

Fig. 22.2  The back-­

scattered sunlight method
for ozone monitoring
334 22  Atmospheric Chemistry

22.4  Atmospheric Pollution

Air pollution is a condition when pollutants under certain atmospheric conditions

are present in concentrations high enough to affect adversely on human health and
cause environmental damage. Air pollution causes acid rain, ozone depletion, pho-
tochemical smog, and other similar phenomena. The substances include natural or
anthropogenic chemicals that may exist in the atmosphere in gas, liquid, or solid
state. Atmospheric conditions affect the transport, dispersion, and redistribution of
deposition of pollutants. On the other hand, air pollution affects weather and cli-
mate. The air is never perfectly clean.

22.4.1  The Mechanisms of Air Pollution

Atmospheric pollutants are gaseous or solid particles present in air, which have a
detrimental effect on human health and endanger the natural environment. Pollutants
which have significant harmful effects on humans and the environment are:
• Presence of inert dust
• Local pollutants in the air
• Toxic substances in air, radiation
• Photochemical smog in urban areas
• Acid rain
• Reducing visibility
• Warming caused by greenhouse effect
• Distortion of the ozone layer
• Climatic forcing due to anthropogenic factors
• Atmospheric aerosols
Air pollution consists of three main components: emission sources, medium
(atmosphere), and receptors. Basic sources of emissions are transportation, indus-
trial, and domestic fuel combustion and industrial processes. Key receptors are
humans, animals, plants, and materials. The atmosphere in this system participates
as a medium for transport and dispersion of the physical and chemical transforma-
tion of pollutants.

22.4.2  Classification of Pollutants

According to chemical composition, air pollution can occur as a result of the pres-
ence and activity of the following chemical species:
• Sulphur compounds
• Nitrogen compounds
22.4  Atmospheric Pollution 335

• Carbon compounds
• Halogen compounds
• Toxic substances
• Radioactive compounds
In terms of physical condition, atmospheric pollutants are divided into gas, liq-
uid, and solid pollutants. According to the way pollutants are present in the atmo-
sphere, they can be grouped into two categories:
1 . Primary pollutants, which are emitted directly from existing sources
2. Secondary pollutants that create the chemical reactions between primary pollut-
ants and normal atmospheric conditions
Primary pollutants include particulate matter (PM), sulphur dioxide, nitrogen
oxides, volatile organic components (VOCs), carbon monoxide, and lead. Secondary
pollutants are atmospheric sulphuric acid air pollution in urban and industrial areas
known as smog, photochemical smog which is a harmful mixture of gases and par-
ticles. It occurs under the influence of strong sunlight, by some gas activated mole-
cules or atoms of gas, and they look like photochemical reactions. The main
component of smog is ozone. According to the spatial scale, atmospheric pollutants
are divided into local, regional, or global. The Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) defined six (6) main pollutants which set ambient air standards in order to
protect the health of people and material goods. Measurable pollutants (defined by
EPA) are:
1. Ozone (O3)
2. Carbon monoxide (CO)
3. Sulphur dioxide (CO2)
4. Nitrogen oxides (NOx)
5. Lead (Pb)
6. Particulate matters (PM10 and PM2.5)

22.4.3  Primary Atmospheric Pollutants

Ozone (O3)  is a reactive gas with no colour and no smell and is composed of three
oxygen atoms. It is naturally found in the Earth’s stratosphere, where it absorbs
ultraviolet radiation, which can be harmful to life on Earth. Ground ozone is “harm-
ful”, and it is a major constituent of photochemical smog. Basic pollutants involved
in these reactions are nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic components
(VOCs). Carbon monoxide (CO) also participates in the reactions and supports the
process of formation of ozone. Warm and sunny conditions during the calm and
stagnant wind are suitable for forming ozone.

Sulphur (S)  is one of the most reactive chemical elements. Pure sulphur is a non-­
metallic element with pale yellow, weak conductor of electricity and is insoluble in
336 22  Atmospheric Chemistry

water. It reacts with all metals except gold and platinum, forming sulphides. It also
forms compounds with several non-metals. Each year millions of tons of sulphur are
produced, mostly in the manufacture of sulphuric acid, which is widely used in
industry. Natural sources of sulphur are marine plankton, sea water, bacteria, plants,
and volcanic eruptions. Sulphur dioxide (SO2) is a colourless gas with a sharp smell,
a basic pollutant that has anthropogenic and natural sources. Anthropogenic sources
are industries that burn fossil fuels containing sulphur, lignite mines, power plants,
and oil refineries. At relatively high concentrations (SO2), they cause dangerous
respiratory problems. Sulphur dioxide is a precursor of sulphuric acid which is a
source of acid rain that is created when (SO2) combines with water droplets. Sulphur
dioxide is a precursor of sulphate particles (sulphates) that affect radiation balance
in the atmosphere and could cause global cooling.

Nitrogen (N2)  is the dominant gas in the atmosphere, which takes about (78%) by
volume. Nitrogen oxide (NOX) is found in the non-sustainable (non-determined)
mixture of nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). Nitrogen oxides (NOX) are
mainly composed of (N2 and O2) at high temperatures, as a result of combustion of
fuel in vehicles. Natural sources are a certain kind of bacteria, electrical discharges,
and combustion of biomass. Nitrogen oxides cause reddish-brown haze in urban air,
which contributes to the increased occurrence of heart and respiratory diseases.
Nitrogen oxide (NO2) is the precursor of acid as a source of acid rain, which is cre-
ated when nitrogen oxides combines with water to create nitric acid. Nitrogen
oxides are precursors of nitrogen suspended particles (nitrates) that affect the energy
balance of the atmosphere. Nitrogen oxides (NOX) separately (N2O) destroy the
ozone layer. This layer absorbs ultraviolet light, which is potentially dangerous to
life. Nitrogen oxides are major factors for the formation of ground floor “bad” ozone.

Carbon (C)  is a naturally rich non-metallic element found in many different com-
pounds: food, clothing, cosmetics, fuels, and others. Carbon is the sixth most impor-
tant element in the universe and plays a crucial role in the chemistry of life. Carbon
monoxide (CO) is colourless, odourless, flammable gas, and a major pollutant in
urban air, which creates the incomplete combustion. Anthropogenic sources are
motor vehicles with gasoline engines, smoke cigarettes, burning of biomass, while
natural sources of carbon monoxide arise from combustion of biomass. Carbon
monoxide (CO) is also produced by atmospheric oxidation of methane gas and
other hydrocarbons. Carbon monoxide is highly poisonous to humans and animals.
When inhaled (CO) reduces the ability of haemoglobin binds to oxygen in the
blood. Carbon dioxide is the complete oxidation product of burning fuel. Also, in
the atmosphere, (CO) is present in the oxidized (CO2). Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a
key greenhouse gas. Primary sources include combustion of fossil fuels, cutting
forests, and cement production. U.S. are the largest single emitters of (CO2), which
contribute to about (16%) of the total global amount.
22.4  Atmospheric Pollution 337

Volatile hydrocarbons (VOCs)  are those gases that contain hydrogen and carbon
but may also contain other atoms. Hydrocarbons (HCs) are organic gases containing
only carbon and hydrogen. Volatile organic components (VOCs) are hydrocarbons
that contain methane and oxidized hydrocarbons (hydrocarbons with oxidation
groups). Methane (CH4) is the most present hydrocarbon in the atmosphere, which
is in the exhaust gases from cars, the combustion of biomass in agricultural activi-
ties (e.g. rise fields). Anthropogenic sources are combustion of fossil fuel and evap-
oration of gasoline (e.g. oil refineries during the spending on fuel vehicles). Natural
resources (HCs) are the dissolution of organic matter from certain types of pine
forest, shrubs, and the like. Some hydrocarbons (formaldehyde) pollutants are only
local, but others contribute to smog containing ozone.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)  are artificial gases, which are used as coolers in

refrigerators and cooling systems (air-conditions). They are neither toxic nor flam-
mable. The most present chlorofluorocarbons are (CFCl3) and (CF2Cl2). CFCs are
artificial halocarbons; hence they are not biologically degraded. Also, chlorofluoro-
carbons are not soluble in water, so they are scavenged from the atmosphere by
rainfall. In the stratosphere, UV destroys (CFCs), degrading them to several chemi-
cals (including chlorine atoms and bromine atoms, which effectively destroy ozone).
CFCs are the main greenhouse components and lead to reduction of strato-
spheric ozone.

Metals  such as mercury, cadmium, chromium, and nickel lead represent one type
of contaminants found in impurities and fuels. Anthropogenic sources of metals are
mining emissions of metals from industrial facilities, motor vehicles, and others.
For example, lead is a very useful metal, which has been mined for several thousand
years, but this and other metals are highly toxic.

Particulate Matters  (PM10 and PM2.5) are solid or liquid particles, composed of
one or more chemicals, which are small enough to remain suspended in the air.
Examples of particulate particles are inert dust, smoke, smoke, sulphates, nitrates,
asbestos, pesticides, bio-aerosols (e.g. pollen, spores, bacteria, fragments of insects,
etc.). Particulate matters (PM10) are particles with a diameter (<10 μm), while PM2.5
is particles with a diameter < 2.5 μm. Anthropogenic sources of particulate matters
are burning of biomass, conversion of the particulate emissions, industrial pro-
cesses, and agricultural activities. Natural sources include sea salt, sandstorms,
burning of biomass, conversion of gases to particles, and volcanic wastes. Particulate
matters have negative impacts on health and cause much damage to the human
respiratory system, also contributing to the emergence of haze in urban areas, caus-
ing a reduction in visibility.
338 22  Atmospheric Chemistry

22.4.4  Factors Affecting Air Pollution

Most obvious factor affecting the air pollution is the quantity of contaminants emit-
ted into the atmosphere. However, certain episodes of pollution in the air do not
occur because of the large emission of pollutants in the atmosphere, but due to
changing atmospheric conditions that affect the transport, dispersion, and the redis-
tribution of pollutants. Work parameters that define the atmospheric conditions are
the stability of air disturbances, mixing of air, humidity, wind speed, wind shearing
and veering, etc.
Air Mixing  Direct effect of the wind speed is in the influence of the concentration
of pollutants. Atmospheric stability determines the extent to which vertical move-
ments will be mixed with clean air pollution, which lies above the surface layers.
Vertical distance between the Earth’s surface and the height to which it is mani-
fested is stretching through convective movements called thickness (layer) of the
interference. Generally, the greater the mixing layer is, the better the air quality.

Thermal Inversion  The temperature inversion is a condition in which the tempera-

ture gradient in a layer of the atmosphere is negative. It means that if the conditions
are standard, the temperature decreases with height, and inversely, temperature
increases with height. In terms of inversion, the atmosphere is stable, and an energy
barrier at the ground layer of the atmosphere. In areas where there are sources of air,
pollution is stagnant with no wind, and we should expect existence of high concen-
trations. Upper level temperature inversions are associated with lowering the air,
which is characteristic of the centres of high pressure (anticyclones).

22.4.5  Acid Rain

Acid rain in the wider sense indicates a mixture of wet and dry deposition from the
atmosphere, which contains larger quantities than normal amounts of nitric and
sulphuric acid. Predecessors in creating acid rain originate from natural sources
such as volcanoes and the dissolution of vegetation and from anthropogenic sources,
primarily emissions of sulphur dioxide (CO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOX) resulting
from the combustion of fossil fuels. In the United States, nearly 2/3 of the total
(CO2) and 1/4 in (NOX) comes in electricity production, which relies on burning
fossil fuels such as coal. Acid rain is occurring when these gases in the atmosphere
react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form various acidic compounds.
The result is a mild solution of sulphuric acid and nitric acid. When sulphur dioxide
and nitrogen oxides are released from power stations and other sources, prevailing
winds wash over large distances. The value of the pH factor of precipitation in
industrial areas and in urban areas where there are activities by people is much
larger than when it was registered in non-urban and rural areas. These acidic rain or
snow is formed when sulphur or nitrogen oxides produced as ancillary products of
22.5  Atmospheric Aerosols 339

combustion and industrial activity are converted to acid during complex atmo-
spheric reactions. By reducing pH value of precipitation, the harmful effects on
human health and natural environment are increased. Acid rain is toxic to fish; they
contribute to change in complex ecosystems, with many interactions of many levels
in the organization.
Wet deposition refers to acidic rain, fog, and snow. If the acid chemicals in the air
lie in areas where the weather is wet, acids can fall to the Earth’s surface in the form
of rain, snow, or fog and adversely effect on plants and wildlife.
Dry deposition. In areas where the weather is dry, some acidic chemicals can bat
of dust or smoke and fall to Earth via dry deposition. Dry deposited gases and par-
ticles can be scavenged from these surfaces by storms, which lead to increased
surface runoff.
Source emissions. Primary sources of emissions can be:
• Biological
• Ocean
• Solid ground
• Industrial
• Photochemical
Anthropogenic sources of emissions are fossil fuel and combustion of biomass.
Biological sources of emissions are photosynthesis, biological sources of methane,
nitrogen oxides (nitrification and denitrification bacteria in the land), and plants
(isoprene-reactive hydrocarbons, etc.). In biological activities in the oceans differ-
ent chemicals are released: (DMS, H2S, CH3Cl, CH2S) including hydrocarbons. The
following chemical compounds are released from the rigid ground of the volcanoes:
SO2, H2S, H2O, CO2, HCl, and other mixtures. Other sources of emissions are the
emissions of fossil fuels, caused by anthropogenic influences in the Northern
Hemisphere, and emissions of combustion of biomass in tropics.
Transport of gases. The transport of gases on the planet Earth has different tem-
poral and spatial scales. Typical time scale of meridional transport distinguishes up
to 2 weeks, while the zonal transport takes (1–2) months to 1 year. Ground transport
of gases from the surface of the Earth to the top of the planetary boundary layer
(PBL), which is the amount of (1–3) km, is (1–2) days, while the higher layers of
the atmosphere to the ground floor layers of the atmosphere in the troposphere is
1 week, and the beginning of tropopause time scale is 1 month.

22.5  Atmospheric Aerosols

Aerosols are airborne particles and/or liquid droplets and gases together suspended
in the air. Under mean atmospheric aerosols are dispersed condensed particles in the
air, usually spherical in shape, whose dimensions are in the interval of 0.001–100 μm
(small drops). Fine airborne particles have a typical diameter in the range of 0.01 μm
−100 μm. Marine and continental aerosols belong in the range 0.1–1.0 μm. Basically,
340 22  Atmospheric Chemistry

Fig. 22.3  Schematic illustration of the source of atmospheric aerosols

aerosol particles originate from the fires in forest and homes, industrial activity,
biomass burning, sea spray, including volcanic eruptions, dust storms, living vege-
tation, and sea waves as natural sources. Human activities like burning of fossil
fuels and the alteration of natural surface cover also generate aerosols. Average
world aerosols generated by human activities currently contribute to about 10% of
the total amount of aerosols in the atmosphere. Most of these 10 percent are concen-
trated in the northern hemisphere, particularly in the direction of the wind in indus-
trial facilities and agricultural areas where they cut and burn forests and grass hair.
Schematic representation of spring and the formation of atmospheric aerosols are
given in Fig.  22.3. Scientists have much to study about the way aerosols affect
regional and global climate (Seinfeld and Pandis 2016). Necessary additional
knowledge to accurately determine the relative impacts of climate change by natural
aerosols and those of human origin. Furthermore, insufficient information on which
regions of the planet, the number of aerosols in the atmosphere increases, which
decreases, and where the reserves are approximately constant. Aerosols tend to
cause cooling of the Earth’s surface. Because most aerosols reflect sunlight back
into space, they have a direct effect of cooling by reducing the amount of solar
radiation coming to Earth’s surface.
The size of this cooling effect depends on the size and composition of aerosol
particles and the basic reflective properties of the surface. It is assumed that the
cooling effect of aerosols may partly be compensated by the expected global warm-
ing, which is associated with increasing the amount of carbon dioxide caused by
human activity.
22.5  Atmospheric Aerosols 341

22.5.1  Effects of Atmospheric Aerosols

Atmospheric aerosol particles play important role in radiation budget of the Earth’s as
they scatter and absorb both shortwave solar radiation and longwave terrestrial radia-
tion. They are also highly involved in the formation of clouds and precipitation since
they operate as cloud condensation and ice nuclei (CCN and IN). Aerosol particles in
the upper atmosphere, where the major part of atmospheric ozone forms, can modify
the ozone removal. Additionally, particles are major elements of lower tropospheric air
quality and can influence harmfully the environment and human health. Aerosols play
important role in the balance of the Earth’s climate. Due to the increasing anthropo-
genic emission of aerosols since the industrial revolution, they can also affect the global
climate change. However, the effects of aerosols on climate are not one-way, moreover
excessively uncertain. The climate forcing by aerosols can be realized through direct
(scattering radiation) and indirect (cloud formation effects) radiative forcing.

22.5.2  Origin of Aerosols

There are three hypotheses about the origin of these particles: cosmic, continental,
and oceanic. Regardless of the fact where it came from the atmosphere as has
occurred (the natural or human activity), these atmospheric particles called aero-
sols. Aerosols have a different function in the atmosphere, and thus they have addi-
tional names. Cosmic dust comes directly from the cosmos, or the combustion
occurs with some smaller celestial bodies (meteorites). These particles have a small
percentage contribution to the atmosphere, compared with solid particles of differ-
ent origin. The calculations show that the day of the cosmos in the atmosphere reach
about 1000 tons of this dust. Continents represent a significant source of non-­
hygroscopic and hygroscopic particles that reach the atmosphere by the winds. It
especially occurs in desert and dry areas. It is estimated that from North Africa to
Europe, with currents are transported around 3.5 million tons of desert dust. A major
hygroscopic source of particles is the process of combustion and rot of various
organic substances, which are mainly in the form of sulphur and nitrogen com-
pounds. In recent times, in urban and industrial areas large amounts of sulphur are
released, for the combustion of coal, which contains from 0.3 to 3% sulphur. The
released sulphur oxidation is passing in non-hygroscopic sulphur dioxide (CO2).
Under the influence of solar radiation, oxidation continues and hygroscopic SO3 is
formed. With its merger with water vapour, sulphuric acid occurs. Volcanic erup-
tions appear as natural sources of hygroscopic substances on the mainland, which in
average do not represent significant sources of aerosols, but mighty volcanic erup-
tions. Very important source of atmospheric drops is dispersion of small droplets
from worldwide ocean areas and forming aerosols. According to the Aitkin’s theory,
the presence of sea salt in the air is explained by wave disturbances on the ocean
surface under the influence of the winds. The waves are violated in the air and reach
342 22  Atmospheric Chemistry

a huge number of tiny drops of seawater. During evaporation, small floating micro-
scopic particles of salt remain of these drops. Turbulent movement of air and the
wind lets them spread in the atmosphere and distribute large distances to several
hundred kilometres. Measuring the size of salt particles in the atmosphere shows
that the lower limit of its diameter is 0.2 μm. It is estimated that the mean concentra-
tion in cores of marine salt over the area of violations of the waves is (100/cm3),
with average production of sea salt formation (100/cm2 s).

22.5.3  Aerosol Particle Concentration

One of the oldest and most suitable devices for measuring concentration atmospheric
aerosols is an Aitken counter. This instrument expands the air with saturated water
vapour, so that the water vapour becomes saturated by several hundred percent with
respect to water. At such high saturation, water condenses on virtually all aerosol
particles and a cloud of small droplets forms. The concentration of droplets in the
cloud (close to the aerosol concentration) can be found in such a way that the droplets
will precipitate on the substrate. They can then be viewed with a microscope or using
another optical technique. The aerosol particle concentration measured by the Aitken
counter primarily refers to the number of Aitken aerosol particles to be discussed
later. The concentration of Aitken aerosols observed at ground level depends on the
location. Likewise, changing the concentration of Aitken aerosols over time in one
location can be up to more than one order of magnitude. In general, average aerosol
particle concentrations are 109 m − 3 above the ocean, 1010 m−3 above rural areas,
and up to 1011 m− 3 above polluted urban areas. The measurements also show that the
particle concentrations of Aitken aerosols decrease with height (Fig. 22.4). This is a
result of the fact that soil is an important source of aerosols and especially human and
industrial activity.

Fig. 22.4  A typical change

in the concentration of
Aitken aerosols with
altitude. The upper curve
obtained from the balloon
and the lower curve from
the plane measurements
22.5  Atmospheric Aerosols 343

22.5.4  Aerosol Particle Size Distribution

Aerosol particles are present at high concentrations in the atmosphere. Therefore,

it is important to know the mean characteristics of the entire aerosol population,
not each particle individually. In this connection, it is convenient to assume that
the aerosol particles are spherical in shape. The magnitudes of atmospheric aero-
sol spherical particles range from 10−4 to tens of micrometres in diameter.
Depending on the particle size as well as the measurement location, aerosol con-
centrations vary from 1013 to 1 m− 3. Because aerosol particle sizes are very dif-
ferent, different measurement techniques must be used to measure their
characteristics.
So, aerosols with diameters between 0.003 and 1  μm can be measured by an
electrical analyser. First, the particles are charged with a known charge and then
collected in a certain way by the action of an electric field. The variation in magni-
tude of the collected charge is interpreted by the corresponding distributions of
aerosol particles by the size of the diameter. Aerosol sizes of 0.3 to 30 μm can be
determined by measuring the amount of light energy they dissipate. Aerosol it can
also be collected on different surfaces and examined by optical or electron micro-
scopes. Larger aerosols (> l μm) can be detected by various analytical techniques
(X-ray energy dispersive analysis). In order to determine the concentration of aero-
sols collected, the efficiency of aerosol collection must be known. Larger aerosols
are collected more efficiently than smaller ones. Therefore, only aerosol concentra-
tions greater than 0.1  μm can be measured by direct collection. Average aerosol
concentrations depending on its size for continental, marine, and urban polluted air
are shown in Fig.22.5. The concentration of aerosol particles of diameter D on the
ordinate is shown over the magnitude of dN / d (logD) and on the abscissa is
logD. Size N is the concentration of aerosol particles larger than D. From Fig. 22.5,
the following conclusions can be drawn:
–– The concentration of aerosol particles decreases rapidly with the increase of their
particles size. Therefore, aerosol particles with a diameter have the highest con-
centration less than 0.2 μm. These aerosols are called Aitken aerosols;
–– Parts of the curves shown can be well described analytically as:

dN
 CD   ,
d  logD 

where C is a constant relating to aerosol concentrations and β is the slope of the
curve between 2 and 4. A continental aerosol with diameters greater than 0.2 μm
is well described by the preceding term when β = 3:
–– Observed aerosol concentration distributions agree with measurements
obtained by the Aitken counter, which indicate that the concentrations of aerosol
particles are, on average, highest above the polluted urban areas and at least in
sea environment:
344 22  Atmospheric Chemistry

Fig. 22.5  Aerosol particle

Aitken Large Giant
number distributions by aerosol
size, determined by 106
averaging datasets taken in
marine air (blue line), 105
continental air (red line),
and urban polluted air 104
(black line). A separate
103
point-line-point line was

dN/d(log D) (cm-3)
obtained from the 102
distribution of aerosol
particles by β = 3 101

100

10-1

10-2
dN α D -3
10-3 d(log D)

10-4

10-5

10-6
10-3 10-2 10-1 100 101 102
Diameter D (μm)

–– Concentrations of aerosols with diameters greater than 2  μm (so-called giant

aerosols) aerosols) do not differ so much for continental, marine or air above
polluted urban areas.
The total concentrations of aerosols are on average largest in urban polluted
areas and smallest in clean marine air. Typical values of the concentration of aero-
sols are (103/cm3) over the oceans (104 /cm3) than rural areas and land (105/cm3) in
polluted areas. The concentration of aerosols changes in space and time.
Concentrations are usually highest near the Earth and near the sources. The concen-
tration of aerosols decreases with increasing altitude. Small ions have almost no
role in atmospheric condensation due to very high saturation necessary for conden-
sation. The basic particles are only able to stay in the air for a limited time. Aerosols
have a wide range of concentrations that vary from (107–10−6 cm−3). Concentrations
of aerosols decline very rapidly with the increase of their dimension. Atmospheric
aerosols are divided into three main groups according to their dimension:
1 . Aitken’s particles = > 0.01 μm < D μm 0.1 μm
2. Large nucleus = > 0.2 μ m < D μm 2.5 μm
3. Giant nucleus = > D > 2.5 μm
22.5  Atmospheric Aerosols 345

22.5.5  Sources of Atmospheric Aerosols

Primary sources of atmospheric aerosols are:

• Condensation and sublimation of the vapour and the formation plumes at natural
and anthropogenic combustion
• Reactions between tracers, i.e. gases in the form of traces (hydroxyl radical
(OH), reactive nitrogen substances, hydrocarbons, ozone, sulphur components)
into the atmosphere through the action of heat, radiation, or moisture
• Mechanical destruction and dispersion of matter on the Earth’s surface, or sea
sprayer over oceans, or as mineral dust over the continents
• Coagulation of the nuclei, which tend to produce large particles of mixed
composition
Typical substances formed in large amounts of condensation Mon combustion, the
ash, smoke from coal-tar products, oil, and sulphuric acid and sulphates. These parti-
cles are primarily within the Aitkin nuclei. Mechanical breakdown by wind and water
on the rocks and land creates particles with diameters >0.2 μm. These primarily fall
into the class of large nucleus (nuclei). Approximately 25% of the number of particles
with a diameter greater than 0.2 μm is biological. Chemical reactions between nitro-
gen, oxygen, water vapour, and various tracers (e.g. sulphur dioxide, chlorine, ammo-
nium, ozone, and oxides of nitrogen) primarily produce particles in Aitkin mode and
greater. The examples are the formation of the ammonium chloride (NH3 and HCl),
oxidation of (CO2 in H2SO4) reaction of sulphur dioxide, ammonium, and water to
form particles of ammonium sulphate (Spiridonov and Ćurić 2005) and the produc-
tion of higher oxides of nitrogen by the action of heat, ozone, and ultraviolet radiation.

22.5.6  The Role of Clouds in the Atmosphere Pollution

The clouds have a major role in the process of transport and transformation of atmo-
spheric pollutants. Transport and scavenging of chemical constituents, especially in
convective clouds. Clouds with strong vertical development are important for under-
standing the composition of the troposphere and hence issues related to climate and
chemistry of air quality.
Convective process is a very important mechanism for rapid transfer of chemi-
cal compounds and gases in very small concentrations (tracers), the border
between layer and free troposphere, and is often an effective way of cleaning the
atmosphere by wet deposition. Figure 22.6 shows a three-dimensional simulation
of transport, redistribution and production of sulphates in convective clouds. The
effect of convection on chemical substances in these clouds is critical to under-
standing the chemical-climate, air quality studies, and effects of acid rain on the
Earth’s surface.
346 22  Atmospheric Chemistry

0 − 0 −
20 10 20 10
30 30
40 40
15 15
10 10
5 5
0 0
0 0
10 10
20 20
30 30
40 40 −
20 10 0 20 10
0
40 30 40 30
15 15
10 10
5 5
0 0
0 0
10 10
20 20
30 30
40 − 40 −
20 10 0 20 10 0
40 30 40 30
15 15
10 10
5 5
0 0
0 0
10 10
20 20
30 30
40 40

Fig. 22.6  Aqueous sulphate aerosol chemistry (three-dimensional simulation of transport, redis-
tribution and production of sulphate aerosols in convective clouds. Blue, green, yellow, and red
areas are concentrations of sulphate, hydrogen peroxide, sulphur dioxide and ozone, Spiridonov
and Ćurić 2005))

References

Spiridonov, V., & Ćurić, M. (2005). The relative importance of scavenging, oxidation and ice phase
processes in sulfate production and wet deposition. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 62(7),
2118–2135.
Seinfeld, J. H., & Pandis, S. N. (2016). Atmospheric chemistry and physics – from air pollution to
climate change (3rd ed.). Hoboken: Wiley. 1120 pp.
Jacob, D. D. (1999). Introduction to atmospheric chemistry (p. 260). Princeton University Press.
(4, 22).
Visconti, G. (2016). Fundamentals of physics and chemistry of the atmospheres (2nd ed.).
Dordrecht: Springer. 803 pp.
Warneck, P. (2000). Chemistry of the natural atmosphere (2nd ed., p.  927). San Diego:
Academic Press.
Levin, Z., & Cotton, W.  R. (Eds.). Aerosol pollution impact on precipitation (p.  386). 2009,
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Bonan, G. (2015). Ecological climatology - concepts and applications (3rd ed., p. 740). Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Chapter 23
Weather Forecast and NWP

23.1  Weather Forecast Overview

Weather forecast is a branch of the applied meteorology which studies the methods
and techniques for prediction of the future state of the atmosphere at a given loca-
tion or an assessment of the future behaviour of the atmosphere with respect to
precipitation, clouds, winds, and temperature (Lazić 2010). Weather forecasting is
one of the important science applications in our day-to-day planning activities. This
is one prominent application that has played a significant role to humankind from
long way back (Thaxter 1990). Wherever humans have settled around the world,
weather forecasting has always been part of their life for man which has always
been actively involved in their surroundings. Such assessments are usually made by
government or private meteorologists, often using numerical simulations. Such
simulations are the result of representing the atmosphere mathematically as a fluid
in motion. This was done through collecting of quantitative data about the current
state of the atmosphere through scientific understanding of atmospheric processes
and numerical calculations of the equations which best describe the atmospheric
processes. Due to the waves and the chaotic nature of the atmosphere, enormous
computing power is required to solve the equations that describe the behaviour of
the atmosphere.

23.2  Historical Background

Every night billion people worldwide monitor the weather forecast. What will the
morning bring? After we listen to the forecast, we plan our daily activities. But how
has the weather forecast been developed during the past years? Weather forecast in
Biblical times was based on singular observations of the sky. Weather forecasting
has become an important field of research and has always been done since the

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 349

V. Spiridonov, M. Ćurić, Fundamentals of Meteorology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-52655-9_23
350 23  Weather Forecast and NWP

ancient times, although the trend, methods, and techniques have changed with time.
It began with the early civilizations of humankind using their personal experience to
monitor seasonal changes and other reoccurring meteorological events in the atmo-
sphere. Since ancient times, people have been trying to predict the future behaviour
of the atmosphere. Here are thoughts from the Biblical book of Matthew, where
Jesus says to the religious leaders of first century: “You’re able to interpret the
appearance of the sky, but anticipation of weather you cannot interpret”. This
method of simple observation dominated until 1643 when the Italian physicist
Evangelista Torricelli discovered Barometer.

23.2.1  Early Research Period

As highlighted earlier, weather forecasting began with the early humankind using
reoccurring astronomical and meteorological events to monitor seasonal changes in
the atmosphere. For example, the Babylonians predicted short-term weather changes
based on cloud appearance and optical phenomena; the Chinese divided the year
into 24 festivals – each associated with a certain type of weather phenomena; the
Greeks developed theories about rain, cloud, lightning, and other observations. A
notable example is Aristotle who wrote in his Meteorologica (Fig. 23.1) a philo-
sophical treatise including theories about the formation of rain, clouds, hail, wind,
thunder, lightning, and hurricanes. He made some remarkable observations con-
cerning weather. For almost two millennia, meteorological thought was based on

Fig. 23.1  The Aristotle’s

meteorologica
23.2  Historical Background 351

the ideas set out by Aristotle. Aristotle’s ideas dominated intellectual thought for
centuries, although it was a product of observation rather than experimentation.
Weather forecasting was not considered as a science at the time; there was no exper-
imentation or theoretical testing. It was more like an art than a science. Weather
forecasting has always played a vital role in peoples’ lives in their everyday activi-
ties. With the forecast information, people can know and plan better for what would
come or to expect. For example, hunters, farmers, fishermen, warriors, shepherds,
and sailors needed to know how the weather might be in the next day, because they
worked in the open. Understanding weather patterns and atmospheric changes has
many applications across various sectors and societal importance: warning for/
about severe weather, agriculture, transport services, flood warning, commerce,
industry, etc. For example, the growing vulnerability of densely populated areas and
natural hazards makes increased demands for reliable forecasts of the consequences
for the safety of life and property. Pilots need to plan for their flights; sailors need
to plan their [marine] activities; farmers need to plan for watering. Important param-
eters to know include temperature, wind speed and direction, clouds, precipitation,
visibility, humidity, and/or trends in all the above. The timing of significant changes
and occurrences of extreme events is very important. Although attempts were made,
safety against bad weather events, for example, was never guaranteed. An estimated
459 people drowned in the island near Wales in 1859, when the Royal Charter gold
ship was wrecked in a large storm off Anglesey. This havoc influenced Robert
Fitzroy (1805–1865: an English sailor, royal navy and scientist) to develop weather
charts (Fig. 23.2) to allow forecasts to be made to “improve safety” at the sea. For
example, he organized for ship captains to be provided with weather instruments in
order to collect data (e.g. barometric temperature, air and sea temperature, humidity,
wind, cloud, and soundings) and return it for computation.

Fig. 23.2  The first

weather charts
352 23  Weather Forecast and NWP

23.2.2  Weather Forecast Evolution

Weather forecasting was pioneered by Robert Fitzroy in the mid-1800. He devel-

oped fundamental techniques for weather forecasting and put a lot of effort in study-
ing the weather, using his own nautical charts. He applied a qualitative knowledge
of the atmosphere’s dynamics based on observations and the known physical expla-
nations of the causes of circulations. Even though his work was criticized consider-
ing inaccurate and without scientific value, his many significant contributions to
weather forecasting optimistically promoted the practical utilization of meteorol-
ogy. Soon, meteorologists begun to map data from various observing stations such
as temperature and humidity, onto weather charts. Availability of weather maps
enabled scientists to detect and study various weather phenomena and compare the
current meteorological situation to past ones – ultimately leading to more forecasts
being produced. Because it became evident that the natural knowledge was inade-
quate, there was a need to further understand the dynamics of the atmosphere. For
example, instruments were needed to measure properties of the atmosphere (e.g.
moisture, speed, temperature) and how they vary with time. A great progress in
monitoring weather was made in the 1920s after the invention of the radiosonde,
and later a great achievement was the invention of the telegraphs in the mid-­
nineteenth century allowed routine transmission of weather observations between
observers and compilers.

23.2.3  Modern Weather Forecast

Before the World War I, the weather forecast was mainly based on personal experi-
ence, intuition, and the subjective knowledge of the person responsible for issuing
the weather forecast information. Thus, predictions were never done by employ-
ment of mathematical-numerical modelling of the atmospheric processes, while the
further behaviour of the atmosphere was estimated by a set of empirical rules, trans-
ferred from one forecaster to another.
In the late nineteenth century, many scientists worldwide realized that the atmo-
spheric processes could be simulated utilizing the fundamental physical principles.
Knowing the basic initial state of the atmosphere and applying the laws of physics
with integration of mathematical set of equations will help to obtain the further state
of the atmosphere. This fundamental weather forecasting concept was altered dra-
matically in the 1920s by Norwegian scientist Vilhelm Bjerknes (see Fig. 23.3). He
was convinced that the prediction of the future state of the atmosphere and its evolu-
tion could be formulated mathematically using the main velocity (vector) variables
and four scalar quantities (e.g. temperature, pressure, density, and humidity) each
being function of space and time. In order to promote and develop the atmospheric
modelling concept and its physical structure, a famous Bergen School of Dynamic
Meteorology was established under Bjerknes’ leadership. His scientific work was
23.2  Historical Background 353

Fig. 23.3 Vilhelm
Bjerknes (1862–1951)

Fig. 23.4 Weather
Forecasting Factory by
Stephen Conlin, 1986.
(Credit: Hendrik
Hoffmann, University
College Dublin)

focused on determination of physically basis for weather forecasting, considering

that two important elements should be satisfied:
• A good knowledge of the initial status of the atmosphere (initial conditions)
• A good knowledge of the fundamental principles according to which atmosphere
changes its state from one to another
Bjerknes’ concept was later developed by Lewis Fry Richardson, who is consid-
ered as the father of numerical weather prediction (NWP). In 1922, Richardson
published a remarkable book titled “Weather Prediction by Numerical Process”.
This pioneering work focused on the requirements for a successful numerical inte-
gration (the method and computer performances), resembling a forecast factory
(Wiston and Mphale 2018). Several artists have created images of his idea on the
forecast factory. Conlin’s image (see Fig. 23.4) clearly depicts a large building, with
a central chamber. On the wall of this chamber is a gridded map with half the globe,
354 23  Weather Forecast and NWP

including red grids which denote pressure and white cells (wind). According to
Richardson, the scheme was complicated because of the complex nature of the
atmosphere, required for accurate and detailed implementation of the Bjerknes’
concept. He concluded that all computations had to be done manually, estimating
that it would take about 64,0000 human computers to perform the calculation in
time with the weather happening. For example, his work took several months of
calculations of pressure changes to produce a 6-hr forecast. His failure was later
shown to be due to lack of understanding of some atmospheric processes at the time
and the initial conditions. To date meteorological observations are made all over the
world and are used to compute the best estimate of the system’s initial conditions.
Although it was a spectacular failure in the end, Richardson devised many of the
modern principles of numerical weather forecast. Increasing computing power and
efficient numerical methods as well as more sophisticated physical parameteriza-
tions has led to a huge improvement of weather forecasts.

23.2.4  Early Numerical Weather Prediction (NWP)

Numerical weather prediction (NWP) represents an advanced method of weather

prediction by use of computational techniques through time integration of the fun-
damental equations or computer programs. The process describes a set of partial
differential equations (PDEs) and other formulations describing the dynamic and
thermodynamic processes in the Earth’s atmosphere, comprising of equations,
numerical approximations, parameterizations, domain settings, as well as initial and
boundary conditions. The physics laws are programmed to model the atmosphere,
written in a format that the computer can understand. The earliest work on NWP can
be traced back to the contribution of Cleveland Abbe, an American meteorologist in
the 1890s, who recognized that “meteorology is essentially the application of hydro-
dynamics and thermodynamics to the atmosphere”.
His goal was to make meteorology an exact science and a true physics of the
atmosphere utilizing a graphical, analytical, or numerical method to solve equa-
tions. The idea was later taken up by Bjerknes using diagnostic and prognostic
methods and variables to predict weather, despite some limitation based from the
inadequate weather information in some areas.
He suggested that it would be possible to forecast the weather by solving a sys-
tem of nonlinear PDEs, although the mathematical models he proposed were far too
complex to be solved analytically. However, modern concept of numerical weather
forecasting was initiated by Richardson during World War I, developing the concept
of both Abbe and Bjerknes and using his own theories and reasoning. Richardson
presented a set of equations describing the physical processes governing atmo-
spheric behaviour, together with a method for their approximate solution, arguing
that it should be possible to proceed from an initial to a final state of the atmosphere
by a purely mathematical process (Lynch 2014). Although Richardson’s example
was a spectacular failure, his method revolutionized modern numerical weather
23.2  Historical Background 355

Fig. 23.5  The earliest

electronic computer
ENIAC. (Credit: Sakisbal
[CC BY-SA 4.0 (https://
creativecommos.org/
licenses/by-sa/4.0)])

forecasting. The concept was developed further in the 1940s by Charney and col-
leagues, providing a theoretical basis to overcome problems faced by Richardson.
The simplified equations they proposed lead to the construction of an electronic
computer ENIAC (see Fig. 23.5), which became a milestone in NWP. The first com-
puter generated prediction of the flow in the middle atmosphere was developed in
1949 by Charney, Fjortoft, and von Neumann. They used a simplified form of atmo-
spheric dynamics based on solving the barotropic vorticity equation over a single
layer of the atmosphere, by computing the geopotential height of the atmosphere’s
500 hPa pressure surface. In September 1954, Carl-Gustav Rossby assembled an
international group of meteorologists in Stockholm and produced the first opera-
tional forecast (i.e. routine predictions for practical use) based on the barotropic
equation. Operational numerical weather prediction in the United States began in
1955 under a joint project by the US Air Force, Navy, and Weather Bureau. The
Japanese Meteorological Agency became the third organization to initiate opera-
tional NWP in 1959. The first real-time forecasts made by Australia’s Bureau of
Meteorology in 1969 for portions of the SH were also based on the single layer
barotropic model. Later models used more complete equations for atmospheric
dynamics and thermodynamics. In 1959, Karl-Heinz Hinkelmann produced the first
reasonable primitive equation forecast, 37 years after Richardson’s failed attempt.
In 1966, West Germany and the United States began producing operational fore-
casts based on primitive-equation models, followed by the United Kingdom in 1972
and Australia in 1977. Later additions to primitive equation models allowed addi-
tional insight into different weather phenomena including solar radiation in 1967;
moisture effects, latent heat, and convection were incorporated in 1971. Three years
later, the first global forecast model was introduced. Sea ice began to be initialized
in forecast models in 1971.
356 23  Weather Forecast and NWP

23.3  Numerical Weather Prediction Concept

Numerical weather and climate prediction models (Palmer and Hagedorn 2006)
comprise of fundamental laws and parameterized physical and chemical compo-
nents of the atmosphere. The state of the atmosphere is described at a series of “grid
points” by a set of variables such temperature, pressure, velocity, and humidity. The
laws are expressed as mathematical equations, averaged over time, and grid vol-
umes  – describing the evolution of such variables. They are solved by replacing
time derivatives by finite differences and spatially either finite difference schemes
or spectral methods (i.e. state of the body as a function of time). They are converted
into a computer program, defining among other things, possible integrations
between the variables with other formulations, and integrated forward in discrete
time steps (i.e. making them predictive) to simulate changes in the atmosphere. In
this context, the model is a computer program that produce meteorological informa-
tion at given locations. All numerical models are based on the same set of governing
laws used to predict the physics and dynamics of the atmosphere. Mathematical
formulation of atmospheric models used in weather forecasting is based on equa-
tions mechanics of compressible fluid, originating from three fundamental laws:
momentum, mass conservation, and thermodynamic equation. Various physical
quantities that characterize the state of the atmosphere are assumed to have unique
values at each point in the atmospheric continuum. Moreover, these field variables
(e.g. pressure, density, temperature, speed) and their derivatives are assumed to be
continuous functions of space and time. These include ideal gas law given by:

p   RT (23.1)

where p is pressure, ρ is density, R is gas constant (287 Jkg−1 k −1) – a universal

quantity that does not change with time, and T is temperature. Hydrostatic equation
given by:

d RT
 (23.2)
dp p

where Φ is the geopotential at a given height/altitude, T is temperature, and p and R
are quantities, defined above. This means that the thickness of an atmospheric layer
bounded by isobaric surface is proportional to the mean temperature. Pressure
decreases more rapidly with height in a cold layer than a warm layer. Rate of change
of wind or momentum equation given by:

dV 1
  p  2xV  gk   2 V (23.3)
dt 
where 2 Ω × V is the Coriolis force (Ω is the angular velocity of planetary rotation
and V  =  iu  +  jv  +  kw is the velocity vector); the Coriolis parameter is given by
f = 2Ωsinφ. ∇p is the pressure gradient, g is gravitational field strength, k is the
23.3  Numerical Weather Prediction Concept 357

vertical unit vector, and ν∇2V is the fluid viscosity. Thermodynamic equation,
given by:

dT
cv  p  V  Q h  Q d (23.4)
dt
where Qh and Qd represent adiabatic and diabatic heat fluxes of air. The heat could
be added to a unit air mass due to external sources (e.g. solar and thermal radiation,
turbulent heat exchange or phase transformation of atmospheric moisture).
Conservation of water mass given by:

1 d
V  0 (23.5)
 dt
where ∇ is the three-dimensional gradient operator and V is the 3D wind. Potential
temperature given by:

k
 p 
s  T   (23.6)
 p0 
R
where k = , cP is specific heat capacity at constant pressure and R is as defined-
cP
earlier. This relationship is referred to as Poisson’s equation, where temperature θs
is called the Potential temperature. θ is simply the temperature that a parcel of dry
air at pressure p and temperature T would have if it were expanded or compressed
adiabatically to a standard pressure p0 (1  atm  =  1.01325  ×  105  Pa). For dry air,
κ = 0.286. Numerical weather prediction has been viable since the 1960s. Before the
computer era, principles of theoretical physics played little role in practical fore-
casting. Although much of the underlying physics was known, its application to
predict atmospheric conditions was impractical. Key development in weather fore-
casting was made in the immediate post-war period after the introduction of begin-
ning of computer technology to solve the complex equations and put the theory of
dynamic meteorology into practice. For example, Bjerknes theorized that the atmo-
sphere must obey the basic laws of physics. He stated (1904) that “subsequent atmo-
spheric states develop from the preceding ones according to the physical law”. By
stating the laws as mathematical equations, real observations from the atmosphere
could be used to generate a mathematical model to simulate the atmosphere.
Qualitative data (current state of the atmosphere) is collected, from which scientific
understanding of the atmospheric processes is used to infer how the atmosphere will
evolve over time. Since some physical processes take place on scales smaller than
the horizontal grid scale of the model domain, for these reasons they cannot be eas-
ily resolved in the models. In some cases, they are explicitly accounted for while in
other cases may be neglected or calculated appropriately as corrections. This means
effects of physical processes are included implicitly (or indirectly) when they can-
not be included explicitly. The approximation of such unresolved processes is
358 23  Weather Forecast and NWP

referred to as parameterization. Processes associated with this include radioactive

transfer, microphysics (e.g. moist processes such as cloud and rain drop), turbulent
mixing, and atmospheric emissions (e.g. aerosols and gases, air quality). There are
many types of parameterization schemes used in different models. These are impor-
tant aspects that strongly influence model forecasts and interact with each other in
the atmosphere. Parameterization needs to account for computational costs (e.g.
model running time, resolution used and/or any other resource specification), espe-
cially when using or increasing the complexity of the choice. There must be a “bal-
ance” between the type of scheme chosen and the computational cost. Data is
interpolated onto a global grid comprising of several grid points. The planet is
divided into a 3D grid. The basic equations are applied and results evaluated to cal-
culate variables such as wind field, heat transfer, radiation, temperature, pressure,
etc. within each grid. However, there could be cases where data is insufficient or
severe, measurements not covering the entire globe and/or not at set points. On the
other hand, because observations cannot be used directly to start the model integra-
tion, they are modified in a dynamically consistent way to obtain a suitable dataset.
Input data need to be interpolated, smoothed, and filtered a process usually referred
to as data assimilation. Real observation data is compared with predicted conditions
to give the best possible estimate of the atmosphere. Many studies have devoted to
improving numerical modelling through more advanced numerical methods, better
representation of atmospheric dynamics, and improved parameterization schemes.
However, these developments can be inhibited by inadequate observations, limited
understanding of the atmospheric physical processes, and the chaotic nature of the
atmospheric flow. Therefore, uncertainties will always exist in both initial condi-
tions and/or numerical prediction results. Many models are developed to improve
precision and to accommodate more complex processes.

23.3.1  Uncertainties in Weather Forecasts

There are several uncertainties why weather forecasts sometimes go bad or wrong.
First, it comes from the initial conditions and the models (tools) themselves.
Forecasting tools and other methods used can vary with the time period of forecast.
For example, the chaotic nature of the atmosphere, computational power required,
errors involved in measurements, and incomplete understanding of the atmosphere
show that forecasts become less accurate as the difference between the current and
the time for which the forecast is being made increases. It is also worth noting that
measured or observed data (including initial conditions) and atmospheric equations
are used to forecast the future status of the atmosphere. Therefore, measurements
might not be sufficiently precise or detailed, biasness in the choice of weather sta-
tions, and computer programs not storing data to infinite precision. Uncertainty due
to parameterization of sub-grid scale processes also plays a crucial role in predic-
tion quality. Furthermore, models include some equations accounting for the effects
23.3  Numerical Weather Prediction Concept 359

of small-scale processes that cannot be explicitly represented as their resolutions

may not be high enough. This can directly or indirectly affect accuracy in the pre-
dictions. Consequently, the further you go into future, the model’s precision skill is
lost. Model prediction accuracy is limited within a few days. For example, Edward
Lorenz claimed that even with a perfect model stating with initial conditions,
weather forecasting is limited to about 2 weeks only. He argues that no matter how
good the observational network or how good the forecasting procedures, there is
almost certainly an impossible limit as to how far into the future one can forecast as
the small errors will always exist and can grow into large errors within a certain
amount of time. Some of the factors influencing numerical weather prediction and
thus on accuracy and why do weather forecasts sometimes go bad from (a–b) are
listed below:
(a) Limited knowledge of the current state of the atmosphere:
• Insufficient or lack of interesting data in between observing locations
• Instrument sensitivity and errors
• Lack of observation of important quantities
• Errors in data assimilation (imperfect statistical and numerical forecast
methods)
The overall impact of this can lead to limitations in observations. For example,
satellites, radars, and radiosondes might not provide all the information missed by
surface observations. Similarly, data inconsistencies between different tools, incom-
plete understanding of the complexities, and interactions between atmospheric
physics and chemistry can be another cause of errors in the forecasting.
(b) Imperfect computer model:
• Need more powerful and faster computers for more grid points
• Need of better understanding of physical processes going into the model grid
• Limited resolution (processes represented must be truncated spatially, tem-
porally and physically)
• Systematic and/or random errors
Computer forecasts can be deficient in that they neglect small-scale effects and/
or approximate complicated physical processes, for example, processes occurring at
scales smaller than horizontal model grid sizes. There is also a significant source of
random errors associated with parameterization.
(c) Chaos:
• Sensitivity dependence to initial conditions (the atmosphere could react very
differently to slightly different initial conditions) – the “butterfly effect”.
• Small differences in initial conditions can evolve into large changes/amplify
rapidly (e.g. forecasts skill is lost with increasing lead time and is case
specific).
360 23  Weather Forecast and NWP

The word “chaos” was used to describe the model sensitivity to initial conditions – a
property popularly known as the “butterfly effect” that the atmosphere exhibits a
dynamical sensitivity such that predictions would lose skill at some point in the
future. This was captured in the “chaos theory” pioneered by Lorenz in the 1960s.
Golestani and Gras also note that chaotic behaviours are strongly dependent on
initial conditions and those small changes in initial conditions can possibly lead to
immense change in subsequent time steps and particularly difficult to predict. Some
of the problems encountered in weather forecasting could also arise from the fact
that we don’t fully understand everything that happens in the atmosphere. A wide
variety of factors influence the weather in many ways. The fact that a number of
relevant processes occur at scales smaller than model grids would possibly intro-
duce uncertainties into the model as we don’t always have a good understanding of
the behaviour of such processes, particularly their response to feedbacks. However,
it is worth noting that in the real world, a wide variety of forces are in play at the
same time. Therefore, it can be difficult (and sometimes impossible) to identify
dominant factors in the system. Although observations, theories, models, and other
tools continue to improve, the Earth-atmosphere is an immensely complex system.

23.3.2  Weather Forecast Practice

The task of determining the future state of the atmosphere is called weather fore-
casting. To develop weather conditions, it is necessary to analyse them. The proce-
dure for analysis involves assessment of current atmospheric conditions, which
include collection, transmission, data processing, and application (Sene 2010;
Lackmann 2012). The components of the modern system for forecasting the weather
include:
• Data collection
• Data assimilation
• Data reanalysis
• Numerical weather forecasting
• Products of the model outputs (post processing)
• Presentation of the forecast for end users
In the global scale, the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) is responsi-
ble for collecting, drawing, and dissemination of weather data. Information once
collected is distributed to the three regional meteorological centres in Washington
DC, Moscow, and Melbourne, Australia. The process of providing weather forecasts
and warnings is conducted in three stages. First, data are collected and analysed on
a global scale. Then, different techniques are used to determine the future state of
the atmosphere, a process called weather forecasting. Finally, the weather forecast
outputs are delivered to the public and other end users.
23.4  Weather Forecast Methods 361

Fig. 23.6  Surface weather chart. (Credit: Hydrological Prediction Center of NOAA. Surface chart
the 12th of October 2006 showing the cold air front intrusion over the southern Great Lakes, caus-
ing a Snow Storm with heavy snowfall of about 60 cm in a narrow area surrounding Buffalo, NY)

23.3.3  Weather Charts

Normally, a large quantum of the available weather data once collected is shown in
synoptic (observations made at the same time) weather chart. Weather chart shows
the status of the atmosphere, including information about temperature, humidity,
pressure, direction, and speed of wind and other meteorological elements and phe-
nomena. Figure 23.6 shows an example of the weather chart.

23.4  Weather Forecast Methods

Weather forecasts today are prepared by both objective and subjective methods.

23.4.1  Objective Methods

An objective forecast is one that is made without recourse to the personal judgement
of the forecaster. Strictly speaking, if two forecasters were given copies of one man-
ual describing a forecast method and placed in separate rooms with current data,
362 23  Weather Forecast and NWP

they would make identical forecasts. Its primary purpose is to bring forecasters
closer to the elusive goal of accuracy. In an objective method, meteorological
parameters appear in formulas or relations that are theoretical or empirical, in
graphical, tabular, or algebraic forms. These methods generally involve the use of
numerical (i.e. physical/dynamical) and/or statistical models. These methods are
objective in the sense that, for a procedure and set of relevant data, the forecasts
produced do not depend on a meteorologist’s judgement, although subjectivity is
involved in the choice of a procedure and a set of data.

23.4.2  Subjective Methods

These are methods in which the formulation of the forecasts is based at least in part
on the judgements of one or more meteorologists. Subjective methods are those in
which the processes used to analyse the data have not been well specified. These
methods are also called implicit, informal, intuitive methods.
They may be based on simple or complex processes; they may use objective data
or subjective data as inputs. Weather forecast is said to be the goal of atmospheric
research. It is also described as the most advanced area in meteorology. The nature
of modern weather forecasting is not only highly complex but also highly quantita-
tive. An attempt, therefore, is made to highlight the different methods used in mod-
ern weather forecasting. The various methods used in forecasting the weather are as
follows:
1 . Synoptic weather forecasts
2. Numerical methods
3. Statistical methods
Synoptic weather. Synoptic weather conditions are a principal method for pre-
paring weather forecasts, which dates from the end of 1950, and it includes an
analysis of synoptic weather maps, using several empirical rules. This is the first
method for preparing weather forecasts. The meaning of the word “synoptic” means
that the observation of different weather elements refers to a specific time of obser-
vation. Thus, a weather map that depicts atmospheric conditions at a given time is a
synoptic chart to a meteorologist. In order to have an average view of the changing
pattern of weather, a modern meteorological centre prepares a series of synoptic
charts every day.
Numerical weather prediction. Modelling of the atmosphere is top technology in
meteorology (Jacobson 1999). It is believed that one of the tasks of every modern
state is to use products from these automated systems and, if possible, to have an
operational control. Top in this area are those countries which can make models of
the atmosphere and thus to establish a full insight of the events of the atmosphere,
at least over its geographical area. All of them are based on one of the most success-
ful approaches in addressing hydrodynamic equations for the atmosphere, which
found practical application and verification in many known and recognized models
23.4  Weather Forecast Methods 363

Fig. 23.7 Numerical
weather-climate prediction
model (Example of
numerical grid-point model
that covers 3D domain
with grid of points, solve
forecast equations at
grid points)

of the atmosphere worldwide. Numerical weather conditions are widely used in

modern weather forecasting. Since atmospheric processes obey a few known physi-
cal laws and principles, they include the law on maintenance of energy, momentum,
and continuity. Ideally, these physical laws can be used to forecast the future state
of the atmosphere, using certain initial and boundary conditions, depending on geo-
graphical area, elevation, vegetation, and the meteorological parameters and prod-
ucts derived from the global system of monitoring and the initial fields from global
models. This is called “Numerical Weather Report” because of the mathematical
way to represent all these important atmospheric processes, arising from the laws,
and the numerical calculated using computer algorithms.
Numerical weather conditions use a number of highly refined computer grid
point (see Fig. 23.7) or Lagrangian models that try to represent the behaviour and
the future stage of the atmosphere.
Statistical methods to forecast the weather. Statistical methods use historical
weather data to forecast future cases. They are often used in combination with
numerical weather forecasts. A statistical approach, method of analogy, analyses
past weather reports to find ones that have approximately the same duplicate condi-
tions. Statistical methods are used along with the numerical weather prediction.
Statistical methods use the past records of weather data on the assumption that
future will be a repetition of the past weather. The main purpose of studying the past
weather data is to find out those aspects of the weather that are good indicators of
the future events. After establishing these relationships, correct data can be safely
used to predict the future conditions. Numerous attempts have been made to use
statistical methods to identify the main drivers of changes in the atmosphere and to
use them for making long-term forecasts. These techniques were made in two
directions:
1. To determine the time periodicity in some occurrences or values of meteorologi-
cal elements.
364 23  Weather Forecast and NWP

2. To find any “interactions” between certain factors in the atmosphere. In the sta-
tistical methods, the following sub-classification exists:
• Method of symmetrical points
• Method of singularity
• Method of types
• Method of analogue
• Method of natural synoptic period
• Combined physical-empirical methods
Method of symmetric points. German meteorologist Vikman (1931) proposed a
method of forecast based on symmetrical points. A symmetric point is defined as a
case of the pressure graph when the curve is repeated. The appearance of the inverse
symmetry of the pressure curve is also frequent. Symmetry usually occurs when at
high amplitudes, the peaks of the valley valleys are swirling and are inversely when
the null points agree.
Method of singularity. In the literature, many papers can be found that support
the thesis that some time types appear more correctly than could be expected on the
coincidence of chance. Thus in meteorology the term “singularity” is defined, which
is defined as a confidential time phenomenon that almost every year repeats in
approximately the same time.
Method of types. In many countries, the elaboration of mid-term and long-term
forecasts was based on the method of types. The German meteorologist Baur (1947)
has the greatest contribution to the development of the method of types. The method
of types is defined as “the mean distribution of sea level pressure over a time inter-
val, when the positions of the stationary cyclones and anticyclones remain substan-
tially unchanged”.
Method of analogue: If two similar weather situations are found, their further
development will be similar. Accordingly, if we find a map like the current weather
map in the synoptic archive, the forecast for the next period can be given directly by
reading the weather from the series of maps that follow the analogy map in the past.
The method of analogy is a quick, inexpensive, and objective way of making the
weather forecast, which includes climatological characteristics and orographic
influences over the area under consideration. However, the problem is that it is not
possible to find two identical weather charts.
Method of natural synoptic period. The first and most important works in the
former Soviet Union in the field of long-term forecast of time were given by
Multanowski (1915). The basis of its synoptic long-term prognosis is the idea of ​​the
existence of “natural synoptic periods”. According to the ideas of Multanowski, a
natural synoptic period can be defined as a time interval during which the thermal
and barrier fields in the atmosphere are not significantly changed, which condition
a certain orientation of the movement of the bar systems on the Earth’s surface and
maintain a geographical distribution of the signs of the bar field in the area of ​​the
natural synoptic region.
Combined physical-empirical methods. American meteorologist Namias (1947)
proposed medium-term and long-term prognosis for the method of average
23.5  Weather Forecast Types Based on the Range of the Processes 365

atmospheric circulation. This method assumes that the general circulation index,
which is the volume of zonal and meridian air masses, has its own repetition cycle.
His method uses combined physical-empirical methods with four different cycles.

23.5  W
 eather Forecast Types Based on the Range
of the Processes

To produce a weather forecast, we need to model the dynamics of the atmosphere

and the physical processes that occur, such as the formation of clouds, and the other
processes in the Earth system that influence the weather such as atmospheric com-
position, the marine environment, and land processes. Any forecast we produce is
limited by the fact that the atmosphere is chaotic (we can never fully know the exact
initial state of the atmosphere) and that our numerical models cannot perfectly rep-
resent the laws of physics governing the dynamic equations. We also must simplify
our models of many processes which occur at very small scales, such as cloud for-
mation. This means that all forecasts will have some uncertainty associated with
them. There are four types of operational weather forecasting based on range of
various atmospheric processes (Inness and Dorling 2010):
1 . Very short-range weather forecast (nowcasting)
2. Short-range weather forecast
3. Medium-range weather forecast
4. Long-range weather forecast

23.5.1  Very Short-Range Weather Forecast

This advanced technique, often called nowcasting, or very short-range weather fore-

casting, can provide a forecast  up to 2 hours in advance. The current weather is
mapped, and then an estimate of its movement is used to forecast the weather a short
period ahead (assuming the weather will move without significant changes). It takes
time to gather and map weather observations, so a short forecast is needed to outline
what the weather is currently. The forecast utilizes the latest radar, satellite, and
observational data to quickly predict hazardous weather cases, such as storms, tor-
nadoes, hailstorms, and other weather phenomena. In addition cloud-resolving
model simulation (see Fig. 23.8) could be a useful tool in simulation of convective
clouds and thunderstorms. The severe weather features relevant for very short-range
forecasting are:
–– Heavy precipitations episodes
–– Individual convective events (squall lines, organized convection)
–– Generalized freezing precipitations
366 23  Weather Forecast and NWP

Fig. 23.8  A three-­

dimensional simulation of
severe storm using cloud
model (Numerical
simulation of Skopje
supercell storm as
individual convective event 20
on 6 Aug 2016 using a 15
cloud resolving model) 10
5 40
0
0
20
20

40
0

–– Snow storms and streamers – windstorms

–– Fire danger
–– Severe heat or cold weather
–– Dust storms

23.5.2  Short-Range Weather Forecast

Short-range weather forecast is beyond 12 hours and up to 72 hours. Figure 23.9

shows an example of a short-range synoptic scale forecast of precipitation patterns
of the tropical cyclone Irma on September 8, 2017. The simplest techniques for
short-term weather conditions are called consistent or permanent, predicting that
future weather will be the same as the current conditions.
The severe weather features relevant for short-range forecasting are:
–– Heavy precipitations episodes
–– Areas of convective events (probability of occurrence)
–– Snow storms or streamers
–– Windstorms
–– Heat wave or cold wave (start, continuation or end)
–– Fire danger

23.5.3  Medium-Range Weather Forecast

Medium range represents the weather forecast for several days to 2 weeks in advance
(Woods 2006). Figure 23.10 shows an example of a medium-range weather forecast
chart. The ability to represent location and time of the time cases is reduced by
increasing the length of the forecast. In the current situation, the medium-range
23.5  Weather Forecast Types Based on the Range of the Processes 367

Fig. 23.9  A short-range forecast of heavy rain (WRF-ARW Forecast of hourly rain during severe
flooding occurred in Belgrade, Serbia, on June 23, 2019)

Fig. 23.10  Medium-range weather forecast. (Credit: ECMWF)

368 23  Weather Forecast and NWP

forecasts are based primarily on global systems for numerical estimates. On aver-
age, these systems produce skilful forecasts of more than 1 week in advance,
although their performance is changing the season in the region. The severe weather
features relevant for medium-range weather forecasting are:
(a) Heavy precipitations episodes (early warning and probability of occurrence)
(b) Areas of convective events (early warning and probability of occurrence)
(c) Snow storms (early warning and probability of occurrence)
(d) Windstorms (early warning and probability of occurrence)
(e) Heat wave or cold wave (start, continuation, or end)
Forecasters use the basic methods in order to increase the skill of medium-range
forecasts for a day or more and get a picture of the potential skill of the forecast
before it is verified. General forecasts are forecasts from the complex system of
weather prognostic systems with slightly different initial conditions and/or some
different versions of atmospheric models. Differences between individual forecasts
generally show probable prognostic skill and reliability. Using the general progno-
sis in a significant increase is common for all the revolutionary short-term pro-
cesses, and it is predicted to change. In the last three decades, sophisticated
medium-range forecasts extend roughly over 1 day after decade. The main winter
storms can now be predicted one or more weeks in advance, allowing the mainte-
nance of the road by the staff and enough time to prepare the managers responsible
for such emergency weather situations.

23.5.4  Extended-Range Weather Forecast

This type of forecast is defined in the Manual on the GDPFS as a description of

weather parameters beyond 10 days and up to 30 days (monthly weather forecast)
usually averaged and expressed as a departure from climate values for that period.
It is often made as an extension of ensemble prediction systems for medium-range
weather forecasting, with a lower spatial resolution as the time range is extended to
1 month. Deterministic forecasting is not possible for extended-range weather fore-
casting because the uncertainty is such that only probable departures from climate
values can be given along with a rough indication on the probability of realization.
The occurrence of extreme events cannot be accurately forecast by such systems.
Extended-range weather forecasting will take advantage of using the different EPS
systems available in the world.  Figure 23.11 shows an example of the extended
range weather forecast provided by ECMWF, using a combination of different out-
put parameters. The time range 10 to 30 days is probably still short enough that the
atmosphere retains some memory of its initial state and it may be long enough that
the ocean variability has an impact on the atmospheric circulation.
Therefore, extended-range weather forecasting can be built as a combination of
the medium-range ensemble prediction systems and seasonal forecasting systems
and contain features of both systems, like coupled ocean-atmosphere integrations.
23.5  Weather Forecast Types Based on the Range of the Processes 369

Fig. 23.11  Extended-range weather forecast using multiparameter outlook. (Credit: ECMWF)

The severe weather features relevant for extended-range weather forecasting are:
(a) Higher or lower than normal precipitation episodes
(b) Higher or lower than normal temperatures: can be associated with, e.g. ENSO
events, cold waves, heat waves, and droughts

23.5.5  Monthly Weather Outlooks

Monthly outlook is a description of averaged weather parameters expressed as a

departure from climate values for that month. Monthly outlook can be obtained by
running ensemble prediction systems at a larger scale than for medium-range fore-
casting – for computer resources reasons, nevertheless allowing for usable trends up
to a month in advance. The analysis of multi-model ensembles is useful in long-range
forecasting. The severe weather features relevant for monthly outlooks are higher or
lower than normal temperature or precipitation episodes (start, continuation, or end).

23.5.6  Long-Range Weather Forecast

Long-range or global weather forecast represents a special type of forecast which

usually a global range for an extended period of 1 year and more. Figure  23.12
shows a mean sea level pressure (hPa) as a product of the Global Forecast System
370 23  Weather Forecast and NWP

Fig. 23.12  Global weather forecast

Model (GFS). Continuous time forecasting is an area that is firmly based on statisti-
cal averages derived from past cases; weather is often referred to as climate data.
Weekly, monthly, and seasonal weather outlook prepared by the National Weather
Service weather forecasts does not represent the general sense. They indicate only
whether the region will hit near-normal precipitation and temperatures or not.
Ability and skill of forecasting rely on knowledge, experience, and analytics of a
forecaster.

23.5.7  Climate Forecast

Climate forecasting covers forecasting ranges beyond 2 years:

–– Climate variability prediction is a description of the expected climate parameters
associated with the variation of interannual decadal and multi-decadal climate
anomalies.
–– Climate prediction is a description of expected future climate including the
effects of both natural and human influences. Climate forecasting can be achieved
by using coupled models which encompass atmosphere and ocean physical pro-
23.6  Ensemble Forecast Method 371

cesses and their interaction (see Warner 2011). However, as the time range is
higher than 90 days and can reach several years if not centuries, slow-varying
phenomena must be considered to adequately represent climatic trends, with, for
instance, model representations of polar ice fields or vegetation change. Thus,
climate models can be built as coupled models with many different “bricks”
interacting each other: atmosphere, ocean, ice fields, aerosols, vegetation, atmo-
spheric chemistry, and other. Then, relying on economic studies, different sce-
narios of emission of greenhouse gases are used as an input in climate models so
that the climate trends can be tentatively drawn following these scenarios.

23.6  Ensemble Forecast Method

Ensemble forecast represents a technique based on running several forecast models

for the same weather situation or different versions of a single model, each begin-
ning with slightly different initial condition uncertainty as it is shown on Fig. 23.13.
Then the forecast output results are superimposed on the same graph, where the
most common outcome is probably the most likely one. It is no doubt that the
ensemble approach reflects the errors in the measurements, reducing the forecast
uncertainty and thus significantly improves the forecast accuracy.

23.6.1  Deterministic Vs Probabilistic Forecast

Forecasts are either deterministic or probabilistic (Fig. 23.14). Both techniques try

to predict events, but information on the uncertainty of the prediction is only present
in the probabilistic forecast.
Deterministic forecasts of an event of a specific magnitude at a specific time and
place. As we go from the short to the long term, the nature of the forecasts (or what-
ever we might call them) also changes. Short-term forecasts are deterministic.
Probabilistic forecasting is a technique for weather forecasting that relies on dif-
ferent methods to establish an event occurrence probability (Palmer 2017). This

Fig. 23.13 Ensemble
forecasting method
372 23  Weather Forecast and NWP

Fig. 23.14 Deterministic
vs probabilistic forecast

Time = 00-hr

Time = 72-hr

differs substantially from giving a definite information on the occurrence (or not) of
the same event, technique used in deterministic forecasting.
Traditionally numerical weather prediction has advanced progressively by
improving single, “deterministic” forecasts with increasing model accuracy and
decreasing initial condition errors. However, the meteorological atmosphere is a
chaotic system on time scales of a few days and weeks, depending on the spatial
scales of interest. (The climatic system is also chaotic, but on much longer times-
cales.) Also the behaviour of our numerical simulations of the atmosphere would
continue to be affected by the problems typical of model simulations of chaotic
dynamical systems even if we could have perfect initial conditions, write perfectly
accurate evolution equations, and solve them with perfect numerical schemes, just
because of the limited number of significant digits used by any computer (Lorenz,
1963). Looking at the problem from a slightly more fundamental point of view, a
forecast explicitly cast in probability terms is better not only because it provides the
user with an estimate of the error “of the day” but because it is more “truthful”. So,
a probability forecast conveys a message which explicitly reminds the user that
there is always a forecast uncertainty which should be considered, computed, and
considered when making any practical use of the forecast. In fact, even “determin-
istic” forecasts are probability forecasts in disguise, since an error bar (even if only
an average error bar) can and should always be associated with it. That error bar
implies a probability distribution of predicted future states around a central value.

23.7  Numerical Weather Prediction Structure

Numerical weather models (NWM) operate in three main phases:

1. Analysis (pre-processing)
2. Prediction (processing)
3. Visualization, verification (post-processing)
23.7  Numerical Weather Prediction Structure 373

The analysis phase: A gridded, three-dimensional analysis is produced with a

previous forecast and observations. The process by which the above are combined
is called data assimilation.
The forecast a quantity F (e.g. temp, pressure, humidity, wind) at point x is
given as:

F  atfuture time   F  present   Change in  F  between present and future time

or written in form of equation:

F
F  x, t  t   F  x,t    x,t  t (23.7)
t
where the first term on the r.h.s. of the above equation represents “initialization” or
“initial conditions” (from observations) and the second one is a partial differential
equation describing rate of change of F.

23.7.1  Data Assimilation

Data assimilation is a mathematical method which combines theory (in terms of a

numerical model) with observations (Park and Xu 2009). There are many uncertain-
ties in the initial conditions for a numerical forecast model. Therefore, it is a goal to
interpolate sparse observation data using (e.g. physical) knowledge of the system
being observed to run numerical model based on observed data. Depending on the
goal, different approaches may be utilized. Data assimilation differs from other
types of machine learning, image analysis, and statistical methods in that it uses a
dynamical model of the system being analysed. Data assimilation initially devel-
oped in the field of numerical weather prediction. Numerical weather prediction
models are equations describing the dynamical behaviour of the atmosphere, writ-
ten in linearized form and the appropriate code into a computer program. In order to
use these models to make forecasts, initial conditions are needed for the model that
closely resembles the current state of the atmosphere. Simply inserting measure-
ments into the numerical model grid points did not provide a satisfactory solution.
Real-world measurements contain errors both due to the quality of the instrument,
reliable data, and how accurately the position of the measurement is known. These
errors can cause instabilities in the models that eliminate any level of skill in a fore-
cast. Thus, more sophisticated methods were needed in order to initialize a model
using all available data while making sure to maintain stability in the numerical
model. Such data typically includes the measurements as well as a previous forecast
valid at the same time the measurements are made. If applied iteratively, this pro-
cess begins to accumulate information from past observations into all subsequent
forecasts. Gridded atmospheric analyses are produced by combining the following:
374 23  Weather Forecast and NWP

1 . A previous forecast
2. Forecast uncertainty
3. Observations
4. Observation uncertainty
The resulting analysis is the most likely state of the atmosphere based on the given
information. There are different modern methods of data assimilation:
• Three-dimensional variation data assimilation (3DVAR)
• Four-dimensional variation data assimilation (4DVAR
• The ensembles Kalman filter (EnKF)

23.7.2  Reanalysis

Reanalysis represents a systematic approach to produce datasets for climate moni-

toring and research. Reanalysis are created via an unchanging data assimilation
scheme and model(s) which incorporate all available observations every 6–12 hours
over the period being analysed. This unchanging framework provides a dynamically
consistent estimate of the climate state at each time step. The one component of this
framework which does vary is the sources of the raw input data. This is unavoidable
due to the ever-changing observational network which includes, but is not limited
to, radiosonde, satellite, buoy, aircraft, and ship reports. Currently, approximately
seven to nine million observations are ingested at each time step.
ERA-Interim represents a third-generation reanalysis. The successor to ERA-­
Interim, ERA5, is available back to 1979 as of January 2019. It provides hourly
estimates of atmospheric variables, a horizontal resolution of 31 km and 137 verti-
cal levels from the surface to 0.01 hPa. It utilizes the best available observation data
from satellites and in situ stations, which are assimilated and processed using
ECMWF’s Integrated Forecast System (IFS). The dataset provides all essential
atmospheric meteorological parameters: air temperature, pressure, and wind at dif-
ferent altitudes, along with surface parameters like rainfall and soil moisture content
and sea parameters like sea surface temperature and wave height.
Prediction (processing): The processing phase of NWP involves calculating the
future state of the atmosphere (starting point = the analysis) under the following
governing equations:
1 . Conservation of momentum
2. Conservation of mass
3. Conservation of energy
Visualization and verification (post-processing): The  Model Output Statistics
(MOS) is a post-processing technique that correlates relationships between a model
forecast and the observational data based on numerous forecasts. Depending on the
target audience, it uses different format of output data, visualization tools and ani-
mation techniques. The forecast verification is a  standard technique, applied for
23.7  Numerical Weather Prediction Structure 375

verifying the forecast quality and accuracy (Jolliffe and Stephenson 2003, 2011).
This process is based on using standard mathematical statistics formula as mean
error (ME), the mean systematic error  (BIAS), mean absolute error (MAE), root
mean square error (RMSE), correlation coefficient (CC), and other useful methods
of comparing the forecast skills with observations.

23.7.3  A
 pplication of New Technologies
for Weather Forecasting

Many technical advantages are made to improve the accuracy of the forecast.
Automated systems for monitoring the ground floor are now used in places that are
currently outside of the observation network. Microcomputer interactive systems
allow forecasters to show, to manipulate, and to quickly assimilate large quantum
and diversity of available data. Advanced radar networks such as NEXRAD (Last
Generation Time Radar) are accompanied by Doppler radar, used for detection and
positioning of weather phenomena in small proportions, such as tornadoes and
storms. Weather forecasting is firmly based on information supplied by polar
weather satellites and geostationary satellites. Their primary importance is to help
in filling the missing data from observations, especially concerning the oceans.
Weather satellites can generate several types of images, including visible and infra-
red images of water vapour. Satellite infrared images (images obtained from the
radiation emitted by the object rather than reflected) help in determining the rainy
regions within the cyclone. Future satellites will be capable of directly or indirectly
detect the wind speed, humidity and temperatures at different heights.

23.7.4  Observations and Forecasts

For many years, meteorologists were aware of the strong correlation between
cyclone disturbances at the surface and seasonal fluctuations in wave flow on west-
ern winds high above the Earth. Often, when upper level air flow creates waves with
high amplitude and base flow from north to south, cold air moves south, and, in such
conditions, cyclonic activity dominates the weather. On the other hand, when the
flow is located west to east, moderate temperatures and several cyclone disruptions
are experienced south of the jet stream. Although the effects of flow at a higher level
are well documented, some unpredictable behaviour of the flow of the pitch holding
long-maturity forecast is beyond the achievements of forecaster. The National
Weather Service (NWS) provides weather, hydrologic, and climate forecasts and
376 23  Weather Forecast and NWP

warnings. NWS is responsible for collecting and delivering information related to

weather. Within the service centre, a forecast is established. Among the important
services provided by the service is forecast and warnings for adverse weather condi-
tions including storms, floods, hurricanes, monsoons, tsunami, tornadoes, winter
inconvenient time, heat waves, and extreme warming. NWS data and products form
a national information data base and infrastructure which can be used by other gov-
ernmental agencies, the private sector, the public, and the global community.

References

Inness, P., & Dorling, S. (2010). Operational weather forecasting (Vol. 23, p. 231). Hoboken: Wiley.
Jacobson, M. Z. (1999). Fundamentals of atmospheric modelling (Vol. 23, p. 828). Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Jolliffe, I. T., & Stephenson, D. B. (2003). Forecast verification. A Practitioner’s guide in atmo-
spheric science (Vol. 23, p. 240). Hoboken: Wiley.
Jolliffe, I. T., & Stephenson, D. B. (2011). Forecast verification: A Practitioner's guide in atmo-
spheric science (2nd ed., p. 292). Hoboken: Wiley.
Lackmann, G. (2012). Midlatitude synoptic meteorology, dynamics, analysis, and forecasting (Vol.
345). Boston: American Meteorological Society.
Lorenz, E. N. (1963). Deterministic non-periodic flow. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 20(2),
130–141.
Lazić, L. (2010). Prognoza vremena (in Serbian) (p. 220). Beograd: RHMZ.
Lynch, P. (2014). The emergence of numerical weather prediction: Richardson’s dream (p. 292).
Cambridge University Press.
Palmer, T. (2017). The primacy of doubt: Evolution of numerical weather prediction from deter-
minism to probability. Journal of Advances in Modeling Earth Systems, 9, 730–734.
Palmer, T., & Hagedorn, R. (2006). Predictability of weather and climate (p. 718). Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Park, S. K., & Xu, D. L. (2009). Data assimilation for atmospheric, oceanic and hydrologic appli-
cations. Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer.
Sene, K. (2010). Hydrometeorology. Forecasting and applications (Vol. 23, p. 355). Dordrecht:
Springer.
Thaxter, W. J. (1990). The history of weather. New York: Nova Scientific Pub.
Warner, T.  T. (2011). Numerical weather and climate prediction (Vol. 23, p.  526). Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Wiston, M., & Mphale, K.  M. (2018). Weather forecasting: From the early weather wizards
to modern-day weather predictions. J Climatol Weather Forecasting, 6, 229. https://doi.
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Chapter 24
Climate and Climate Change

24.1  Definition of Climate, Climate Elements, and Factors

The climate is a notion of average time for a region and for a longer period. While
short-term weather describes the state of the atmosphere, the climate is a long-term
pattern of weather in one area (Ahrens and Henson 2016). The climate has many
more items from the average condition of the atmosphere, because the full descrip-
tion of the environment should also include changes and extremes in the atmosphere
to accurately describe the overall character of the area. The important elements in
the descriptions of the climate are the regime of temperature and the precipitation
regime, because they have the greatest impact on people and their activities have
effects on the distribution of vegetation and soil development. There are various
factors that affect climate worldwide, among which the most important are:
• Distance from the sea
• Ocean currents
• Direction of prevailing winds
• Topography of the terrain (orography)
• Geographic latitude (i.e. the distance from the equator)
• Phenomenon “El Niño-Southern Oscillation”
• Human activity
Many scientific papers and publications (e.g. Oliver 2005; Allaby 2007; Barry
and Hall-McKim 2014) are dedicated to the study of Earth’s complex climate sys-
tem, including climate change as one of the most significant global challenge of
modern human life.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 377

V. Spiridonov, M. Ćurić, Fundamentals of Meteorology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-52655-9_24
378 24  Climate and Climate Change

24.2  Climate System

The key to understanding climate change is knowledge of the basic characteristics

of the climate system and its way of operating. In a planetary scale, global climate
depends on the energy that the Earth receives from the Sun (Allaby 2007; Barry and
Hall-McKim 2014). Global climate changes affect the energy within the climate
system. The physical components of the global climate system include the atmo-
sphere, oceans, ice cap (cryosphere), living organisms (biosphere), and ground,
sediments, and rocks (geosphere), and all these affect the transport of heat on the
Earth’s surface in a greater or lesser extent. These components all interact on a wide
range of spatial and time scales. Atmosphere plays a key role in regulating the cli-
mate of our planet. The atmosphere does not act as an isolated system. The exchange
of energy takes place between the atmosphere and other parts of the climate system,
including the most important parts – the oceans. For example, ocean currents move
heat from equatorial latitudes towards cooler polar latitudes. Heat is also transmit-
ted through moisture. Water evaporating from the surface of the oceans has recorded
the heat which is released later in the process of condensation, which forms clouds
and precipitation. Oceans accumulate greater quantities of heat, unlike the atmo-
sphere. Above 200 metres, the world’s oceans supply 30 for about 30 times more
heat than the atmosphere. Therefore, the flow of energy between ocean and atmo-
sphere can have dramatic effects on climate change.
• Theoretical considerations about climate changes. The global climate must be
considered as an option within the complex atmospheric/ocean/ice/land system
(Oliver 2005). Any change in this system, resulting in climate change, creates the
forcing agents causing climate change. Such forcing agents can be either internal
or external. Forcing mechanisms include external forces acting outside the cli-
mate system. In contrast, internal mechanisms operate within the climate system.
• Non-radiative forcing. Any change in climate must include some forms of distri-
bution of energy within the global climate system. However, forcing agents that
do not directly affect the energy budget of the atmosphere (balance between the
incoming solar radiation and the Earth’s outgoing radiation) are considered as
non-radiative mechanisms of global climate change. Such forces usually operate
over large time scales (107–109 years) and generally include those factors that
affect the climate of the geometry of the Earth’s surface. Such factors are loca-
tion and size of the mountain and state of the ocean basins.
• Radiation forcing. The process that changes the energy balance of the Earth-­
atmosphere system is known as the radiation forcing mechanism. These mecha-
nisms include changes in the orbit of the Earth around the Sun, solar radiation,
volcanic activity, and atmospheric composition. Before exploring some of the
important mechanisms, internal and external, there is one factor that is also
important for climate and refers to the time scale in which climate change is
occurring.
• Time scale of climate change. Research on climate change is of great importance
to the different time scale in which it occurs. Climate change occurs in all time
24.3  Milankovic Theory of Climate Change 379

scales in terms of random and periodic forcing factors. In every period of several
years to hundreds of millions of years, there is a primary reference level of ran-
dom changes in climate that are caused by internal processes that are associated
with feedback mechanisms, often known as Stochastic or random mechanisms.
Such a coincidence involved in climate change, and its existence is due to the
complex and chaotic behaviour of the climate system in response to forcing.
Substantial effect on the existence of random processes is that much of climate
change cannot be predicted.
• Periodic forcing factors. Periodic forcing factors of climate are far more relevant
for understanding the mechanisms and influences on climate change. Unlike the
random factors, periodic factors can predict future climate change. However, it is
often not quite clear in what way the climate system reacts to the periodic forcing
factors. If we assume that the climate system reacts to the linear way of periodic
forcing, climate change will manifest similar periodicity. For the forcing of the
climate, there are many factors that extend in a huge range of periodicity. The
longest, 200–500 million years, is related to the passage through the solar galaxy
system and changes in galaxy dust. These mechanisms are considered external
forcing mechanisms. There are various external forcing mechanisms acting on
time scales from 10 to 109 years, including galactic, solar, and orbital changes.
Changes in the galaxy orbit of the solar system around the centre of galaxy are
considered as a possible mechanism of the external forcing. In the mid-­nineteenth
century, scientist Kroll proposed a theory concerning the orbital changes that are
associated with periodic changes in the Earth’s orbit around the Sun. His ideas
were later refined and elaborated by Milankovic (Fig. 24.1).

24.3  Milankovic Theory of Climate Change

Milankovic theory is known as the astronomical theory of climate change or Earth‘s

long-term climate change. Milinkovic has identified three types of orbital changes
that could act ass mechanism for forcing of climate (see Fig. 24.2):
1. Earth eccentricity (deviation) of the Earth’s path around the Sun
(100.000–400.000 years)
2. Earth obliquity (inclination)-range of the tilt of Earth’s axis of rotation or
change of the slope of the Earth’s axis of rotation (~41.000)
3. Earth precession-revolution axis of rotation of the Earth (~21.000 years)
Although the variability of the Sun, in advance, is considered as another external
factor of forcing, it remains a controversial mechanism of climate change on all
time scales. Despite the many attempts to demonstrate statistical link between solar
periodicity and global climate cycles, there are not any real challenging proposed
mechanism to link these two phenomena. Internal forcing mechanisms are operat-
ing over time scales of 1–108 years. They can be either radiative or non-radiative
380 24  Climate and Climate Change

Fig. 24.1 Milinkovic
Milutin (1879–1958)

Fig. 24.2  Three cycles of Milankovic astronomical theory. (a) Eccentricity; (b) obliquity; (c)
precession. Courtesy NASA/JPL-Caltech

forcing mechanisms. Other long-term changes 106 108 years include non-radiative

forcing mechanisms.
They include continental electricity orogeny and vertical movements in the
Earth’s crust, affecting the sea level. These are internal mechanisms of the forcing.
External changes in the amount of solar radiation and the Earth’s orbit around the
Sun, volcanic activity, ocean circulation, and atmospheric composition occur over
all time scales from 1 to 105 years. Additionally, there are many other internal feed-
back mechanisms that contribute to changing the global climate change. The
24.3  Milankovic Theory of Climate Change 381

reaction of the climate system to this combination of factors forcing depends on the
different times of reaction, the various components in the system. Atmosphere,
snow, and ice at the surface, as well as vegetation, typically respond to a climate
forcing for a period of hours to days.
The surfaces of the oceans have a reaction to climate change measured in years,
while the deep oceans and mountain glaciers are changing within hundreds of years.
Great Ice sheets grow and shrink over a thousand years, while parts of the geosphere
respond only in forcing periods lasting hundreds and thousands of million years.
The reaction of the climate system to forcing episodes could be considered as a
form of resonance. When the period of forcing corresponds closely to the time of
the response component of the special system, climate response will be greatest
within that component.
• Climate feedback. The state of the global climate is related to general stability,
which occurs as a result of the balance that exists between the common compo-
nents of the global climate system. The amount of incoming solar radiation is
balanced with the amount of outgoing terrestrial longwave radiation, such as the
Earth continues to heat or not to cool. It is said that the Earth’s climate is in equi-
librium. When the climate system reacts to radiative forcing, this balance is tem-
porarily upset, and difference between incoming and outgoing radiation appears.
To establish equilibrium, the global climate changes by heating or cooling,
depending on the direction of the initial forcing.
• Although the climate system is in balance, it really is dynamic and constantly
changing. The system constantly adjusts to disturbances which are caused by
forcing. This setup contributes to climate change. While transferring from one to
another component of the system, it modifies. In some cases, the system will be
intensified (positive feedback); in other cases, it can be reduced (negative
reaction).
• Climate sensitivity. The concept of turning the climate response is associated
with climate sensitivity and climate stability. It is useful to have a measure of the
strength of various feedback processes that determine the ultimate response of
the climate system to any change in radiative forcing. In general, the initial
change in temperature due to the change in radiative forcing is modified through
a complex combination of feedback processes.
• Empirical study of climate. To understand the present climate and predict future
climate change, it is necessary to have theoretical and empirical observation.
Every study of climate change includes construction (or rehabilitation) of the
time series of climate data. As these data concern climate change through time,
they provide a measure (quantitative or qualitative) of climate change. Climate
statistics include a wide range of different types of data: temperature, precipita-
tion, wind, humidity, evaporation, pressure, and solar radiation (light).
382 24  Climate and Climate Change

24.4  Climate Classification

It is assumed that the first attempt to change the classification was made by the
ancient Greeks, who divided each hemisphere into three zones: torrid, temperate,
and frigid. Since the beginning of the twentieth century, there were many dealings
with the classification of climate, but the well-known and the most common scheme
for presenting a model of change is the scheme proposed by Vladimir Köppen
(1846–1940) (Fig. 24.3).
Köppen-Geiger climate classification (1980–2016) recognizes five major groups
of climate, each designated by a capital letter: A (wet tropical), B (dry), C (mid-­
latitude wet, mild winters, moderate), D (mid-latitude wet, cold winters), and E
(polar). Four groups (A, C, D, and E) are defined by air temperature. The fifth (B)
group takes precipitation as the primary factor.

24.5  Climate Factors (Controllers)

Köppen’s climate classification defines the global climate based on meteorological

models. These models depend on factors that control and manage the atmospheric
processes. The basic climatic factors are:
1. Geographic latitude (changes in the influx of solar energy and differences in
temperature, largely dependent on geographical latitude)
2. Influence land/water (maritime climate is mild in principle, while continental
climates are more extreme)
3. Geographic location and persistent winds (moderate effect of water is more pro-
nounced on the upwind side of the continent)

Fig. 24.3  World Köppen-Geiger climate classification (1980–2016)

24.6  Climate Types 383

4. Orography (mountain barriers prevent maritime air masses from the depth of
penetration into the mainland, causing orographic rains, which create specific
climate regions)
5. Ocean currents (flows moving towards the poles causing air temperatures to be
higher than expected)
6. The distribution of pressure and wind (global distribution of precipitation is
closely related to the distribution of the main pool of bilge systems and general
wind patterns in the Earth)

24.6  Climate Types

A – Climate type is a humid tropical climate, which stretches along the equator,
with constant high temperatures. In combination with precipitation throughout
the year in the climate field, lush vegetation is created, known as tropical rain
forest. The average temperatures in these regions, each month, usually amount to
25 °C or more, and the daily temperature changes significantly exceed the sea-
sonal differences. Precipitation in this type of climate is normally 1750 to
2500 mm annually and is more variable than temperature, such as seasonal, as
well as space. Thermal convection combined with convergence along Intertropical
Convergence Zone (ITCZ) leads to a widespread rise in warm, moist, unstable
air, which creates ideal conditions for the occurrence of rainfall.
B – Climate type. Dry regions in the world are covering about 30% of land area on
Earth. The characteristic feature of the climate type B, i.e. the dry climate, the
annual deficit is the amount of rainfall. Climatologists define climate as dry cli-
mate when annual rainfall is less than the potential loss of water through evapo-
ration. To define the boundary between dry and wet climate, Köppen’s
classification applies a formula that represents three variables:
1 . Average amount of rainfall
2. Average temperature
3. Seasonal distribution of rainfall
C – Climate type. Climate type C refers to the occurrence of wet climates in high
latitudes. Winters are mild, so that the mean temperature of the coldest month is
in the interval (−3 °C and 18 °C). There are several subgroups of C-type climate.
D – Climate type. Type D climate refers to the continental climate with wet winters
expressed. The mean temperature of the coldest month varies in the interval
(−3  °C to 3  °C), and the mean temperature of the hottest month exceeds
10  °C.  The main annual temperature amplitudes on Earth occur in this cli-
mate type.
E – Climate type. Climate type E refers to the polar climates in which the mean
temperature of the hottest month is less than 10  ° C.  The annual temperature
amplitudes are extreme, with the lowest annual averages of the Earth. Although
polar climates are classified as wet, rainfall is usually insufficient. In some ter-
384 24  Climate and Climate Change

restrial stations, the annual amount of rainfall is even less than 250 mm. There
are two types of polar climate: the tundra and the climate of perpetual ice. The
first type is known as the tundra climate, which is a less forest region with
grasses, sedges, mosses, and lichens with permanently frozen subsoil, called per-
mafrost. The ice cap climate (EF) does not have a single monthly mean tempera-
ture above 0  °C.  Consequently, the growth of vegetation is deprived, and the
landscape is a one of permanent ice and snow.
Mountain climate. Mountain climates are characterized by large variability in
climate conditions over a small area. Although the well-known climatic effects of
increased height to lower temperatures, widespread rainfall is greater as a result of
orographic rising. Variety and variability best describe the mountain climate. As
atmospheric conditions change with altitude and exposure to sunlight, almost
unlimited variety of local climates occurs in mountain regions.

24.6.1  Modern Term of Climate

The climate today is generally defined as a comprehensive statistical description of

complex weather, including extreme processes over sufficiently long period, from
30 to 100  years (National Research Council 2002). There is no sharp distinction
between weather and climate. There are free modes of atmospheric circulation that
have a time scale to about 2 years (quasi-2-year oscillation). There are also joint
ocean-atmosphere modes that have a time frame of weeks to several decades. A
dominant feature is the phenomenon “El Niño-Southern Oscillation”, which occurs
in the eastern tropical Pacific Ocean, with time scale of about 4 years.

24.7  Climate Modelling

Climate models attempt to simulate the behaviour of the climate system. The goal
is to comprehend the key physical, chemical, and biological processes that govern
climate. By understanding the climate system, it is possible to get a clearer picture
of past climates, by comparison with empirical observations, and thus to predict
future climate change. The models can be used for simulating the climate of differ-
ent spatial and temporal scales (Warner 2011). Sometimes it is necessary to study
regional climate. Other cases of interest include other weather climate models in
global scale, which simulate the climate of the planet. The basic physical processes
that must be treated with the preparation of climate model are:
1. Radiation processes (covering the transmission of radiation through the climate
system, absorption, reflection, scattering, etc.)
2. Dynamic processes (horizontal and vertical transfer of energy, such as advec-
tion, convection, turbulence, diffusion)
24.7  Climate Modelling 385

3. Surface processes (including processes related to the effects of albedo on land/

ocean/ice, emissivity and exchanges of energy between the Earth’s surface and
the atmosphere)
These processes are important for describing the behaviour of the climate sys-
tem. The basic laws and other relations necessary for modelling the climate system
are expressed through a series of equations that can be empirical or primitive.
Solving equations is usually done by methods of finite differences. Therefore, it is
important to examine the spatial and temporal resolution of the model.

24.7.1  Climate System Simplification

All models used to forecast climate, greatly simplify the complex climate system.
This is due to the limited knowledge of the climate system and partly as a result of
computer limitations. Simplification can be achieved in terms of spatial dimension-
ality, space, and time resolution or parameterization processes that simulate. The
simplest models of the spatial dimension are of zero order. The state of the system
is defined by a single global average. Other models always include increased dimen-
sional complexity of 1D, 2D and 3D models. Regardless of the spatial dimension of
the model, further simplification takes place in terms of spatial resolution. The time
resolution of climate models substantially changed from minutes to years, depend-
ing on the nature of the models and the problem under investigation. To protect the
computer stability, there should be a link between spatial and temporal resolution of
the model. Sometimes atmospheric processes on scales smaller than the resolution
of the model equations that describe the processes cannot be solved explicitly. In
this case, their parameterization is carried out, which primarily covers the use of
simplified (sometimes semi-empirical) functions or parameters. Atmospheric pro-
cesses in subscale, such as turbulent processes in thunderstorms, should be param-
eterized because it is not possible to solve them explicitly. Other processes may also
be parameterized to reduce the required computer computational time. Certain pro-
cesses may be omitted from the model if their contribution is negligible compared
to the time scale which is of interest. For example, there is no need to consider the
role of deep oceanic circulation for modelled changes over time scales from years
to decades. Some models can process radiative transfers largely but cannot ignore
or parameterize energy transport. Other models can provide 3D representation, but
they contain much less detailed information about the radiative transfer.

24.7.2  Climate Models

The most common division of the climate models is the following:

• Models of energy balance (EBMs)
• (1D) radiation-convective models (RCMs)
386 24  Climate and Climate Change

• (2D) statistical-dynamical models (SDMs)

• (3D) general circulation models (GCMs)
Patterns of energy balance are the easiest (0D) models that simulate energy bal-
ance in the atmosphere. The remaining 1D, 2D, and 3D models have gradual
increase in complexity depending on the degree to which they simulate individual
processes and their temporal and spatial resolution. The simplest models allow little
interaction between the primary processes, radiation, dynamics, and surface pro-
cesses where the most complex models are fully interactive and coupled (Trenberth
2010). Patterns of energy balance (EBMs) simulate two basic processes that govern
the state of climate:
(a) Global radiative balance (between incoming solar radiation and Earth terrestrial
outgoing radiation)
(b) Latitudinal transfer of energy (from the equator towards the poles)
Radiative-convective models. Radiation-convective models (RCMs) are 1D or
2D, with height as a dimension that is currently irreversible. RCMs simulate in
detail the transfer of energy through the thickness of the atmosphere, including:
(a) Radiative transformations that occur when energy is absorbed, emitted, and
scattered
(b) The role of convection, transfer of energy by atmospheric vertical motion, in
maintaining stability
Two-dimensional Regional Climate Models (RCMs) can also simulate horizontal-­
averaged transfers of energy. Statistical-Dynamic Models (SDMs) are essentially
two-dimensional (2D) in form, usually with one horizontal and one vertical dimen-
sion, although two versions of horizontal dimensions have been developed. SDMs
combine the horizontal transfer of energy modelled by patterns of Energy
Balance  Models (EBMs) with radiation-convection approach of  RCMs. Energy
transfer from the equator to the pole is simulated in a sophisticated way, based on
theoretical and empirical relations of the cell flow between latitudes. Parameters
such as direction and wind speed are modelled by statistical relations, and to obtain
a measure of energy diffusion, like EBMs, applying the fundamental laws of motion.
General Circulation Models (GCMs) represent the most sophisticated attempt to
simulate the climate system. Three-dimensional (3D) formulation of the model is
based on fundamental laws of physics:
(a) Conservation of mass
(b) Conservation of momentum
(c) Conservation of energy
Series of primitive equations describing these laws are solved, summarizing
assessment of the wind field, which is expressed as a function of temperature.
24.8  Climate Change 387

Processes such as cloud formation also simulate. To calculate the basic atmospheric
variables at each network point, the use of large computer time is required, because
of the large number of points and therefore expensive computer GCMs. 3D models
can provide a reasonable representation of the planetary climate and, unlike the
simple models, may simulate processes in global and continental scales (such as the
effects of mountain ranges of the atmospheric circulation). However, many of the
GCMs are unable to simulate synoptic (regional) weather phenomena such as tropi-
cal storms, which play an important role in latitudinal transfer of energy and the
amount of movement. Spatial resolution of GCMs is also limited in vertical dimen-
sion. Consequently, many processes in the border layer must be parameterized. The
new generation models are transitional-coupled atmosphere-ocean GCMs, as an
attempt to accurately simulate the climate system (Bretherton et  al. 1990; Gates
et al. 1992). Such coupled models created major difficulties for computer compo-
nents of the atmosphere and ocean over the corresponding different time scale. As a
summary, GCMs cannot reasonably be regarded as simulating global climate and
climate in continental scale but lacks reliability in relation to regional scale.

24.8  Climate Change

24.8.1  Scientific Overview of Climate Change

Science has made enormous inroads in understanding climate change and its causes
and is beginning to help develop a strong understanding of current and potential
impacts that will affect people today and in coming decades (Burroughs 2007). This
understanding is crucial because it allows decision-makers to place climate change
in the context of other large challenges facing the nation and the world. There are
still some uncertainties, and there always will be in understanding a complex sys-
tem like Earth’s climate. Nevertheless, there is a strong, credible body of evidence,
based on multiple lines of research, documenting that climate is changing and that
these changes are in large part caused by human activities. While much remains to
be learned, the core phenomenon, scientific questions, and hypotheses have been
examined thoroughly and have stood firm in the face of serious scientific debate and
careful evaluation of alternative explanations. As a result of the growing recognition
that climate change is under way and poses serious risks for both human societies
and natural systems, climate change represents one of the most challenge scientific
and interdisciplinary topics and the global concern as it broadly affects a wide range
of human and natural systems posing significant and vulnerable risk impacts.
388 24  Climate and Climate Change

24.8.2  Climate Change Factors

From climatology it is known that in the past, climate of the Earth changed in wide
limits. There were times when hot climate prevailed much of the planet without an
ice layer on the poles, climate, and ice, when most of the moderate zone was under
a thick layer of ice. Climate change caused three types of factors:
(a) Astronomy
(b) Planetary
(c) Anthropogenic
Influence of astronomical factors is manifested in a very long time, tens of thou-
sands of years. Therefore, they cannot be considered when considering climate
change over a century. Planetary phenomena which can lead to a change of climate
on Earth are the big volcanic eruptions and the fall of large meteors. When these
phenomena occur, large quantities of aerosols are disposed into the stratosphere.
These particles remain very long in the high layers of the atmosphere and cause
solar radiation to weaken and thus contribute to less heat travelling to the Earth’s
surface. Another important effect of volcanic eruptions causes a discharge of large
quantities of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. In the last century, when a global
increase in the temperature of the Earth’s atmosphere was noticed, planetary phe-
nomena that could have caused such warming were not registered. Therefore, these
factors should be excluded from the current deliberations on climate change. We
continue with the consideration of the anthropogenic factors. They include industri-
alization, the cutting of forests, urbanization, irrigation, and processing of land. The
more frequent use of fossil fuels, the spread of atomic power plants, and the increase
of atmospheric haze of the various aerosols have already received global scale.
Climate changes reflect variations that occur in the Earth’s atmosphere and the pro-
cesses in other parts of the Earth, such as oceans, ice belts, and the effects arising
from human activities. However, all listed factors have local information on climate
change, with the exception of industrialization, whose stormy development in the
last century caused the excretion of large amounts of carbon dioxide (CO2) and other
greenhouse gases (methane, nitrogen oxide, chlorofluorocarbons, water vapour), to
create a “greenhouse effect”. Besides the effect of “greenhouse”, soon other anthro-
pogenic influences can be expected from climate change on the Earth. Global warm-
ing, as a result of human influence, is more expressed at the poles, where additional
danger arises from the gradual melting of large icy expanses. On the other hand,
across the dry area and the area around, the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
in turn moves to the north, so that there are dangers of expanding and deepening
droughts to northern latitudes. These climate change and climate doubts are expected
to reach global scale, with serious impact on people’s lives, material goods, and the
economy of the entire civilization and sustainable development. Rapid globaliza-
tion, technological development, industrialization, and uncontrolled emission of
greenhouse gases are the main factors for the occurrence of a change of energy bal-
ance in global scale, a change that contributes to the distortion of the general
24.9  Climate Variability 389

atmospheric circulation and the appearance of increased frequency of extreme in the

atmosphere (such as droughts, floods, tornadoes, local eddies with great energy,
strong shots of wind, snow drifts).

24.9  Climate Variability

The atmospheric processes have a wave nature with a different spatial scale, from
millimetres, as a small turbulent eddy to kilometres such as the global planetary
waves, and time scale from seconds to years. While weather deals with the current
atmospheric status or atmospheric conditions quantitatively represented through
distribution of the main meteorological parameters (e.g. temperature, moisture,
pressure, rainfall) in particular area and time, climate describes an averaged pattern
of weather over longer period of time in respect to temperature and rainfall distribu-
tion, usually over 30 years (normal climate period) or very long-term evidence. In
order to clarify the complex term of climate change, we must understand climate
variability. According to Heinlein we usually say, “Climate is what we expect, and
weather is what we get”. One way to understand the difference between weather,
climate variability, and climate change is to think about how they operate on differ-
ent time scales. As it is shown on Fig. 24.4, weather and climate have a different
time scales from hours, days (weather), months, and years to decades (climate vari-
ability), through centuries (climate change). While the term climate change implies
long-term climate change, climate variability represents climate (variations) devia-
tions or inconsistencies (Lau and Waliser 2012).
There are different patterns of variability: recurrent temperature patterns or other
climate variables. They are quantified with different indexes. The indexes are

Fig. 24.4  Weather and climate scales

390 24  Climate and Climate Change

characterized by simplicity and completeness, and each index usually represents the
status and time of the climate factor it represents. By their nature, the indices are
simple and combine many details into a generalized, complete description of the
atmosphere or oceans that can be used to characterize the factors influencing the
global climate system. Climate oscillations or climate cycles are any repetitions
within a global or regional climate. These fluctuations in air temperature, sea sur-
face temperature, precipitation, or other parameters can be quasi-periodic, which
often occur at interannual, multi-year, centennial, millennial, or longer periods. A
typical example is El Niño (South Oscillation, which includes surface temperatures
of the equatorial Pacific and western tropical South America) which affects the cli-
mate of the entire planet. The artic amplification and the role of the Solar activity on
natural climate variability will be discussed in the following chapters.

24.9.1  Arctic Amplification

Climate scientists increasingly point out to the impact of the potential connections
between Arctic warming and extreme weather across the mid-latitudes. The Arctic
is warming more quickly than the global surface average (see Fig. 24.5). This phe-
nomenon is known as “Arctic amplification”. In part, this stems from the rapid loss
of sea ice cover in the region. As Arctic sea ice diminishes, energy from the

Fig. 24.5  Global temperature anomaly. (Credit: NASA image by Robert Simmon, based on GISS
surface temperature analysis data including ship and buoy data from the Hadley Centre. Caption
by Adam Voiland)
24.9  Climate Variability 391

Sun that would have been reflected away by the bright white ice is instead
absorbed by the ocean, causing further warming. (Declining snow cover over Arctic
land areas has the same effect.) Arctic amplification is also caused by temperature
feedbacks. As the Earth’s surface warms, it emits more energy back to space. But
less energy is radiated back from the Arctic compared with lower latitudes, meaning
the region warms more quickly. While a warmer Arctic Ocean further inhibits sea
ice growth, it also generates warmer and moister air masses over the Arctic and
nearby continents. A warming Arctic also reduces the temperature difference with
the mid-latitudes, which has consequences for circulation patterns in the atmo-
sphere (more on this later).
The second theory refers to “sudden stratospheric warming”, when the strato-
sphere around the Arctic region is in the process of strong warming. The tempera-
ture of the middle of the stratosphere, above the pole, is more than 65 °C warmer
than in the normal strongly polar vortex conditions (low-pressure spinning area).
This helps to weaken the polar vortex and may even cause it to fall into two or more
smaller vortices. This sudden stratospheric warming as a process on a larger scale
had implications in terms of weather and strengthening and persistence of winter
conditions in the middle/late January, in much of Europe.

24.9.2  Solar Activity

At the end of this analysis, before giving a summary of the above, let’s not forget
that according to estimates by scientists dealing with solar radiation, for the next
11-year solar cycle, predicted reduced activity of the Sun, like the current one (Roy
2018). The current 24-h solar cycle shown in Fig. 24.6 is decreasing, and according
to NASA’s calculations, it is projected to reach a sunny minimum – a period when
the Sun is at least active – at the end of 2019 or 2020. “The effects of cooling that
we see in the Earth’s thermosphere are the result of the current solar minimum con-
ditions”. The thermosphere is a layer of the Earth’s atmosphere, starting about
100 km above the Earth’s surface and highly sensitive to solar activity. “There is no
connection between the natural cycle of cooling and warming in the thermosphere
and the influence of weather / climate on the surface of the Earth”.
NASA and other climate researchers continue to record a trend of warming the
troposphere, a layer of the atmosphere closest to the surface of the Earth. There is
inconsistency between the scientific indicators for heating the troposphere (global
warming) and the thermosphere. Some scientists claim that the cooling of the ther-
mosphere beyond 100 km above the Earth’s surface will have an impact on the tro-
posphere and will cause a “mini ice age”. These claims are, however, denied based
on reports of record low temperatures as part of a natural cycle and reduced sun-
shine activity, which is not in line with the current scientific knowledge of the global
warming of the troposphere. The identification of these oscillations becomes pos-
sible after significant improvement of the global observations and developing exten-
sive series of daily pressure and geopotential height data. Different modes of these
392 24  Climate and Climate Change

Fig. 24.6  The solar cycle. Courtesy NASA/JPL-Caltech

oscillations can persist for months and years having a major influence inter-seasonal
or annual regional and global climate, modifying storm tracks and the distribution
of climatic anomalies. Ocean currents play a major role in maintaining the heat bal-
ance on the Earth. Besides creating surface currents, winds may also cause vertical
movements of water, such as cascades of cold water, and can replace warmer sur-
face water from deeper layers.

24.10  Climate Change Ingredients

There are many ingredients that affect climate on Earth, such as the amount of
greenhouse gases and aerosols in the atmosphere and the characteristics of the
Earth’s surface. These factors determine how the solar energy input is retained or
reflected into space. The concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere of
CO2, CH4, and N2O is significantly increased since the industrial revolution. This is
largely due to human activities such as the combustion of fossil fuels, cutting for-
ests, agricultural activities, changes in the natural environment, and others. There
are numerous observations that indicate the successive increase in air temperature
and the temperature of the oceans, the global melting of snow and ice, and the rais-
ing of the sea level. According to statistics in the last 100 years, global air tempera-
ture has increased for about 0.74 °C, and global sea levels have increased to 17 cm,
partly due to melting of snow and ice from the mountains and polar regions. Besides
these, other changes have been observed, including changes in Arctic temperatures,
24.10  Climate Change Ingredients 393

changes in salinity of the ice and oceans, and a change in the movement of winds,
droughts, rainfall, warm waves of frequency, and intensity of tropical cyclones. In
the next two decades, the temperature is expected to grow 0.2 °C per decade. The
continuous emission of gases will cause further increases in global temperatures,
hence, other climate changes are expected in the 21st century. If the warming con-
tinues over the following centuries, it will lead to ice cap melting, thus raising the
global sea level of approximately 7 metres. In the twenty-first century, a greater
impact from climate change is expected, which will affect natural systems. If there
is a significant warming, the ability of ecosystems to adapt will disappear, and the
risk of extinction of species will increase.

24.10.1  Greenhouse Effect

Greenhouse effect is the heating of the Earth due to the presence of greenhouse
gases. Shortwave radiation from the Sun passes through the Earth’s atmosphere, and
it is absorbed by the Earth’s surface, causing it to heat. Part of the absorbed radiation
energy is then reemitted back to the atmosphere, and it is known as longwave infra-
red radiation. One part of the infrared waves can pass through the greenhouse gases
in space, while another part remains trapped by them. Greenhouse gases absorb the
waves and emit them back towards Earth, causing further warming of the Earth’s
surface. It is believed that global warming is the result of increased greenhouse
effect, which in turn is due to the increased concentration of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere. The main greenhouse gas created by human is carbon dioxide (CO2).
Larger quantities of CO2 in the atmosphere increase the average level of outgoing
radiation. Besides carbon dioxide, man produces methane and nitrogen oxide,
which has a lesser amount. CO2 covers 75% of the total emission of greenhouse
gases in the world. Emission of greenhouse gases that covers all releases of this type
of gases in the atmosphere is the result of smoke, steam, and smog from exhaust
gases, chimneys, fire, and other sources. Most of the carbon dioxide is released by
burning fossil fuels, which are a widely used energy source.

24.10.2  Global Warming

Global warming is an increase in the global average air temperature, at the Earth’s
surface and oceans, from the mid-twentieth century until today (Philander 2008;
Mathez and Smerdon 2018). Experiments with global models of the atmosphere have
shown that if the current concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has
increased by 40%, the mean annual temperature in the lower latitudes would dramati-
cally increase by about two degrees. The consequences of it would be moving the
subtropical belt towards higher latitudes, with more frequent and longer droughts,
sudden melting of sea ice cover in the polar regions, and the increase in intensity and
394 24  Climate and Climate Change

frequency of weather disasters in many areas of our planet. These predictions about
the general climate changes that will contribute to global warming are quite authentic,
and some of them have already been registered in recent years. However, more precise
estimates cannot be given yet, because of two reasons: first, the lack of multiplication
of mathematical models of the atmosphere, whose validity decreases with the length
of the integration, and the second reason is that we still do not know well enough the
so-called feedback processes that are characteristic for the climate. Warming from
anthropogenic emissions from the pre-industrial period to the present will persist for
centuries to millennia and will continue to cause further long-term changes in the
climate system. The synthesis report on climate change as contribution from the
working groups to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC 2014) delineates a new scientific evidence of climate change,
observational analyses, theoretical studies of climate processes, and climate model
simulations and future climate projections reveals that the changes and the warming
of the climate systems are unambiguous. The report summarizes that global warming
of the Earth’s atmosphere in the second half of the last century had increased about
1.0 °C above pre-industrial levels, with a likely range of 0.8 °C to 1.2 °C and likely to
reach 1.5 °C between 2030 and 2052 if it continues to increase at the current rate with
high confidence. Climate-related risks for natural and human systems depend on the
magnitude and rate of warming, geographic location, levels of development and vul-
nerability, and on the choices and implementation of adaptation and mitigation
options (high confidence). This summary addresses the following significant topics:
• Observed changes and their causes
• Future climate change, risks, and impacts
• Adaptation, mitigation, and sustainable development

24.11  Current Climate Change Status

Human influence on the climate system is evident, and recent anthropogenic emis-
sions of greenhouse gases are the highest in history with widespread impacts on
human and natural systems.
(a) Since the 1950s warming of the climate system is definite. The atmosphere and
the ocean have warmed, the amount of snow and ice have reduced, and sea level
has risen, and anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions have increased since the
pre-industrial era.
(b) Changes in climate have caused impact on natural and human systems. Impacts
are due to observed climate change, irrespective of its cause indicating the sen-
sitivity of natural and human systems to changing climate.
(c) Changes in many extreme weather and climate events have been evidenced
since 1950. Some of these changes are associated with human influences,
including a decrease in cold temperature extremes, an increase in warm tem-
perature extremes, an increase in high sea levels, and an increase of several
heavy precipitation events in many regions.
24.12  Future Climate Projections, Risks, and Impacts 395

24.12  Future Climate Projections, Risks, and Impacts

Continued emissions of greenhouse gasses will cause further warming and long-­
lasting changes in the all components of the climate system.
(a) Cumulative emissions of CO2 largely determine global mean surface warming.
(b) Surface temperature increase over the twenty-first century under all assessed
scenarios.
(c) The amounts of snow and ice have diminished.
(d) Snow and ice cap melting, global sea level rising, warming, and acidification
of ocean.
(e) Increased frequency of weather and climate events (e.g. heat waves and the
extreme precipitation events in many regions).

24.12.1  Adaptation, Mitigation, and Sustainable Development

Adaptation and mitigation represent the supplementary measures to tackling cli-

mate change in order to prevent the negative impacts of climate change and reduc-
ing vulnerability and risk impacts to the effects of climate change:
(a) Effective decision-making to limit climate change and its effects by a wide
range of analytical approaches for evaluation of the expected risks.
(b) Without additional mitigation efforts and adaptation, warming by the end of
twenty-first century will lead to very high risk of severe, widespread, and irre-
versible global impacts.
(c) Taking a longer-term perspective in the context of sustainable development will
enhanced the future options and preparedness for reduction of the risks of cli-
mate change impacts.
(d) Multiple mitigation pathways to limit warming to below 2 °C.
These pathways require substantial emission reduction over the next few decades
and near zero emissions of CO2. Many adaptation and mitigation options can help
addressing climate change, but no single approach is enough by itself. Effective
implementation depends on interdisciplinary approach, policies, cooperation, and
measures at all scales. Mitigation options are available in every major sector, in a
more cost-effective way, using an integrated approach that combines measures to
reduce energy use and the greenhouse gas emissions. Climate change is a threat to
sustainable development. There are many opportunities to link mitigation, adapta-
tion, and need of other societal objectives through integrated responses. Climate
396 24  Climate and Climate Change

change is a reality, but its impact on precipitation, evaporation, surface runoff, and
flood risk is still uncertain. The other effects of global warming include melting of
ice (Fig. 24.7), extinction of species, and increase of the spectrum of diseases and
the withdrawal of glaciers.
Glaciers are large masses of ice moving over land, formed by dense snow in the
area where the snow is accumulating than melting and sublimating (Fig.  24.8).
Because glaciers are sensitive to changes in climate, they are indicators of global
warming. Availability of water plays a significant role in these influences of air
temperature. In the context of contemporary research on climate change, the
European Space Agency (ESA) carried out two missions in duration of 3 years. The
first mission is to measure the water content in the soil around the planet every
3 days to a depth of 2 m.
This will be followed by photosynthesis and growth of plants, which are crucial
to the calculation of the process in which carbon dioxide is released and absorbed,
especially by plants and oceans. The second mission is to measure changes in the
content of salt on the surface of the seas, which will improve understanding of the
basic engines of global patterns of oceanic circulation. Changes in salinity of ocean
water depend on the surplus or deficit of fresh water through evaporation and pre-
cipitation and, in the polar regions, and the melting of freezing ice. To conduct this
research, on November 2nd, a satellite (SMOS) was launched from the Kosmodrom
in Plesetsk, northern Russia. Its aim is to research the impact of climate change on
water movement through land, air, and seas. Being the first cosmic instrument for
measuring the Earth’s water and soil salinity of the oceans, scientists hope SMOS
will be able to fill important gaps in our knowledge about the importance of plane-
tary vital driven cycle.

Fig. 24.7  Effects of climate change. (Credit: Jason Auch, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/

by/2.0/deed.en)
References 397

Fig. 24.8  Patagonia glacier. (Credit: Luca Galuzzi. I, Luca Galuzzi [CC BY-SA 2.5 (https://cre-
ativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.5)])

References

Ahrens, C. D., & Henson, R. (2016). Meteorology today, an introduction to weather, climate and
the environment (11th ed., 662 pp). Boston: Cengage Learning.
Allaby, M. (2007) Encyclopedia of weather and climate (Rev. ed., Vols. 1 and 2, 756 pp). New York:
Facts of File Science Library.
Barry, R. G., & Hall-McKim, E. A. (2014). Essential of the earth’s climate system (Vol. 24, p. 259).
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Bretherton, F. P., Bryan, K., & Woodes, J. D. (1990). Time-dependent greenhouse-gasinduced cli-
mate change. In: Climate change: The IPCC scientific assessment, pp. 177–193 [J. T. Houghton,
G.  J. Jenkins and J.  J. Ephraums (eds.)]. Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY,
USA: Cambridge University Press.
Burroughs, W.  J. (2007). Climate change. A multidisciplinary approach (Vol. 378, p.  24).
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Gates, W. L. (1992). AMIP : The atmospheric model intercomparison project. Bull. Amer. Meteor.
Soc, 73, 1962–1970.
IPCC. (2014) Climate change 2014: Synthesis report. Contribution of working groups I, II and III
to the fifth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change [Core Writing
Team, R.K. Pachauri and L.A. Meyer (eds.)]. IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland, 151 pp.
Lau, W. K. M., & Waliser, D. E. (2012). Intraseasonal variability in the atmosphere–ocean climate
system (2nd ed., p. 613s). Chichester: Springer Praxis Publishing.
Mathez, E. A., & Smerdon, J. E. (2018). Climate change, The science of global warming and our
energy future (2nd ed., p. 520). New York: Columbia University Press.
National Research Council. (2002). Abrupt climate change: Inevitable surprises. Washington, DC:
The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/10136.
Oliver, J. E. (Ed.) (2005). Encyclopedia of world climatology (854 pp). Dordrecht: Springer.
Philander, S. G. (Ed.) (2008). Encyclopaedia of global warming and climate change (Vols. 1–3,
1283 pp). Thousand Oaks: SAGE.
Roy, I. (2018). Climate variability and sunspot activity: Analysis of the solar influence on climate
(Springer atmospheric sciences) (p. 218). Cham: Springer.
Trenberth, K. (2010). Climate system modelling (820 p). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Warner, T.  T. (2011). Numerical weather and climate prediction (Vol. 23, p.  526). Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Chapter 25
Meteorological Measurements
and Observations

Why are atmospheric observations necessary? Geophysical and associated meteo-

rological observations, and monitoring of the natural environment, are carried out
for various reasons. They are used for the preparation of weather analysis in real
time, the forecasts and warnings of natural disasters related to weather, water, and
climate. Meteorological measurements and observations are used for the local oper-
ational activities that depend on time, such as flight-route operations at airports,
construction works, transportation, agricultural activities, health, and others.
Meteorological and climate data are important for research on climate and climate
change. Meteorology has made significant progress in the quality and diversity of
weather forecast services since the launch of the first meteorological satellites in
1957/1958 gave rise to the World Weather Watch (WWW) in 1963. Growing global
temperature will cause a rise in sea level and is expected to increase the intensity of
extreme weather events and to change the amount and mode of precipitation. But
current societal challenges  – due to the unfolding impacts of climate change  –
demand further evolution of the Earth observation network: an upgrading of the
global space- and surface-based observing systems (Fig. 25.1) and the adoption of
a new and integrated approach that incorporates recent scientific and technical
advances.

25.1  Meteorological Observing Systems

The requirements for observational data may be met using:

• In situ measurements
• Remote sensing (including space-borne) systems
The Global Observing System, designed to meet these requirements, is com-
posed of the surface-based subsystem and the space-based subsystem. The surface-­
based subsystem comprises a wide variety of types of stations according to the

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 399

V. Spiridonov, M. Ćurić, Fundamentals of Meteorology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-52655-9_25
400 25  Meteorological Measurements and Observations

Fig. 25.1 Liquid-in-glass
thermometers

application (e.g. surface synoptic station, upper air station, climatological station,
etc.). The space-based subsystem comprises a number of spacecraft’s with on-board
sounding missions and the associated ground segment for command, control, and
data reception.
The representativeness of an observation is the degree to which it accurately
describes the value of the variable needed for a specific purpose. For instance, syn-
optic observations should typically be representative of an area up to 100 km around
the station, but for small-scale or local applications, the considered area may have
dimensions of 10 km or less. According to Orlanski (1975), horizontal meteorologi-
cal scales may be classified as follows, with a factor two uncertainty:
(a) Microscale (less than 100  m) for agricultural meteorology, for example,
evaporation
(b) Local scale (100–3 km), for example, air pollution, tornadoes
(c) Mesoscale (3–100 km), for example, thunderstorms, sea and mountain breezes
(d) Large scale (100–3000  km), for example, fronts, various cyclones, cloud
clusters
(e) Planetary scale (larger than 3000  km), for example, long upper tropo-
spheric waves
25.3  Standardization of Measurements 401

25.2  Basic Meteorological Elements

The present state and the further behaviour of the atmosphere are defined using the
basic meteorological elements such as the temperature, pressure, and humidity of
the air, wind speed and direction, cloud cover, precipitation, and visibility (the
transparency of the atmosphere), as well as soil and surface water temperatures,
solar radiation, and longwave terrestrial and atmospheric radiation. They also
include weather phenomena such as thunderstorms and snowstorms. The variations
in the meteorological elements are the result of atmospheric processes, and they
determine the weather and the climate. The meteorological elements are observed at
aerological and meteorological (weather) stations and at meteorological observato-
ries by means of aerological and meteorological instruments. The following ele-
ments are observed at a station making surface observations:
• Present weather
• Past weather
• Wind direction and speed
• Cloud amount
• Cloud type
• Cloud-base height
• Visibility
• Temperature
• Relative humidity
• Atmospheric pressure
• Precipitation
• Snow cover
• Sunshine and/or solar radiation
• Soil temperature
• Evaporation
When we know these items, others such as dew point, freezing point, and other
elements can be defined as “secondary elements”. There are instruments for mea-
suring these elements, except for the type of clouds.

25.3  Standardization of Measurements

Many of the elements necessary for synoptic, climatologic, or aeronautical targets

can be measured automatically. Observations and measurements of meteorological
elements are made in the meteorological and weather stations on certain standard-
ized procedures and methods in order to be consistent, representative, and uni-
formed (e.g. Brock and Richardson 2001; Emeis, 2010; Harrison, 2015). Each state,
through its National Weather Service, establishes and maintains its own national
network of stations. Data from these measurements, according to the standards and
402 25  Meteorological Measurements and Observations

procedures of the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), are sent on interna-

tional exchange as a part of the global telecommunications surveillance system. The
term “standard” and other similar expressions denote different instruments, meth-
ods, and steps used to avoid uncertainties in the measurements. To effectively con-
trol the standardization of meteorological instruments of national and international
scale, the WMO has adopted a system of national and regional standards. WMO has
adopted a system of national and regional standards. Most of the elements required
for synoptic, climatological, or aeronautical purposes can be measured by automatic
instrumentation. All the instruments should also be carefully calibrated and regu-
larly maintained. Trained observers are required and/or certified by an authorized
meteorological service to establish their competence to make observations to the
required standards. They should have the ability to interpret instructions for the use
of instrumental and manual techniques that apply to their own observing systems.
Meteorological observing stations are designed so that representative measurements
(or observations) can be taken according to the type of station involved.
Siting and exposure. The following considerations apply to the selection of site
and instrument exposure requirements for a typical synoptic or climatological sta-
tion in a regional or national network:
(a) Outdoor instruments should be installed on a level piece of ground, preferably
no smaller than 25 m x 25 m where there are many installations.
(b) The ground should be covered with short grass or a surface representative of the
locality and surrounded by open fencing or palings to exclude unauthorized
persons.
(c) Within the enclosure, a bare patch of ground of about 2 m x 2 m is reserved for
observations of the state of the ground and of soil temperature at depths of equal
to or less than 20 cm.
(d) There should be no steeply sloping ground in the vicinity, and the site should
not be in a hollow.
(e) The site should be well away from trees, buildings, walls, or other obstructions.
(f) Very open sites which are satisfactory for most instruments are unsuitable for
rain gauges.
(g) If in the instrument enclosure surroundings, maybe at some distance, objects
like trees or buildings obstruct the horizon significantly, alternative viewpoints
should be selected for observations of sunshine or radiation.
(h) The position used for observing cloud and visibility should be as open as pos-
sible and command the widest possible view of the sky and the surrounding
country.
(i) At coastal stations, it is desirable that the station commands a view of the open
sea. However, the station should not be too near the edge of a cliff because the
wind eddies created by the cliff will affect the wind and precipitation
measurements.
(j) Night observations of cloud and visibility are best made from a site unaffected
by extraneous lighting.
25.4  Measurement of Air Temperature 403

Symbols, units, and constants. Instrumental measurements produce numerical val-

ues. The purpose of these measurements is to obtain physical or meteorological
variables representing the state of the local atmosphere. For meteorological prac-
tices, instrumental readings are variables, such as “atmospheric pressure”, “air tem-
perature”, or “wind speed”. For meteorological observations, the following units
are used:
(a) Atmospheric pressure (p), expressed in hectopascals (hPa)
(b) Temperature (T), expressed in degrees Celsius (°C) or (T) in Kelvin (K)
(c) Wind speed, at the surface and upper level observations, in metre per sec-
ond (m s-1)
(d) Wind direction expressed in degrees clockwise from the north or in the scale
(0–36), where 36 is the wind from the north and 09 the east wind (°)
(e) Relative humidity (U), expressed in percent (%)
(f) Precipitation (total amount) expressed in millimetres (mm) or (kg m-2)

25.4  Measurement of Air Temperature

The traditional instruments used for measurement of air temperature are called ther-
mometers. Meteorological thermometers commonly in use can be widely classified
into following categories based on the physical processes made use of in their design.
Basic standards in measurement. In meteorological practices, the surface air
temperature refers to the temperature near Earth’s surface at a height of between
1.25 m and 2 m above the ground level. In order for the air temperature to be rep-
resentative and reliable, it is necessary for the area around the meteorological sta-
tion to be in free external conditions and a large enough (spacious) area, and it
should not be disturbed by some external influences or by the surrounding objects.
For agro-meteorological practices, the surface air temperature measurements are
generally required to be made at different level near the ground.
Liquid-in-glass thermometers. These are thermometers (see Fig. 25.1) that are
based on the principle of the expansion of liquid in a fine bore glass tune to measure
temperature. The most broadly used among these are commonly known as “ordi-
nary” thermometers which are employed to measure prevailing atmospheric tem-
perature. Others suitably modified in their design, which are used to indicate
extreme temperatures attained during the period they are exposed to the atmosphere,
are called as “maximum” or “minimum” thermometers (Fig. 25.2).
Two types of liquid-in-glass thermometers commonly in use are:
(i) Mercury-in-glass thermometers
(ii) Spirit-in-glass thermometers
Liquid-in-glass thermometers. Such thermometers make use of the expansion/
contraction of liquid in a scaled metal container to measure air temperature. The
variations in pressure in the metal container caused due to the changes in the liquid
volume gives a measure of air temperature to which the container is exposed.
404 25  Meteorological Measurements and Observations

Fig. 25.2  Maximum and

minimum thermometers

Mercury in steel and Bourdon tube thermometers fall under this category. These
thermometers are essentially a pressure gauge calibrated in terms of temperatures.
Ordinary (station) thermometers. Ordinary (station) thermometers are the most
precise instruments of all meteorological thermometers. Usually, such an instru-
ment is a type of glass thermometer filled with mercury.
Maximum thermometers. A maximum thermometer mainly used for measuring
air temperature is a mercury-in-glass thermometer having a constriction near the
bulb end. It has a small area where the glass tube is narrower on one end. This is
known as a “constriction”. As the air temperature rises, the mercury in the thermom-
eter expands and moves freely up the tube (past the constriction) until the maximum
temperature occurs. When the air temperature begins to drop, the constriction pre-
vents the mercury from flowing back down the tube. The mercury will not move
back down the tube until the thermometer is shaken.
Minimum thermometers. When it comes to minimum thermometers, the most
acceptable instrument is the alcohol thermometer. It contains an index of dark glass,
submerged in alcohol, with a length of about 2 cm. As part of the air remains in the
tube of alcohol thermometer, it should provide a protective chamber in the upper
end, which should be long enough to allow the instrument to withstand a tempera-
ture of about −50 °C without being destroyed.
Ground thermometers. For measuring the temperature of the ground, at depths of
20 cm or less, mercury thermometers with glass are used. The body of this kind of
thermometer is curved, with dust, or other suitable angle, below the lowest scale.
The tube of the thermometer is placed in the ground at the desired depth, but the
scale is read directly from the thermometer (Fig. 25.3).
Mechanical thermograph. Mechanical thermograph which is used daily works
on sensors or bimetal Burdon’s tube because they are relatively cheap, reliable, and
flexible. However, mechanical thermometers are not suitable for remote or elec-
tronic recording of air temperature.
Bimetallic thermometers. These thermometers use a bimetallic strip/coil as a
temperature-sensing element. The change in the curvature of the strip/coil, with
changes in temperature, gives a measure of air temperature. At the bimetal thermo-
graph, movement of registered pen (marker) is controlled by the change in the curve
of bimetal spring or bar, which is firmly fixed on the shoulder which is set on the
25.4  Measurement of Air Temperature 405

Fig. 25.3 Ground
thermometers

frame. To be able to change the zero of the instruments, it is a tool for fine-tuning of
the shoulder.
Thermograph with Burdon’s tube. The basic composition of the thermographs
with a Burdon’s tube is like bimetal thermograph, except that its temperature-­
sensitive element is in the form of a curved metal tube with a flat, elliptical section
filled with alcohol. Burdon tube is less sensitive than bimetal element and usually
requires a mechanism of multiplication to obtain enough scale value. The typical
time constant is about 6 m, the air speed of (5 cm s−1).
Electrical thermometers. This type of thermometer (Fig. 25.4) makes use of the
electrical characteristics of the sensing device that generates an output signal which
varies with changes in temperature. Electrical instruments for measuring air tem-
perature are widely used in meteorology. Their principle of operation is essentially
based on their ability to provide an external signal that is suitable for use in remote
indication, labelling, preservation, or transmission of temperature data. Commonly
used sensors are electrical resistance elements, semi-conductive thermometers
(thermostats) and thermopares.
The two main types of thermometers under this category are the platinum resis-
tance thermometer and thermistor thermometer.
Electrical resistance thermometers. This type of thermometers shown in Fig. 25.5
uses the principle of measuring the electrical resistance of the material. The manner
in which the electrical resistance of a particular material changes is known in phys-
ics. Here, the representation of the temperature can be used to change the resistance.
Here, the representation of the temperature can be used to change the resistance. For
small temperature changes, the increase in the resistance of pure metal is propor-
tional to the change of temperature, as given by (Eq. 25.1):

R T = R 0 éë1 + a ( T - T0 ) ùû (25.1)

406 25  Meteorological Measurements and Observations

Fig. 25.4 Electrical
thermometer. Credit: Harke/
CC BY-SA (https://
creativecommons.org/
licenses/by-sa/3.0)

Fig. 25.5 Electrical
resistance temperature

where (T − T0) is the temperature difference, RT − resistance of a fixed amount of

metal at temperature T, R0 −resistance at reference temperature T0 and is the tem-
perature coefficient of resistance near T0.
Semi-conductive thermometers. These are another type of resistive element that
is widely used in thermostats. As it is shown in Fig. 25.6a, it has a semiconductor
with a relatively large temperature coefficient of resistance, which can be either
positive or negative depending on this material. Stalactites mixtures of metal oxides
are suitable for making practical thermostats which usually have the form of small
discs or spheres and are often glassy. Typical thermostats have a resistance which
changes by a factor of 100 or 200 in the temperature range - 40 to 40 °C.
Thermocouples. These thermometers (Fig. 25.6b) use the principle of establish-
ing the contact of electromotor force is used, on the place where two different met-
als touch. If you make a simple circle with two metals and by merging the same
temperature, then there will be resultant electromotor force in the circle, because of
the contact between the two metals, and the electromotor force will be reversed and
the connection interrupts. If the temperature of one junction is changing, both elec-
tromotor forces will be more in balance, then we will have a total electromotor force
25.5  Measurement of Atmospheric Pressure 407

Fig. 25.6 (a) Semi-conductive thermometer; (b) thermocouple

set up in the circle, and then the electricity will flow. The physical principle used for
the construction of thermometers is known as thermocouples.

25.5  Measurement of Atmospheric Pressure

For meteorological purposes, atmospheric pressure is generally measured with elec-

tronic barometers, mercury barometers, aneroid barometers, or hypsometers. The
latter class of instruments, which depends on the relationship between the boiling
point of a liquid and the atmospheric pressure, has so far seen only limited applica-
tion and will not be discussed in depth in this publication. In standard use for mea-
suring, atmospheric pressure instruments called barometers are common. There are
several standard types of barometers: mercury, electrical, and metal.
Mercury barometers. There is a growing trend of gradual disposal of the use of
mercury barometers (Fig. 25.7), because it is highly toxic; free mercury is corrosive
to the aluminium alloys used in air frames (for these reasons there are specific regu-
lations in some countries that proscribe handling or carriage of mercury barome-
ters). The barometer is very delicate and difficult to transport.
The instrument must be read and corrections to be applied manually. Also avail-
able are other types of sensors for pressure, with equivalent accuracy and stability
with the electronic reader.
Electronic barometers. Most of the recently designed barometers use electronic
assemblies that transform into electric sensor response magnitude associated with
the pressure in the form of analogy or digital signals. Analogy signals can be shown
in different electronic metres. Monitors and systems for collecting data, such as
those used in automatic weather stations, are often used to display digital outputs or
analogy to digital outputs. The barometer with current digital technology uses
408 25  Meteorological Measurements and Observations

Fig. 25.7  A mercury

barometer

different modules in order to improve long-term stability and accuracy of

measurements.
Bourdon tube barometers. Bourdon tube barometers usually consist of a sensor
element that, as for an aneroid capsule, changes its shape under the influence of
pressure changes (pressure transducers) and a transducer that transforms the changes
into a form directly usable by the observer. The display may be remote from the
sensor. Precise and stable digital instruments with quartz Bourdon tubes are used as
working reference barometers in calibration laboratories.
Aneroid barometers. The advantages of conventional barometers regarding mer-
cury barometers are their compactness and portability, which makes them espe-
cially suitable for use at sea and in the field. The main components of the metal
barometer shown in (Fig. 25.8a) are closed metal chamber, completely or partially
vacant, and strong elastic system which protects the chamber from destruction
under the influence of external atmospheric pressure. At any given pressure, there is
a balance between the force caused by spring and that by external pressure. Steel
chamber can be made of materials (steel or beryllium copper) that have elastic prop-
erties as a result of which the chamber can act as a spring itself.
Tools are needed to detect and display changes in the deviation that occurs. This
can be a system of levers which are intensified deviations and moving the cursor
over the scale graduated to indicate pressure. Alternatively, the light beam can be
removed over the scale. Instead of these mechanical analogue techniques, certain
barometers are equipped with a manual operating micrometre counter which indi-
cates the pressure directly in the tens of hectopascals. The reading takes place when
25.6  Measurement of Air Humidity 409

Fig. 25.8 (a) Aneroid barometer; (b) barograph

the luminescent indicator signals that micrometre only contacted metal. This type of
metal is movable and robust.
Barographs. Barographs represent an aneroid barometer used for continuous
recording of the changes in atmospheric pressure over time (Fig.  25.8b). It is a
recording aneroid barometer. The reading of the barometric pressure over time is
produced on a paper or a foil chart, which is known as barograms. The working of
the barograph is very scientific, and it indicates the atmospheric pressure. The out-
put is presented through a continuous graph on paper or foils. The barograph has a
metal cylinder, which is linked with a pen arm. The pen arm is directly proportional
to the changing atmospheric pressure that enables the meteorologists to study the
forthcoming climate. Pressure versus weather is traced by the pen and is recorded
on the chart, which is rotated by clockwork. The barograph is used both on the ships
as well as on the land. Today they come in various shapes and sizes from small ones
to very large ones. To give it a fancy look, the barographs even come in glass boxes.
The drawer below collects the barograms. The barograph generally provides a read-
ing for a week. For synoptic purposes they have the following characteristics:
(a) Graduation in (hPa)
(b) Readability up to (0.1 hPa)
(c) Measurement factor (10 hPa) in (1.5 cm) of the bar

25.6  Measurement of Air Humidity

The measurement of atmospheric humidity, and often its continuous recording, is an

important requirement in most areas of meteorological activity. This chapter deals
with the measurement of humidity at or near the Earth’s surface. There are different
methods for measuring the humidity of the air. Humidity of air can be expressed in
several ways:
410 25  Meteorological Measurements and Observations

• Relative humidity
• Absolute humidity
• Water mixing ratio
• Water vapour
All these definitions of humidity can be set with the same instruments; only the
procedure for obtaining a value from another course is different. Relative humidity
is a relation between the current amount of water vapour in the air and the maximum
amount which that same air may receive, not reaching saturation. Relative humidity
is expressed in (%).
Hygrometer. Any instrument for measuring humidity is known as a hygrometer.
The physical principles most widely employed for hygrometry are:
(i) The gravimetric method
(ii) Condensation method
(iii) The psychrometric method
(iv) Sorption method
The gravimetric method. This method uses the absorption of water vapour by a
desiccant from a known volume of air (gravimetric hygrometer. The gravimetric
method yields an absolute measure of the water vapour content of an air sample in
terms of its humidity mixing ratio. This is obtained by first removing the water
vapour from the sample. The mass of the water vapour is determined by weighing
the drying agent before and after absorbing the vapour. The mass of the dry sample
is determined either by weighing or by measuring its volume.
Condensation method. The first type is chilled mirror method (dew point or frost-­
point hygrometer). The basic principle is when moist air at temperature T, pressure
p, and mixing ratio rw (or ri) is cooled, it eventually reaches its saturation point with
respect to water (or to ice at lower temperatures) and a deposit of dew (or frost) can
be detected on a solid non-hygroscopic surface.
Other type is heated salt solution method (vapour equilibrium hygrometer,
known as the dew cell). The equilibrium vapour pressure at the surface of a satu-
rated salt solution is less than that for a similar surface of pure water at the same
temperature. The temperature of the solution at which the ambient vapour pressure
is reached provides a measure of the ambient vapour pressure. For this purpose, a
thermometer is placed in good thermal contact with the solution.
The psychrometric method. The psychrometer consists essentially of two ther-
mometers exposed side by side, with the surface of the sensing element of one being
covered by a thin film of water or ice and termed the wet or ice bulb, as appropriate.
The sensing element of the second thermometer is simply exposed to the air and is
termed the dry bulb. This is the most widely used method and is described in detail.
Sorption methods. Certain materials interact with water vapour and undergo a
change in a chemical or physical property that is sufficiently reversible for use as a
sensor of ambient humidity.
The psychrometer. In order to determine air temperature and humidity, a psycho-
motor is used (Fig. 25.10a). It consists of two thermometers, one of which (the dry
25.6  Measurement of Air Humidity 411

Fig. 25.9 (a) The psychrometer; (b) the Assmann aspirated psychrometer

bulb) is an ordinary glass thermometer, while the other (wet bulb) has its bulb cov-
ered with a jacket of clean muslin which is saturated with distilled water prior to an
observation. The less moisture in the air, the stronger the evaporation, so the differ-
ence between damp and dry thermometer is greater. From these two readings of the
thermometers from the table or by calculating the formulas, all the above forms of
humidity and dew point are given.
The Assmann aspirated psychrometer. The Assmann aspirated psychrometer is
composed of two glass mercury thermometers mounted vertically (Fig. 25.9b). The
aspirator may be driven by a spring or an electric motor. One thermometer bulb has
a well-fitted muslin wick which, before use, is moistened with distilled water. Each
thermometer is located inside a pair of coaxial metal tubes, highly polished inside
and out, which screen the bulbs from external thermal radiation. The tubes are all
thermally insulated from each other.
Screen psychrometer. Two mercury-in-glass thermometers are mounted verti-
cally in a thermometer screen. The diameter of the sensing bulbs should be about
10 mm. One of the bulbs is fitted with a wet-bulb sleeve, which should fit closely to
the bulb and extend at least 20 mm up the stem beyond it. If a wick and water reser-
voir are used to keep the wet-bulb sleeve in a moist condition, the reservoir should
preferably be placed to the side of the thermometer and with the mouth at the same
level as, or slightly lower than, the top of the thermometer bulb. The wick should be
kept as straight as possible, and its length should be such that water reaches the bulb
with sensibly the wet-bulb temperature and in enough (but not excessive) quantity.
The hair hygrometers. Any absorbing material tends to equilibrium with its envi-
ronment in terms of both temperature and humidity. The water vapour pressure at
the surface of the material is determined by the temperature and the amount of water
bound by the material.
Any difference between this pressure and the water vapour pressure of the sur-
rounding air will be equalized by the exchange of water molecules. The hair
hygrometers (Fig. 25.10) utilize the absorption properties of hair. These instruments
are used to measure relative humidity, and they operate on the principle of
412 25  Meteorological Measurements and Observations

Fig. 25.10 Hygrometer

absorption of moisture from organic substances (e.g. human or horsehair, etc.) that
are changing the humidity of the air. Hygrograph is an instrument that records the
relative humidity at the time and records it on paper or it memorizes it.
Heated psychrometer. The principle of the heated psychrometer is that the water
vapour content of an air mass does not change if it is heated. This property may be
exploited to the advantage of the psychrometer by avoiding the need to maintain an
ice bulb under freezing conditions. Heat psychrometers use the principle of sustain-
ability of the water vapour content of the mass air unit when it is heated. This fea-
ture can be used as an advantage in making psychrometer in order to avoid holding
the ice tank in freezing conditions. The air is removed in the tube where it passes
through an electric heat element and then comes the measurement chamber, which
consists of dry and wet thermometer from the tank with water. The heat element
controls circulation and provides air temperature not to be declined below a certain
level, which is typically 10 °C. There are also hygrometers which are using absorp-
tion of electromagnetic radiation. Water molecules absorb electromagnetic radia-
tion in the range of wavelengths. This feature can be used to obtain a measure of
molecular concentration of water vapour or gas. The most useful belts of the elec-
tromagnetic spectrum for this purpose are the ultraviolet and the infrared belt. The
method applies measurements of attenuation of radiation in the wave zone, which is
typical for absorption of water vapour, along the path between the radiation source
and the receiving device.
25.7  Measurement of Surface Wind 413

25.7  Measurement of Surface Wind

Direction and speed of wind are very important meteorological elements. Surface
wind is usually measured by a wind vane and cup or propeller anemometer. When the
wind blows constantly from one direction, it is called dominant or prevailing wind.
Wind speed is often measured by an instrument known as anemometer. Wind is a vec-
tor quantity, which is fully determined when knowing both its components: direction
and speed. The direction of the wind is part of the horizon where the wind blows, and
the speed is the elapsed time of air particle pass in unit time. Direction shall be indi-
cated by the parties of the world or the azimuth in degrees from 0 to 360, while the
speed is measured in metres per second (m/s) or kilometres per hour (km/h). Because
of the lack of devices for measuring speed, it is estimated by Bofor scale. The wind
direction is determined by wind vane (Fig. 25.11). It is an easy indicator in the form
of a shaft, mounted on a vertical axis that rotates freely around its axis. The direction
of the arrow to the wind, the back has a vertical plate which serves as a “rudder”. The
speed of wind is measured with an anemometer (wind gauge). It is a vertical axis with
3 or 4 hollow semi-spherical (Robinson Cross) that rotates under the influence of wind.
The wind is stronger, faster spheres spin, and rotation is easily transformed into
mechanical or electrical equivalent graduate units for wind speed. Instead of semi-­
spherical, sometimes a small propeller is used. Anemometer is used for measure-
ment of the mean velocity in a period (usually 2 or 10 minutes) or current speed.
Measurement is performed on standard height of 10 metres above the surface

Fig. 25.11  Wind vane

414 25  Meteorological Measurements and Observations

(ground). Anemograph measures the speed of wind at the time and the measured data
recorded on paper or stored electronically.

25.8  Measurement of Precipitation

Precipitation is the most important meteorological element that quantifies the amount
of fallen rainfall at the ground. Precipitation is defined as liquid or solid products of
condensation of water vapour, which falls on the Earth’s surface from the clouds.
Precipitation includes several forms of hydrometeors: rain, hail, snow, dew, frost,
freezing rain, and tiny droplets of mist. The total amount of rainfall that falls at the
ground in a period of time is expressed in the form of vertical thickness, water depth
or snow water  equivalent, in case of solid forms. Snow cover is also expressed
through the thickness of the fresh, fallen snow covering a horizontal surface. Unit
rainfall is linear thickness, usually expressed in millimetres (volume/area) or (kg/m2)
(mass/area) of liquid precipitation. That means, for example, 1 mm = 1litre/cm2. The
daily measurements of precipitation should be taken at fixed times common to all
network or networks of interest. Rainfall of less than 0.1 mm is generally known as
a trace. The amount of rainfall (intensity) is similarly expressed in linear measure per
unit time, usually in millimetres per hour. Measurements of snow precipitation are
taken in units and tens of centimetres to the nearest 0.2 cm. Lower value of 0.2 cm
is generally called a trace. The thickness of snow on the Earth’s surface is usually
measured daily and expressed in centimetres.
Instruments for measurement of precipitation. Generally, an open receptacle
with vertical sides is used, usually in the form of a right cylinder, with a funnel if its
main purpose is to measure rain. The instrument for measurement of precipitation is
called rain gauge (Fig. 25.12a). This instrument is a container in the shape of the

Fig. 25.12 (a) Rain gauge, (b) totalizer, (c) pluviograph

25.8  Measurement of Precipitation 415

cylinder, placed vertically with a hole on top and with an area of 200  cm2. Rain
comes through the hole, which is mixed in a vessel at the bottom. Around the vessel
there is a closed space for thermal insulation to prevent evaporation of accumulated
precipitation. During the reading, accumulated water in the vessel is discharged in a
tube with scale in millimetres and quotes its quantity. Rain gauge usually sets the
column, the height of one (1) metre above the Earth’s surface. For measurement of
precipitation in inaccessible areas where observations are not continuous, the most
common instruments are totalizers (Fig. 25.12b). Besides rainfall, its intensity can
also be measured. The intensity of rain is expressed in millimetres per minute (mm/
min). The intensity of rainfall is measured with an instrument called pluviography
(Fig. 25.12c).
Measurement of precipitation of snow and snow cover. Snowy precipitation is
the thickness of the freshly fallen snow, deposited at the Earth’s surface in a speci-
fied period (usually 24  h). In this way, snowfall does not include deposition of
moved or blown snow. For purposes of measurement of thickness, the word “snow”
should also include ice pallets, graupel or hail, and plate ice, which appear to be
formed by precipitation directly or indirectly.
Average depth of snow is the total thickness of snow on the Earth’s surface, at
the time of observation. Water equivalent of snow cover is the vertical thickness of
the water that would be obtained by melting of the snow cover. Direct measure-
ments of the thickness of snow cover in the open country are made with engraved
stick or scale (Fig. 25.13). In order for representative thickness measurements to be
obtained, numerous vertical measurements in places covered by snow need to be

Fig. 25.13 Measurement
of snow thickness
416 25  Meteorological Measurements and Observations

made. The stick should be placed on a flat surface that is not leeward, nor covered
with some of the surrounding objects (tree, building facilities, etc.). The total
amount of snow cover is measured, but only the snow that fell in the last 24 hours.

25.9  Measurement of Solar Radiation

The Sun and other elements emit a spectrum of electromagnetic radiation, which
depends on its temperature. The temperature is higher, so the spectrum is strongly
shifted to the side of higher frequencies. But for the meteorological purposes, two
variables are measured from solar radiation: the duration of radiation on any point
on the Earth’s surface in a certain period (day, month, year) and energy that comes
from the Sun, a certain area at some time.
Heliograph is an instrument for recording the duration and intensity of sunshine
(Fig. 25.14). This type of recorder is made up of a glass ball which concentrates
sunshine on to a thick piece of card. The sunshine then burns a mark on the card
which shows the number of hours of sunshine in the day.
Pyranograph. The energy that a surface receives from the Sun is usually mea-
sured by pyranograph or pyradiograph (Fig. 25.15a) and is expressed in Julies per
metre square per hour (J/cm2  h-1), or some other proportional units. It should be
noted that these instruments must be in an open space, which is not covered with
object such as trees, buildings and the like. In these objects, of course, mountain
barriers are not included.
Pyrheliometer. The direct solar radiation is measured using pyrheliometer
(Fig. 25.15b). This means the instrument is always aimed directly at the Sun, via a
tracking mechanism that continuously follows the Sun. It is sensitive to wavelengths
in the band from 280 to 3000 nm. This device is composed of metal surfaces that
receive radiation and are placed perpendicular to the solar radiation.
Angstrom’s compensation pyrheliometer works on the principle of two manga-
nese plates: one is heated by the Sun, Moon, and other electrical paths, until they

Fig. 25.14 Heliograph
25.9  Measurement of Solar Radiation 417

Fig. 25.15 (a) Pyranograph; (b) Pyrheliometer

Fig. 25.16 Pyranometer

reach an identical temperature. Electricity required for heating the plate is propor-
tional to incoming shortwave radiation.
Pyranometer. Pyranometer is an instrument used for measurement of the solar
radiation at full angle, the flat surface, and the diapason of the spectrum of radiation
from (300 to 3000 3000 nm). This instrument is sometimes used to measure solar
radiation on inclined surfaces in a horizontal position and turned to reflected mea-
sured global radiation (Fig. 25.16). When the diffusive component of solar radiation
418 25  Meteorological Measurements and Observations

is measured, a component of direct solar radiation is protected from the pyranome-

ter with a device for darkening. Pyranometers are normally used as thermal power
sensors, photoelectrical, pyroelectrical, or bimetal elements. Since pyranometers
are constantly exposed to all weather conditions, they must be solid in design and
resistant to external influences and effects of moist air, especially near the sea.
Measurement of longwave radiation from the Earth can be achieved either indi-
rectly, by subtracting the measured global radiation, measured by the total radiation,
or directly, using pyrgeometres. Frequently pyrgeometres eliminate short wave-
lengths using filters that have constant visibility for long wavelengths, while they
are almost non-transparent for short wavelengths (300 to 3000  nm). Longwave
radiation, shortwave radiation, and total radiation are measured radiometers repre-
senting two instruments or a hybrid instrument ventilation polyethylene dome and a
carefully balanced detector response.

25.10  Measurement of UV Radiation

Measurement of solar UV radiation is necessary, primarily because of the negative

effects that this has caused to the environment and human health. These measure-
ments are of interest for monitoring the growth of radiation on the Earth’s surface,
due to ozone depletion. UV spectrum is conventionally divided into three parts:
(a) (UV-A) radiation with a range of wavelengths in the interval from 315 to
400 nm), just outside the visible spectrum. It is less biologically active, and its
intensity on the Earth’s surface does not change the content of atmospheric ozone.
(b) (UV-B) radiation in the belt of wavelengths from 280 to 315 nm. This radiation
is biologically active. Its intensity depends on the atmospheric ozone column. A
frequently used expression for its biological activity is its negative skin effect,
which means the extent to which radiation causes redness of the human skin.
(c) (UV-C) radiation at wavelengths from 100 to 280 nm is completely absorbed in
the atmosphere and does not occur naturally on the Earth’s surface.
The most sophisticated commercial instruments for measuring UV are called “radi-
ometers” (Fig.  25.17). They use holographic traps to disperse incoming energy
spectrum. Low-energy UV radiation compared to that of the visible spectrum
requires a strong blocking from outside the belt. This is achieved by using double
monochromatic or blocking filters, which transmit only UV radiation. The measure-
ment of output from monochromatic commonly uses fotoamplifier.
The most sophisticated commercial instruments for measuring UV are called
“radiometers” (Fig. 25.18). They use holographic traps to disperse incoming energy
spectrum. Low-energy UV radiation compared to that of the visible spectrum
requires a strong blocking from outside the belt. This is achieved by using double
monochromatic or blocking filters, which transmit only UV radiation. The measure-
ment of output from monochromatic commonly uses fotoamplifier.
25.11  Measurement of Visibility 419

Fig. 25.17  Instrument for

measurement radiation
(radiometer)

Fig. 25.18 Transmissometer

25.11  Measurement of Visibility

Meteorological visibility is an element that is very important in the measurements.

Its size can be estimated by the observer. Assessment of visibility depends on many
subjective and physical factors. Meteorological size, which is transparent to the
atmosphere, can be measured objectively, and it represents the meteorological opti-
cal range. Visibility can be measured with telephotometric instruments, which are
referred to us as transmissometers (see Fig. 25.18) that are designed for daily mea-
surement of the ratio of attenuation, by comparing the visible light a separate
420 25  Meteorological Measurements and Observations

facility to the facility of the sky. But they are usually not used for routine measure-
ments because of the preferred use of direct visual observations.
Transmissometers represent instruments that are commonly used for measuring
the average coefficient of attenuation. This instrument consists of a transmitter that
provides modulated flux light from a source with constant average power, and
receiver, i.e. accompanied photodetector. Frequently used sources of light are halo-
gen lamps. Modulation of the light source prevents disturbance of sunlight. The
transmission factor is determined by the output of photodetector, which allows cal-
culating the ratio of attenuation and meteorological optical distance.

25.12  Measurement of Evaporation

Evaporation represents the quantity of evaporated water from open water surface or
from the ground. Transpiration is the process through which water from the plants is
transferred to the atmosphere in the form of water vapour. Hence, evapotranspiration
(or effective evapotranspiration), means an amount of water vapour that evaporated
from the Earth’s surface and plants, in terms of natural moisture content. Potential
evaporation is the quantity of water vapour, which can be broadcasted from the sur-
face of pure water from unit surface area and unit time, of the existing atmospheric
conditions. Potential evapotranspiration is a maximum amount of water that can
evaporate in each climatic region, the continuous expanse of vegetation. Speed of
evaporation is defined as the amount of water evaporated from unit area in unit time.
It can be expressed as mass or volume of liquid water, evaporated per unit area in unit
time, usually as an equivalent depth of liquid water, evaporated in unit time from the
whole area. Direct measurements of evaporation or evapotranspiration, the wide-
spread natural water or land surfaces, are not practically feasible at the present time.
However, several indirect methods are developed that are performed by point mea-
surements or other calculations that provide reasonable result. The water lost by
default saturated surface is measured with evaporimeters (Fig. 25.19), which can be
classified as atmometers, and evaporimeters the container or tank. Atmometer is an
instrument which measures the loss of water from the wet porous surface. Moist sur-
faces are porous ceramic spheres, cylinders, containers, or exposed filter paper discs
saturated with water. The evaporating element of atmometer is consisting of a ceramic
sphere (~5 cm) in diameter, associated with reservoir of bottle with water through
glass or metal tube. Subsequent measurements of the volume of water that remains in
the engraved tube will give the amount lost by evaporation at any given time.

25.13  Upper Air Measurements

For the measurement of meteorological elements, pressure, temperature, and humidity

at a certain height, a device called radiosonde is used (Fig. 25.20). Radiosondes con-
sist of a balloon into the atmosphere, equipped with devices for measuring one or
25.13  Upper Air Measurements 421

Fig. 25.19 Evaporimeter

Fig. 25.20 Radiosonde
422 25  Meteorological Measurements and Observations

more meteorological parameters. It is provided with a radio transmitter, which is used

for sending information to the observation station. Radiosondes can attach to the bal-
loon or may be dropped from an airplane or rocket. The stations, at which measure-
ments are conducted, are made from electronic tools. Upper measurements of
temperature and relative humidity are used to initialize the analysis of numerical fore-
cast models for operational weather forecasting. Radiosondes provide most of the
measurements of temperature and relative humidity directly above the land, while
radiosondes launched from separate islands or vessels have limited coverage over the
oceans. Temperatures, with vertical scale like radiosondes, can be measured by air at
different levels of cruises. Aircraft measurements are used as an addition to upper air
sounding measurements, especially overseas. Satellite measurements of temperature
and distribution of water vapour have lower vertical resolution than radiosondes or
aircraft measurements. Satellite measurements have the greatest impact on the analy-
sis of numerical forecast over oceans and other areas of the globe where upper air
sounding and aircraft measurements are rare or not available. Precise measurements of
the vertical structure of the field and temperature profile of water vapour in the tropo-
sphere are extremely important for all types of forecast, especially for the regional and
local forecasting. The vertical structure of the field of temperature and water vapour
determines the stability of the atmosphere. Radio sounding measurements are vital for
studies referred to the pollution of the environment and climate change with height.

25.13.1  Measurement of Upper Wind

Upper winds data are mainly obtained by using radio sounding techniques, although
when additional data are needed for elevation winds without cost to launch the
radiosonde can use pilot balloons (Fig. 25.21), which use the principle of determin-
ing upper level winds with optical recording of the free balloon and radio wind
measurements (determination of upper winds with recording the free balloon by
electronic tools). Measurements of upper stations in the Global Observer System
over land are supplemented with measurements from aircrafts, wind profilers, and
Doppler weather radar. The system for measuring the wind profile, known as
LIDAR, provides a measurement of the direction and speed of wind above ground
level to about 5 km altitude.

25.14  Advanced Remote Sensing Measurements

The requirements for observational data may be met using in situ measurements or
remote sensing (including space-borne) systems, according to the ability of the vari-
ous sensing systems to measure the elements needed. Thus, a different type of mea-
surements and observations is continuously carried out to monitor the weather,
climate, and water of our planet. Some of the measurements have a special research
25.14  Advanced Remote Sensing Measurements 423

Fig. 25.21  Pilot balloon

nature in frame of some research programme, field campaign, experiment, or other

activities:
• Measurements and observations at aeronautical meteorological stations
• Aircraft observations
• Marine observations
• Special profiling techniques for the boundary layer and the troposphere
• Rocket measurements in the stratosphere and mesosphere
• Locating the sources of atmospherics
• Satellite observations
• Radar measurements
• Balloon techniques
• Urban observations
• Road meteorological measurements

25.14.1  The Global Observing System

The Global Observing System is designed to meet these requirements and is com-
posed of the surface-based subsystem and the space-based subsystem. The surface-­
based subsystem comprises a wide variety of types of stations according to the
application (e.g. surface synoptic station, upper air station, climatological station,
and so on). The space-based subsystem comprises several spacecrafts with on-board
sounding missions and the associated ground segment for command, control, and
data reception.
424 25  Meteorological Measurements and Observations

25.14.2  LIght Detection And Ranging (LIDAR)

LIDAR is a remote sensing method that uses light in the form of a pulsed laser to
measure ranges (variable distances) to the Earth. These light pulses combined with
other data recorded by the airborne system generate precise three-dimensional
information about the shape of the Earth and its surface characteristics. A LIDAR
instrument (see Fig. 25.22) principally consists of a laser, a scanner, and a special-
ized GPS receiver. Airplanes and helicopters are the most commonly used platforms
for acquiring LIDAR data over broad areas. There are two types of LIDARs: topo-
graphic and bathymetric. Topographic LIDAR typically uses a near-infrared laser to
map the land, while bathymetric LIDAR uses water-penetrating green light to also
measure seafloor and riverbed elevations. LIDAR systems allow scientists and map-
ping professionals to examine both natural and manmade environments with accu-
racy, precision, and flexibility. Over sea, the winds at altitude are mainly obtained
by civilian aircraft at different flight levels. In future, LIDAR data from satellites
and radars is expected to be used in order to obtain wind measurements and improve
global coverage of current monitoring systems.

25.14.3  SOund Detecting And Ranging (SODAR)

SODAR is an instrument used for remote measurement of dispersion of sound

waves caused by disturbances in the atmosphere. It is adjusted to measure the speed
of wind at different heights and layers just above the ground (Fig. 25.23). These
types of remote sensing systems have several advantages. SODAR operate a single,
simple process and include coverage of greater height. The main advantage of the
system is that it can be installed in a very short time.

Fig. 25.22 LIDAR
25.15  Measurements at Automatic Weather Stations (AWS) 425

Fig. 25.23 SODAR

The standard height limit of the meteorological towers is (~150 m), where mea-
surements with SODAR exceed this limit and provide a precise reading. Radio
sounding methods for measuring the speed and direction of wind at altitude essen-
tially depends on the monitoring of movement or free balloon, which rises to a
uniformed rate or by placing the object under the influence of gravity. If you need
to measure a given horizontal movement of air, there should not be a significant
horizontal motion in terms of air that is monitored. The core information needed by
systems directly includes the targeted amount and measurements of its flat position
or, alternatively, its horizontal speed at certain intervals. Remote measurement sys-
tems are used to measure the movement of the atmosphere with the rejection of
electromagnetic radiation or sound, of one or more of the following purposes:
hydrometeors, sand, aerosols, etc. the index breaches caused by atmospheric turbu-
lence at small scales or in the air molecules themselves.

25.15  Measurements at Automatic Weather Stations (AWS)

Automated weather station (AWS) is defined as a meteorological station where

measurements are made of meteorological elements and are transferred automati-
cally (Fig. 25.24). Instrumental measurements are read from the outside by means
of sensors. The measured data is then disseminated to the central unit for acquisition
of data. Data collected by measuring devices can be processed locally at the present
426 25  Meteorological Measurements and Observations

Fig. 25.24 Automated
weather station – AWS

automatic station or elsewhere, for example, the central processor in the network.
Automatic weather stations can be designed as an integrated concept of different
devices in combination with measurement units for reception and processing of
data. They are used to meet several needs, ranking from the simple assistance to the
observer to complete replacement of the observations in completely automatic
stations.

25.16  Satellite Observations

Application of techniques of remote control in the measurement and monitoring of

meteorological variables and supporting the Earth’s surface, troposphere, and
stratosphere using satellite are called satellite measurements (Webber 2009; Tan,
2016). Satellite systems continue to evolve, and for several years, new systems are
expected to be operational. Typical meteorological satellites orbit the Earth at
heights of about (36,000  km) or approximately (850  km), and they are used for
obtaining images and quantitative information about the properties of the surface
and lowest (20 km) from the atmosphere (Fig. 25.25). The use of sensors with satel-
lite platforms has its advantages and flaws in terms of measurements, compared to
the use of surveillance systems from the Earth surface. Ability to obtain images
from meteorological satellites is part of the justification for the use of satellites.
Cloudiness images provide valuable diagnostic information in the support analysis
25.16  Satellite Observations 427

Fig. 25.25 Meteorological
satellite

of meteorological characteristics. Meteorological variables are measured operation-

ally in the present time, with variable resolution and accuracy, including:
• Profile of temperature and temperature at the top of the cloud at the surface of the
sea and land
• Profile of moisture
• Wind at the cloud and the ocean surface
• Liquid and total water intensity of rainfall
• Total radiation and albedo
• Cloud type and height of cloud tops
• Total ozone
• Coverage and height of the ice and snow
With the help of satellites, non-meteorological variables such as vegetation, vol-
canic dust, etc., which are operationally important, are also measured.
Meteorological satellites of the second generation are designed to monitor the
advantage of new technologies and improve the already successful and proven
design of the original “Weather-Sat” satellites. SEVIRI radiometer (MSG-2) satel-
lite represents a total of 12 channels that generate images through scanning the
Earth every 15 minutes. Visible channel provides the highest resolution data at 1 km
resolution; other channels provide data at 3 km. This generation of satellites is a
powerful tool for obtaining precise information about the state of the atmosphere in
real time.
Besides obtaining data on cloudy systems in different parts of the globe, many
applications for measuring and monitoring atmospheric phenomena and processes
with the help of satellite are developed.
Today they have successfully detected the development of cyclones and other
atmospheric disturbances of smaller scale. Satellites are successfully used for
428 25  Meteorological Measurements and Observations

prediction and monitoring of development and evolution of tropical cyclones, hur-

ricanes, typhoons, and tornadoes. Numerous applications for prediction of fires, air
pollution, the emergence of low stratus clouds or fog, solar eclipse, and related
atmospheric phenomena are also developed. Meteorological Satellite Third
Generation (MTG) is a six-satellite system of four imaging satellites carrying imag-
ing and lightning detection mission as well as two sounder satellites providing infra-
red and ultraviolet capabilities, for both climate and meteorological applications. It
will provide the atmospheric chemistry and air quality information.
Radar observations and measurements. The word radar comes from the English
term “Radio Detection and Ranging”. It operates on the principle of radio waves
that are emitted in sequences and refuse to back the cloudy particles. The time
between emission and detection can compute the distance of the object. The inten-
sity of the signal depends on the concentration of facilities, size of particles, and
their type (snow, city, or rain). Radar data is usually shown as reflexivity in decibels.
The Doppler radar (Fig. 25.26), using speed mode, is based on the Doppler effect
(see Doviak and Zrnic 2006), which can determine the direction and speed of the
object (precipitation). The most prominent meteorological radar today is Doppler
dual-polarization radar. They improve the accuracy of precipitation estimates, lead-
ing to better flash flood detection, ability to discern between heavy rain, hail, snow,
and sleet, and improve detection of non-meteorological echoes (e.g. ground clutter,
chaff, anomalous propagation, birds, and tornado debris) and identification of the
melting layer (e.g. bright band).
Radar measurements are very important in operational meteorology and forecast
the weather, especially in the very short-term forecast and the announcement of

Fig. 25.26  Radar measurements (Doppler radar)

References 429

Fig. 25.27  Advanced Observation Instruments on “CHikyu”

weather disasters (nowcasting), related storms, strong winds, electrical discharges,

heavy rainfall, and the hail occurrence.

25.17  Special Measurements

Ocean drilling in the twenty-first century. For meteorological, and much general,
for geophysical needs, the Chikyu platform was developed with a programme of
special measurements in the atmosphere, in deep oceans, and deep into the land
beneath the ocean. “Chikyu” will enable to drill 7 km under the sea floor at maxi-
mum water depth more than 4 km (see Fig. 25.27). This extremely complex ship is
specially built to serve as a mobile platform for special measurements that should
provide answers to many unknown geophysical issues, such as why the occasional
quasi periodically occurs the worming of ocean water in a tropical deck of the
Pacific. This has a significant influence on the weather and climate of not only these
areas but also much wider.

References

Brock, F. V., & Richardson, S. J. (2001). Meteorological measurement systems (Vol. 25, p. 290).
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Doviak, R. J., & Zrnic, D. S. (2006). Doppler radar and weather observations (2nd ed., p. 592).
New York: Dover Publications.
Emeis, S. (2010). Measurement methods in atmospheric sciences. In situ and remote (Vol. 25,
p. 258). Stuttgart: Borntraeger Science Publishers.
430 25  Meteorological Measurements and Observations

Harrison, R.  G. (2015). Meteorological measurements and instrumentation (Vol. 25, p.  257).
Chichester: Willey Blackwell.
Orlanski, I. (1975). A rational subdivision of scales for atmospheric processes. Bulletin of the
American Meteorological Society, 56, 527–530.
Tan, S.-Y. (2016). Meteorological satellite systems (p. 131). Cham: Springer.
Webber, V.  L. (2009). Environmental Satellites (Vol. 112, p.  25). New  York: Nova Science
Publishers, Inc.
Index

A 377, 378, 381, 385–394, 401, 403,

Absolute acceleration, 175 418–420, 422, 424–427, 429
Absolute system, 168, 169 Atmospheric chemistry, 2, 327–346, 371, 428
Absolute vorticity, 188, 189, 192, 214–216 Atmospheric pressure, 18, 87–113, 120, 129,
Acoustic waves, 211 138, 236, 247, 263, 281, 282, 329, 401,
Adiabatic, 65–67, 82, 97, 116, 117, 120, 137, 403, 407–409
138, 140, 141, 144, 150, 152, 173, 174, Atmospheric structure, 1
187, 204, 206, 209, 326, 357
Adiabatic lapse rate, 117
Advection, 77, 78, 95–97, 141, 182, 193, 194, B
269, 310, 384 Baroclinic, 15, 95, 104, 105, 191, 216
Aerosols, 2, 8, 43, 47, 48, 50, 52, 152, 220, Barotropic, 22, 104–105, 183, 214,
224, 318, 331, 332, 334, 339–346, 358, 313, 355
371, 388, 392, 425 β-plane approximation, 186, 216
Air masses, 2, 20, 21, 35, 61, 73, 76, 77, 89, Black-body radiation, 36, 57
90, 97, 106, 109, 120, 139, 150, 151, Boltzmann constant, 55
157, 235, 236, 253–261, 266, 267, 281, Boundary conditions, 354, 363
290, 292, 357, 365, 383, 391, 412 Boundary layers, 2, 13, 15, 120, 123, 133,
Albedo, 42, 43, 55, 76, 77, 135, 229, 385, 427 180, 219–227, 289, 339, 423
Anemometer, 18, 413 Brunt-Vaisala frequency, 209–211
Angular momentum, 190, 191, 229, 230, 283 Butterfly effect, 22, 359, 360
Atmosphere, 1, 2, 25–33, 35, 37, 39–44,
46–58, 123, 127, 130–132, 135–137,
141, 143, 144, 147, 150–155, 159–162, C
164–166, 172, 173, 177, 178, 181, 183, Carbon dioxide (CO2), 26–30, 50, 56, 336,
191, 201–203, 206, 207, 209–212, 216, 340, 388, 393, 396
229, 230, 232, 237, 238, 240, 241, 243, Chemical reactions, 329, 330, 333, 335, 345
245, 248–250, 254, 257, 263, 265, 277, Circulations, 2, 10, 12, 13, 15, 18, 20, 26, 35,
278, 282, 289, 290, 294, 296–298, 303, 59, 73, 85, 96, 106, 111–113, 185, 192,
305, 315, 317, 318, 321, 322, 324, 325 229–232, 234–238, 240, 243, 246, 248,
Atmospheres, 5–9, 11–15, 17, 18, 20, 22, 23, 263, 267, 268, 270, 271, 275, 279, 283,
25–32, 59–61, 65, 71, 73–80, 82, 85, 289, 294, 307, 352, 365, 368, 380,
87–89, 91, 92, 94–97, 100–106, 111, 384–387, 391, 396, 412
112, 115–117, 119, 120, 220, 221, 223, Clausius-Clapeyron equation, 138
225, 227, 327, 328, 330–332, 334–343, Climate changes, 1, 2, 15, 108, 308, 340, 341,
345, 349, 350, 352–365, 368, 370–374, 377–396, 399, 422

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 431

V. Spiridonov, M. Ćurić, Fundamentals of Meteorology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-52655-9
432 Index

Climate forecasts, 375 Depressions, 93, 95, 110, 157, 234, 247, 263,
Climate system, 2, 15, 51, 234, 237, 238, 264, 275, 277–279, 308
377–379, 381, 384–387, 390, 394, 395 Deterministic forecasts, 371
Climate variability, 370, 389, 390 Dew point, 32, 115, 120, 129, 130, 135, 136,
Climatic extremes, 1, 131, 234, 303, 307, 377, 156, 401, 410, 411
382, 394 Diffuse radiation, 40
Cloud condensation nuclei (CCN), 135, 141, Divergence, 89, 96, 97, 106, 107, 115, 117,
156, 341 187, 188, 190, 193, 214, 215, 265, 267,
Cloud cover, 40, 76, 271, 289, 401 271, 290
Cold fronts, 77, 78, 115, 148, 257–260, Divergent wind, 186
265–267, 292, 293 Dobson Unit (DU), 46, 333
Cold spells, 249, 303 Doppler radar, 375, 428
Concentrations, 27, 29–32, 57, 153, 313, 327, Drought, 245, 249
329–334, 336, 338, 342–346, 392, 393, Droughts, 303–308, 311, 369, 388, 389, 393
412, 428 Dry adiabatic rate, 117
Conceptual models, 230 Dry air, 59, 62, 113, 117, 124–126, 132, 136,
Condensation, 2, 54, 81, 115, 117, 123, 183, 206, 290, 357
128–133, 135, 136, 138–141, 143,
150–152, 154, 156, 326, 332, 341, 344,
345, 378, 410, 414 E
Condensation level, 82 Earth, 2, 5–7, 9–15, 17, 21, 22, 25, 26, 28–33,
Conduction, 220, 221 35, 37, 39–57, 73, 75–80, 82, 85,
Conservation of angular momentum, 190, 283 87–91, 93, 94, 99–102, 104, 106,
Continuity equation, 187, 203, 213 108–112, 115, 119, 120, 123, 130–132,
Convection, 14, 31, 53, 54, 73–75, 79, 115, 135, 143, 147, 148, 152, 154, 155, 159,
116, 119, 123, 132, 141, 148–150, 165, 160, 162, 163, 166–171, 174–177, 186,
219, 220, 224, 232, 236, 255, 256, 270, 188, 192, 193, 200–203, 207, 208,
277, 289, 326, 333, 345, 355, 365, 383, 212–215, 220, 222, 224, 225, 229–234,
384, 386 236, 237, 239, 241, 245, 246, 248–250,
Convective clouds, 118, 135, 203, 213, 222, 254, 263, 265, 268, 271, 275, 282, 289,
282, 283, 289, 345, 346, 365 290, 294–297, 299, 303–305, 315, 323,
Convergence, 96, 107, 115, 117, 232, 233, 324, 327, 330–332, 335, 338–341, 344,
235, 236, 260, 261, 265, 267, 271, 283, 345, 364, 365, 375, 377–381, 383,
289, 290, 383 385–388, 391–394, 396, 399, 403, 409,
Cooling, 13, 53, 54, 81, 82, 85, 87, 92, 95, 97, 414–416, 418, 420, 424, 426, 427
117, 119, 127–129, 136–138, 140–142, Eccentricity, 379, 380
150, 152, 154, 221, 225, 239, 254, 294, Eddies, 107, 212, 219, 221, 230, 269, 292,
332, 336, 337, 340, 381, 391 389, 402
Coriolis acceleration, 169 Effective gravitation, 175
Coriolis effect, 271 Ekman spiral, 227
Critical level, 202 Electromagnetic spectrum, 38, 39, 45, 51, 412
Cumulonimbus, 101, 116, 118, 136, 146, El Niño, 12, 245, 377, 384, 390
148–150, 156, 290, 294, 297, 299 Energy balance, 26, 44, 123, 229, 237, 336,
Cumulus clouds, 116, 148, 151, 221, 290 378, 385, 386, 388
Cyclones, 2, 15, 21, 22, 93, 97, 106, 117, 157, Energy budgets, 2, 51–53, 331, 378
184, 215, 236, 237, 248, 256, 257, Energy heat, 14, 333
263–273, 275, 276, 279–281, 283–285, Energy spectrum, 418
299, 307, 323, 364, 375, 400, 427 Energy transfer, 59, 230, 278, 289, 331, 386
Cyclostrophic motion, 184 Ensemble forecasting, 371
Entropy, 59, 60, 63, 68–70, 202
Environmental lapse rate, 81, 117
D Equilibrium, 59, 63, 68, 71, 94, 101, 124, 130,
Dalton’s law of partial pressure, 89 131, 136, 141, 208, 209, 241, 253, 329,
Data assimilation, 220, 358, 359, 373, 374 381, 410, 411
Index 433

Evaporation, 53, 97, 123, 128–133, 137, 140, Global telecommunication system, 402
143, 153, 156, 256, 277, 278, 308, 337, Gradient wind, 184, 212
342, 381, 383, 396, 400, 401, 411, Gravitation, 100, 162, 163, 170, 171, 175, 225
415, 420 Gravity waves, 200, 201, 208–211, 213, 221,
Evaporimeters, 420, 421 241, 313
Evapotranspiration, 29, 83, 123, 306, 420 Greenhouse effect, 2, 29, 50, 131, 313, 330,
Exosphere, 30, 32 334, 388, 393
External forcing, 77, 78, 379 Grid-point, 363
External waves, 160, 210 Ground based observations, 333
Extratropical cyclones, 15, 265, 266, 268 Gusts, 236, 279, 290, 292, 308

F H
Ferrell cells, 231 Hadley cell, 230–232
Flux, 52, 54, 55, 57, 223, 226, 330, 420 Hailfall, 292
Fog, 11, 82, 120, 129, 135, 140, 141, 143, 147, Haze, 48, 154, 312, 336, 337, 388
152–154, 221, 225, 240, 272, 323, Health impacts, 308, 313
339, 428 Heat capacity, 64, 69, 70, 77, 357
Forcing, 25, 69, 115, 202, 203, 220, 221, 226, Heat flux, 132, 331
265, 281, 285, 292, 334, 341, 378–381 Heat islands, 83–84
Forest climate, 237, 384 Heat waves, 249, 303, 310, 366, 368, 369,
Fossil fuels, 29, 336–340, 388, 392, 393 376, 395
Freezing, 73, 129, 130, 143, 154, 332, 365, Heavy precipitations, 245, 293, 365, 366,
396, 401, 412, 414 368, 394
Frequencies, 51, 197, 199, 200, 203, Horizontal advection, 73, 181, 183
209–211, 416 Horizontal transport, 222
Frequency, 15, 278, 306, 307, 316, 319, Hurricanes, 12, 14, 136, 184, 242, 263, 275,
389, 393–395 276, 278–280, 282–287, 294, 303, 307,
Friction velocity, 164 313, 350, 376, 428
Frontal boundaries, 277, 289 Hydrological cycle, 11, 17, 123, 132, 155
Frontal system, 77 Hydrostatic approximation, 100, 185, 187
Frontogenesis, 97, 266 Hydrostatic balance, 94, 100, 214
Fronts, 2, 96, 115, 120, 150, 153, 157, 185, Hypsometric formula, 102
235, 241, 253, 257–261, 263–268, 292,
307, 323, 361, 400
Frost, 129, 133, 141, 225, 272, 410, 414 I
Future climate, 370, 379, 381, 384, 394 Incoming solar radiation, 41–44, 56, 76, 78,
79, 135, 229, 378, 381, 386
Inertial stability, 213
G Inertial system, 166
Gas constant, 61, 62, 69, 329, 356 Inertial waves, 213–214
General atmospheric circulation, 108, 231, Infrared atmospheric sounding, 203
233, 235, 237, 242, 388–389 Infrared radiation, 12, 29, 38, 42, 45, 49, 52,
Geopotential, 89–91, 93, 94, 102, 171, 179, 57, 229, 393
180, 183, 269, 356 In situ observation, 422
Geopotential heights, 90, 93, 94, 102, 103, Insolation, 40, 41, 44, 50, 76, 79, 85
201, 215, 243, 355, 391 Instabilities, 14, 22, 118, 173, 201, 208,
Geopotential metre (GPM), 90 255–257, 260, 265, 277, 278, 290, 292
Geostationary satellites, 22, 375 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
Geostrophic approximation, 177 (IPCC), 394
Geostrophic motion, 183, 184 Internal waves, 214
Geostrophic wind, 77, 78, 104, 177–181, 183, Intertropical convergence (ITCZ), 12, 232,
185, 186, 220, 221, 225 233, 236, 237, 247, 383, 388
Global observations, 391 Intrinsic frequency, 211
434 Index

Inversions, 81, 82, 100, 117–120, 123, Mesoscale convective systems (MCS),
150–152, 206–208, 225, 240, 272, 15, 292–294
313, 338 Meso-scale processes, 15, 236
Isentropes, 69, 71 Mesosphere, 7, 8, 30, 31, 81, 151, 152, 423
Isobars, 91–94, 96, 97, 177–181, 183, 185, Milankovic cycles, 379–381
260, 264, 265, 271 Millibars, 89, 98, 124
Isohypses, 90, 93–94, 96, 180, 183, 269 Mixing layer, 223–225, 238, 338
Isotherm atmosphere, 180 Mixing ratio, 124–127, 410
Isotherms, 20, 61, 67, 76–78, 82, 85, 144, Mixing ratios, 327–329, 331, 332
180, 181 Moist processes, 8, 358
Moisture, 2, 15, 19, 28, 32, 82, 115, 123–133,
136, 137, 153, 155, 156, 219–221, 224,
J 233, 237, 246, 253–256, 277, 278, 289,
Jet streams, 12, 95, 234, 235, 243, 248–250, 290, 293, 330, 345, 352, 355, 357, 378,
263, 375 389, 411, 412, 420, 427
Monsoons, 12, 110, 111, 236, 237, 240,
246–247, 254, 376
K Mountain waves, 15, 212
Katabatic winds, 221, 222
Kelvin-Helmholtz waves, 12
Kelvin scale, 85 N
Kinematic viscosity, 221 Net radiation (Rn), 76, 79, 229
Kinetic energy, 31, 73, 74, 202, 223, 226 Newton’s second law of motion, 160
Nocturnal jet, 221
North-Atlantic Oscillation (NAO),
L 242–245, 249
Lagrangian method, 363 Numerical modelling, 358
Laminar flow, 107
La Nina, 245, 246
Land surface processes, 177 O
Large-scale processes, 177 Observations, 2, 5–7, 9, 11, 20–22, 108, 144,
Latent heat, 65, 73, 77, 81, 82, 129, 131, 133, 203, 219, 220, 237, 265, 287, 295, 323,
139, 141, 232, 277, 278, 331, 355 349–352, 354, 357–362, 365, 373–376,
Layer ABL, 219–227 381, 384, 392, 399–429
Lee waves, 211 Occluded fronts, 257, 259, 260, 266
Lidars, 22, 422, 424 Occlusion, 257, 260, 268
LIDARS, 424 Optical depth, 135
Light detection and ranging (LIDAR), 424 Orbital changes, 379
Lightning, 7, 17, 20, 28, 143, 148, 157, Ozone hole, 49, 50, 313
289–301, 308, 311, 350, 428 Ozone layer, 31, 46, 48, 49, 330, 332–334, 336
Linearized equations, 201 Ozonosphere, 48, 332, 333
Local climates, 384
Local scale, 111, 309, 400
Local winds, 108, 111 P
Low-level jet, 222 Parameterizations, 220, 354, 358, 359, 385
Past climates, 384
Photochemical reactions, 333, 335
M Planetary waves, 177, 202, 249, 389
Maritime Polar air, 235, 255–256, 259 Polar front, 235, 236, 248, 265–267,
Maritime Tropical air, 256 277, 289
Mercury barometers, 407, 408 Polar vortex, 235, 243, 244, 249, 391
Meridional cells, 230 Pollutants, 223, 312, 334–338, 345
Meridional wind, 238 Pollution, 2, 11, 118, 120, 152, 153, 272,
Mesoscale convective complexes, 292, 293 313, 327, 334, 335, 338, 400, 422, 428
Index 435

Potential temperature, 66, 67, 118, 140, Relative humidity, 126–129, 135–137, 141,
172–174, 209, 226, 227, 357 152, 154, 156, 233, 290, 305, 311, 401,
Potential vorticity, 215, 216 410–412, 422
Precipitations, 2, 8, 11, 15, 17, 29, 82, 87, 95, Renewable energy, 108
97, 119, 123, 131, 132, 135–158, 234, Rossby waves, 22, 202, 214–216, 249, 250
237, 243, 247, 249, 261, 289, 290, 292, Rotations, 21, 44, 78, 79, 89, 106–110,
294, 297, 308, 309, 330–332, 338, 339, 167–170, 176, 184, 192, 193, 202,
341, 349, 351, 365, 366, 369, 370, 377, 213–215, 220, 221, 224, 230, 231,
378, 381–383, 390, 395, 396, 399, 401, 249, 265, 271, 281, 300, 356, 379,
402, 414, 415, 428 413
Pre-processing, 372
Pressure, 2, 8, 14, 18–20, 32, 59–66, 68–70,
77, 87–105, 107, 108, 110–112, 115, S
117, 118, 120, 124, 125, 127–129, Satellites, 2, 9, 11, 22, 23, 49, 50, 250, 271,
131–133, 136–140, 142, 150, 152, 156, 272, 275, 277, 281, 294, 333, 359, 365,
159–162, 168, 171, 172, 177–180, 183, 374, 375, 399, 422–424, 426–429
184, 186, 191, 193, 201–204, 208, 225, Saturated air, 138
229, 231–238, 241–243, 246, 247, 250, Saturation vapour pressure, 127, 136, 142
260, 263–266, 268, 271–273, 275–277, Scale analysis, 180
281, 282, 284–286, 307, 310, 313, 327, Scale height, 101, 103, 111, 112, 210
329, 330, 338, 352, 354–358, 361, 364, Scattering, 8, 43, 47, 48, 56, 318–320, 323,
369, 373, 374, 381, 383, 389, 391, 401, 328, 341, 384
403, 404, 407–411, 420 Sea-breeze, 140
Primitive equation models, 355 Sea ice, 355, 390, 391, 393
Probability forecasts, 372 Sea-level rise, 105, 286, 392–395, 399
Pyranometers, 417, 418 Seasonal outlooks, 368–369
Pyrheliometer, 416, 417 Sea surface, 89, 112, 237, 238, 249, 256, 278,
281, 282, 290, 390
Sensible heat, 73
Q Snow depth, 415
Quasi-horizontal motion, 94 Sodar, 22, 425
Soil moisture, 374
Solar constant, 40, 54
R Solar radiation, 8, 10, 31, 32, 37, 39–43, 45,
Radar, 2, 9, 11, 22, 23, 220, 250, 359, 365, 47, 49, 50, 52–55, 73, 76–81, 95, 119,
375, 423, 428 123, 135, 231, 232, 237, 331, 332, 340,
Radial acceleration, 167, 183 341, 355, 378, 380, 381, 388, 391,
Radiation, 2, 15, 31, 32, 35–57, 63, 74–79, 401, 416–418
81–83, 85, 119, 120, 136, 141, 152, Solar winds, 33, 324
154, 221, 225, 232, 272, 316, 318, 319, Sound detecting and ranging
331–334, 336, 341, 345, 357, 358, 378, (SODAR), 424–425
381, 384, 386, 393, 401, 402, 411, 412, Specific humidity, 124, 138, 140, 206, 227
416–419, 425, 427 Spectral models, 356
Radiative cooling, 221 Squall lines, 15, 101, 259, 260, 277, 292,
Radiative flux, 57 293, 365
Radiative forcing, 220, 341, 381 Standard atmosphere, 80, 89, 102–104
Radiosondes, 23, 352, 359, 374, 420–422 Stationary fronts, 257, 259, 265
Raindrops, 137, 142, 155, 321 Storms, 12, 15, 20, 100, 136, 148, 157, 191,
Rainfall, 11, 146–148, 150, 155–157, 234, 193, 201, 234, 242, 243, 247, 249, 263,
236, 237, 240, 243, 247, 249, 255, 256, 266–268, 272, 275–287, 289–297, 299,
265, 282, 283, 285, 286, 291, 292, 294, 300, 303, 307–309, 311, 312, 321, 323,
305–309, 311, 337, 374, 383, 384, 389, 339, 340, 351, 361, 365, 366, 368, 375,
393, 414, 415, 427, 429 376, 387, 429
Reanalysis, 360, 374–375 Storm tracks, 242, 243, 280, 283, 392
436 Index

Stratosphere, 8, 15, 29–31, 46, 48, 49, 52, 81, Trade winds, 108, 109, 232–234, 236,
102, 136, 151, 201, 330–333, 335, 337, 237, 284
388, 391, 423, 426 Tropical cyclones, 2, 15, 97, 242, 275–287,
Stratospheric warming, 249, 391 289, 294, 307, 366, 393, 428
Stratus clouds, 240, 428 Troposphere, 7, 8, 15, 30, 31, 48, 50, 80–82,
Stream function, 216 102, 108, 118, 135, 136, 141, 149, 151,
Sub-grid scale processes, 358 192, 193, 201, 219, 220, 232–234, 249,
Surface winds, 108, 220, 232, 235, 254, 261, 253, 263, 269, 277, 330, 332, 339, 345,
265, 307, 413 391, 422, 423, 426
Synoptic meteorology, 9, 92 Turbulence, 2, 5, 8, 100, 107, 120, 219–222,
Synoptic scale, 14, 15, 186, 187, 366 224, 226, 227, 236, 384, 425
Turbulent flow, 107
Typhoons, 157, 242, 275, 277–279, 287,
T 313, 428
Temperature gradients, 74, 75, 77, 80–82, 104,
116, 117, 119, 227, 231, 234, 265, 268,
289, 320, 338 U
Temperature lapse rate, 81, 82, 120 Ultraviolet radiation (UV), 29, 31, 32, 45–49,
Temperatures, 2, 8, 11, 18, 20, 28, 30–33, 52, 55, 57, 81, 198, 331, 333, 335, 337,
35–37, 39, 44, 49–51, 53–56, 58–62, 345, 418–419
64–70, 73–86, 89, 95, 97–100, Upper air sounding, 116, 180, 187, 203, 422
102–104, 111, 112, 117–120, 123–133, Urban heat islands, 83–84
136–142, 144, 145, 147, 150–152, 154,
156, 157, 159, 162, 164, 172–174,
181–183, 191, 201, 203, 206–208, 220, V
225, 227, 234, 235, 237–241, 243, Vapour content, 30, 123, 127, 129, 137, 142,
245–249, 253–256, 260, 267–269, 272, 410, 412
278, 281, 282, 290, 294, 296, 303, 305, Vapour pressure, 63, 124–129, 131, 133, 136,
310–313, 315, 320, 329, 330, 332, 336, 138, 139, 142, 410, 411
338, 349, 351, 352, 356–358, 361, 369, Velocity components, 165
370, 374, 375, 377, 381–384, 386, Vertical motions, 115, 138, 187, 212, 249,
388–396, 399, 401–406, 410–412, 416, 250, 283, 289, 386
417, 420, 422, 427 Vertical velocity, 115, 187, 190
Tensor, 165 Virtual temperatures, 171, 206
Terrestrial radiation, 8, 37, 42, 50, 57, 76, 128, Viscosity, 71, 104, 165, 221, 357
133, 331, 341 Viscous force, 164
Thermal inversion, 83, 208, 338 Visibility, 82, 119, 147, 152, 153, 310, 313,
Thermal wind, 104, 105, 179–181 332, 334, 337, 351, 401, 402, 418, 419
Thermodynamic equation, 203, 356, 357 Volcanoes, 26, 303, 331, 338, 339
Thermodynamics, 2, 7, 8, 20, 21, 59–71, 74, Vortex, 78
124, 129, 137, 138, 141, 159, 187, Vortices, 151, 235, 236, 240, 250, 275, 294,
204, 206, 209, 272, 278, 291, 292, 299–301, 391
354, 355 Vorticity, 22, 95–97, 169, 187–195, 215, 216,
Thickness, 48, 145, 147, 214, 220, 222, 238, 277, 355
270, 333, 338, 356, 386, 414, 415
Thunderstorms, 95, 100, 115, 116, 148, 193,
233, 260, 261, 268, 272, 279, 281, W
289–301, 308, 365, 385, 400, 401 Warm advection, 77, 78, 182, 269
Tornadoes, 101, 136, 148, 150, 191, 260, 266, Warm front, 145, 257–260, 265–267
289–301, 303, 308, 311, 365, 375, 376, Water balance, 11, 123
389, 400, 428 Water vapour, 17, 26, 40, 59, 84, 117, 123,
Total derivative, 203 135, 172, 223, 232, 282, 290, 329, 375,
Trace gases, 27, 223, 328, 330–332 388, 410
Index 437

Wavenumber, 199, 200 Wet adiabatic rates, 116

Waves, 12, 15, 37, 38, 45, 53, 75, 98, Winds, 2, 11, 12, 15, 17–21, 35, 53, 77, 78,
150–152, 197–209, 211–214, 216, 230, 87–113, 115, 128, 132, 133, 143, 144,
235, 240–242, 249, 250, 259, 260, 263, 152, 154, 156, 159, 161, 164–166, 177,
265–267, 269, 277, 285, 286, 289, 290, 180, 183, 185–187, 192–194, 201, 211,
294, 307, 311, 212, 215, 219–222, 224, 226–227,
313, 314, 316, 319, 326, 229–236, 238–243, 246–248, 263–265,
340–342, 349, 366, 368, 267, 268, 271, 272, 275, 277–286,
369, 374, 375, 389, 393, 290–293, 299, 300, 305, 307–309, 311,
400, 412, 424, 428 312, 315, 330, 335, 338, 340–342, 345,
Weather analysis, 90, 399 349–351, 354, 356–358, 361, 373–375,
Weather forecasting, 2, 13, 21–23, 377, 381–383, 386, 389, 392, 393,
349–376, 422 401–403, 413, 414, 422, 424, 425,
Weather radar, 422 429