Chemistry of

12th
Chapter # 01
Periodic classification:
Classification: To group together the elements have similar properties and separate those
which are differ.

Periodic classification: The classification in which the elements with similar

characters are reported after an interval.

Dobereiner`s law of traids:

He arranged the elements in group of three elements called traids.

According to this law ‘In traids, the masses of elements are either nearly same or the masses of middle
element is appoximently the arithmetic mean of the other two elements.

Example: (Fe=56, Co=58.9, Ni=58.6)

7+39
Li=7, Na =23, K=39
2
=23

35.5+126.5
Cl =35.5, Br=80, I=126.5 =81
2

Newland’s law of octaves:

He arranged the elements in ascending order of atomic masses and found that ‘the properties of every
eighth elements are similar to the first one.

Li= 7 Be= 9 B= 11 C= 12 N= 14 O= 16 F= 19
Na= 23 Mg= 24 Al= 27 Si= 28 P=31 S= 32 Cl= 35.5
K= 39 Ca= 40

Advantages of law of octaves:

 He arranged the elements in tabular form.
 He gave an idea of periodicity.
 He made the vertical columns of elements (group) with similar properties.

Disadvantages of law of octaves:

 This law could not accommodate the noble gases which were not known then.
 Heavier elements could not arrange in the octaves.

Mendeleev’s periodic law:

The properties of element are the periodic function of their atomic weights. he arranged the elements in
ascending order of atomic weight (masses) in seven horizontal rows called periods and eight vertical
columns called groups.

Advantages:
 He simplified the study of elements by comparison and co-relation in period and group.
 He corrected the doubtful atomic masses of the elements.(Be= 13.5 to 9).
 He left blank spaces for the elements to be discovered and predicted their properties.

Disadvantages:
 He could not specify the position of hydrogen.
 He did not mention the position of isotopes.
 Coinage metals were placed with alkali metals.
 Rare earth metals were not give the proper position.
 Misfit pairs:
He placed

Ar= 40 Before K= 39
Co =58.6 Before Ni= 58.6
 Te= 127.6 Before I= 126.5

Modern periodic law /Modified periodic law

/Mendeleev’s periodic law:
The properties of elements are the periodic function of their atomic number not the atomic weight
(mass).

He arranged the elements in ascending order of atomic number and removed most of the objections on
the Mendeleev’s classification.

Major points of this law:

1. All the isotopes of an element are given same position in the periodic table.
2. On dividing the group A and B the coinage metals were separated from alkali metals.
3. Misfit pairs become fit on the basis of atomic number.
4. Rare earth metals are placed at the bottom of periodic table.
5. The physical and the chemical properties of elements are the periodic function of their
electronic configuration.

Period: it is the horizontal row of elements contains same number of shells, except first period
every period is start from alkali metal and ends on noble gases.

Period #1: It is the shortest period of periodic table that contains only two elements hydrogen and
helium. The electronic configurations are (1 s 1 , 1 s 2 ¿.

Period #2: It is the first short period of periodic table which contains eight elements from (Li to Ne)
with electronic configurations of(1 s ¿ ¿ 2 ,2 s 2)∧(1 s 2 ,2 s 2 ,2 p6 )¿.

Period #3: It is the second short period of periodic table which consists of eight elements from (Na
to Ar). In this period 3s and 3p orbital are filled.

Period #4: It is the first long period of periodic table which contains 18 elements from (K to Kr). It
start filling from 4s orbital and followered by 3d and 4p.
Period #5: It is the second long period of periodic table which contains 18 elements from (Rb to Xe).
It start filling from 5s orbital and followered by 4d and 5p.

Period #6: It is the largest period of periodic table which contains two elements of s-block, 10
elements of d-block, 14 elements of f-block and 6 elements of p-block. It start filling from 6s.

Period #7: It is the incomplete period of periodic table.

Group: It is the vertical column of elements of the periodic table in which every element of
valance electrons. Groups are classified into two sub-groups A and B. the elements of A sub-group are
called normal elements and the elements of B sub-groups are called transition elements.

Types of elements based on electronic

configuration:
1. Noble gases: These are colorless gases placed at the end of every period in group viiiA.
They are also called inert gases or zero group elements. They all contain complete octet in the
outermost shell except helium. They are diamagnetic in nature.
Valance shell E.C (ns 2 , np 6) except helium.

2. Representative/Typical/Normal element: All the elements of A sub-

group called normal elements of s-block and p-block.
a) s-block elements: The elements in which the last electron enters in s-orbital are
called s-block elements. S-block element consist of two groups iA (alkali metals) and
iiA(alkaline earth metals).
Valence shell E.C = ns 1 ¿ ns 2.
b) p-block elements: The elements whose E.C is ends at p-orbital are called p-block
elements. P-block consists of six groups iiiA to viiiA.
Valence shell E.C = ns 2 , np 1 ¿ ns 1 , np6 .

3. d-block/Transition elements: The elements in which last electron enters in (n-1) d-

orbital are called d-block elements. These are also called outer transition elements.
Valance shell E.C is ns 2 , ( n−1 ) d1 ¿ ns 2 ,(n−1).

4. f-block elements/Inner transition elements: The elements in which the last

electron enters in (n-2) f-orbital are called f-block elements. f-block consists of two series of the
elements each (lanthanide and actinide series).
They are placed at the bottom of periodic table.
Valance shell E.C= ns 2 ( n−1 ) d 1 , ( n−2 ) f 1 ¿ ns 2 , ( n−1 ) d 1 , ( n−2 ) f 14 .
Chapter#02
Hydrogen:
Discovery:
Hydrogen is discovered by Cavendish in 1766.

Position of hydrogen in periodic table:

1) Hydrogen and IA(Alkali metals):
Similarities:
 Hydrogen contains one electron in outermost shell, like alkali metals.
 It loses electron, forms +ve ion like IA elements.
 It is monovalent like Li, Na…….
 Its highest oxidation state is +1.
 Its forms halides (HX) like NaX, KX etc.

Dissimilarities:
 Hydrogen is a gas, IA elements are solids.
 It form homodiatomic molecule, unlike alkali metals.
 With electropositive metals it gains one electron forms H−¿ ¿ ion, alkali metals do not.
 It preferably forms covalent compounds unlike Na, K.
 H +¿¿ ion do not exists free in water while alkali metal ion do.
2) Hydrogen and IVA (Carbon family):
Similarities:
 Hydrogen is non-metal like carbon.
 Its outer most shell is half filled like C.
 It forms covalent compounds.
 Its thermodynamic values (I.P, E.A) resemble to those of carbon family.
  In organic compounds, it is closely associated with carbon.
Dissimilarities:
 Hydrogen is a gas while carbon family members are solids.
 It is monovalent while carbon is tetravalent.
 It contain one electron in s-orbital, carbon contains 2 electron in s-orbital, and 2 p-
orbital.
 It forms +ve (H +¿¿ ) unlike carbon family.
 It forms homodiatomic molecules unlike C, Si.
3) Hydrogen and VIIA (Halogens):
Similarities:
 Hydrogen is the gas like fluorine and chlorine.
 It is monovalent like halogens.
 It needs one electron to complete the shell.
 It exists as homodiatomic molecule like halogens.
−¿ ¿
+¿ cl ¿

 It gains one electron to form negative ion ( Na+¿ H

−¿,Na ¿
¿
).
Dissimilarities:
 It contains one electrons in outer most shell while halogens contains seven electron.
 Hydrogen forms +ve ion unlike halogens.
 During electrolysis of halogen acids, it is liberated at cathode and halogens at anode.
 Its E.C ends at s-orbital in halogens its end at p-orbital.
 Hydride ion H −¿ ¿ ion do not exists free in water but halide ion do.

Industrial preparation of Hydrogen:

1. By electrolysis of water:
when electricity is passed through acidified water. Hydrogen is liberated at cathode and
oxygen at anode.
2 H 2 O⃗
electricity 2 H 2+ O2
2. By stream and hydrocarbon process:
The mixture of stream and natural gas(methane) is heated in the presence of a
catalyst(Ni) water gas is produced.
900 ℃
C H4+ H2O → CO+
⏟ 3 H2
¿
water gas

3. By the action of stream on coal:

 When a stream is passed over a red hot coke, a mixture of carbon monoxide and
hydrogen is produced.
C (S )+ H 2 0⃗
1000 ℃ CO
⏟ +H2
Water gas

4. Separation of hydrogen from water gas:

a) By liquefaction:
Water gas is cooled to -200℃, CO liquefies and free hydrogen is liberated.
b) By Boseh process:
The mixture of water gas and stream is heated in presence of a catalyst.
FeO
H 2 +CO+ H 2 O →C O 2+ H 2
500 ℃
c) Traces of CO are removed when the gas is passed through NaOH solution, CO is
absorbed in the solution and H 2 is liberated.
H 2 +CO+ NaOH → HCOONa+ H 2
d) By stream and methanol process:
Mixture of vapours of methanol and stream is heated to 250℃.

C H 3 O H (g) + H 2 O(g )⃗
250 ℃ C O 2 +3 H 2

5. By thermal decomposition of hydrocarbon:

C H 4⃗
700 ℃ ( 2 H 2 +C ) ¿ carbon

6. By thermal decomposition of ammonia:

2 N H 3⃗
1000 ℃ N 2 +3 H 2
The mixture of nitrogen gas and hydrogen gas are cooled to -196℃, nitrogen is liquefies
and hydrogen is separated.

Atomic hydrogen:
Ordinary hydrogen gas exists as diatomic molecule and is known as molecular hydrogen.

Hydrogen is atomic state produced by the dissociation of bond in molecular hydrogen is called
atomic hydrogen.

Preparation:
1. By thermal decomposition:
H 2⃗
5000 ℃ 2 H
 2. By electrical dissocation:
electricity
H2 2H
low pressure

Nascent hydrogen:
Hydrogen in atomic state set free from its compounds at the time of preparation is called
nascent hydrogen.

Zn+ 2 Hcl → Zn cl 2 +2 H

Na+C2 H 5 ONa+ H

Atomic hydrogen is more reactive than molecular hydrogen. Atomic hydrogen contains one free
electron (free valency), it readily combines with other substance in contact capable of reaction.
In molecular hydrogen, there is strong covalent bond between two atoms, large amount of
energy (about 104kcal/mol) is required to break the bond and start the reaction.

Reaction of atomic hydrogen:

i. 2 H+ S → H 2 S (hydrogensulphuric∨sulphuric acid )
ii. N 2 +6 H →2 N H 3 ( Ammonia)
iii. 2 H+ cl 2 → 2 Hcl (hdrogen chloride∨hydrochloric acid)
iv. P+3 H → P H 3 (Phosphine)
v. 2 H 2+O 2 →2 H 2 +O 2

Reducing action of atomic hydrogen:

Agcl+ H → Ag+ Hcl

CuO+ 2 H →Cu+ H 2 O

Use of atomic hydrogen:

It is used to prepare the atomic torch which gives a temperature of about 4000-5000℃ and is
employed for welding metal alloys.

For this a jet of hydrogen gas is passed through an electric arc between two electrodes. On
passing out, the H 2 molecule dissociate into H-atoms which recombine at once to give the high
temperature. The heat is not produced by the burning of gas only but due to recombination of
the H-atoms.
Binary compound of hydrogen:
The binary compounds of hydrogen are called hydrides.

Classification of hydrides:
The hydrides are classified on the basis of nature of bond present in the compound as follow:

i. Ionic or salt like hydrides

ii. Covalent hydrides
iii. Complex hydrides
iv. Metallic or interstitial or non-stoichiometric hydrides
v. Polymer hydrides
vi. Border line hydrides
I. Ionic or salt like hydrides:
These hydrides are formed by the metals of group IA and IIA except Be and Mg. In these
compounds hydrogen gain electron and forms negative ion (H−¿ ¿) while metal form
positive ion by loss of electron.

Preparation:
(IA) 2 Na+ H 2 →2 NaH ( Sodium hydride )

(IIA) Ca+ H 2 → Ca H 2 ( Calcium hydride )

Properties of ionic hydrides:

 They are colourless, non-volatile, crystalline solids.
 They are soluble in water and produce hydrogen gas.
NaH + H 2 O → NaOH + H 2
Ca H 2+2 H 2 O →Ca ¿
 They react with alcohol to liberate hydrogen.
Eythyll alcohol ( C2 H 5 OH ) + NaH → C
⏟ 2 H 5 ONa + H 2
Sodium ethoxide

 They react with acids to give hydrogen gas.

NaH + Hcl → Nacl+ H 2
Ca H 2+2 Hcl →Ca cl 2 + H 2
 They high melting point, conduct electricity in molten state and solution form.
 They are used to produce hydrogen reducing agents and dehydrating agents.
II. Covalent hydrides:
 Hydrogen forms covalent bond with elements of IIIA to VIIIA. They contain covalent
bond, hence are called covalent hydrides.
Preparation:
Direct method:
H 2 +cl 2 →2 Hcl
2 H 2+O2 →2 H 2 O
N 2 +3 H 2 → 2 N H 3

H 2 +S → H 2 S

In direct method:
Mg 3 N 2 +6 H 2 O → 3 Mg ¿

Ca3 P2 +6 H 2 O→ 3 Ca¿

P cl 3 +3 H 2 O → H 3 PO 4+ 3 Hcl

Al 4 C 3 +12 H 2 O→ 4 Al ¿

CaC 2 + H 2 O →Ca ¿

Properties:
 They are colorless gases or volatile liquids.
 They are low boiling point except water, which boils at 100℃ due effective hydrogen
bonds.
 The hydrides of IIIA and IVA are neutral.
 The hydrides of VA are basic.
 The hydride of VIA and VIIA are acidic.
The acidic characters increase from left to right and top to bottom.
III. Complex hydrides:
The hydrides of IIIA are unstable do not exists freely. They are found in combined state
with hydride of IA. The combination of two hydrides is called complex hydride.
LiH + B H 3 → LiB H 4 ( Lithium boronhydride )
NaH + Al H 3 → NaAl H 4 ( Sodium aluminium hydride )

Properties:
 They are hard crystalline solid.
 they have high melting point (stable to heat)
 −¿¿
+¿+B H 4
 They ionize as LiB H 4 ⥨ Li
¿

 They are soluble in water and liberate hydrogen gas.

NaAl H 4 + 4 H 2 O → NaOH + Al ¿
 They contain all three types of bonds (ionic, covalent and co-ordinate bond)
 The anion is tetrahedral in structure.
IV. Metallic hydrides:
In some of the transition metals, hydrogen is deposited in crystal structure. The metals
having absorbed hydrogen are called metallic hydrides.
Example:
Ni, Pt, Pd etc.
Their properties are similar to those of pure metals. In true sense, they are not the
compounds of hydrogen. They do not have a fixed formula, hydrogen is deposited in the
interstitial spaces so known as interstitial or non-stoichiometric hydrides. Such metals
are used as catalysts in hydrogenation reaction.
V. Polymer hydrides:
The hydrides formed by the Be and Mg of group IIA. In these compounds the molecules
are held together by dipole-diople interaction and form a long chain called polymer
hydrides.
Their properties are intermediate between ionic and covalent hydrides.

VI. Border line hydrides:

These hydrides are formed by elements of group IB, IIB and few elements of IIIA, lying
on the border line of d and p-block.
Example:
Zn H 2, Cu H 2, TC H 3 ETC
These properties are intermediate between metallic and covalent hydrides.
Isotopes:
The atoms of same element having same atomic number but different mass number are
called isotopes.
or The atoms containing same no of of proton and electron but no of neutron in the
nucleus are called isotopes.
 Isotopes of hydrogen:
Protium ( H or P):
1
1

It is known as ordinary hydrogen. It contains one proton in the nucleus and one electron
in K-shell.
Naturally, occurring hydrogen contains about 99.98% of protium.
Deuterium 2
1 H or D:
It is called heavy hydrogen. it contains one proton and one neutron in nucleus and one
electron in 1s orbital.
Naturally, occurring hydrogen contains about 0.0156% of deuterium.
Tritium 3
1 H or T:
It is the radioactive isotopes of hydrogen. It contains one proton and two neutrons in
the nucleus and one electron revolving round it.
Naturally, occurring hydrogen contains about 4×10−15% of tritium.
Its half life is about 12.5 years.

Chapter #03
S-block elements:
Def: The elements in which last electron enters in s-orbital are called s-block
elements. S-block consists of two sub-groups IA (alkali metals) and IIA(alkaline earth
metals).

Group trend: The regular variation in properties form top to bottom in a group
is called group trend.
1) Electronegativity: E.N decrease down the group increase distance from nucleus to the
outer most electron(size).
Alkaline earth metals have higher E.N due to greater nucleus charge which cause
strong attractive force between nucleus and valance electron.
2) Ionization potential: I.P decrease from top to bottom because of increasing in size and
shielding effect of inner shells.
IIA elements have higher I.P because of greater nuclear protons and presence of
paired electron in outer most shell.
3) Atomic radii:Atomic size increase from top to bottom due to the addition of new shells.
Alkaline earth metals have smaller atomic radii due to greater nuclear charge.
4) Ionic radii: S-block elements from cations, which are always smaller than parent atoms.
Ionic radii increase down the group in all s-block elements due to increasing atomic size.
Cations of IIA are much smaller than those of IA because with the loss of two
electrons in the greater nuclear charge exceeds the nucleus of elements which
offers stronger attractive force.
5) Hydration energies of ions: The hydration energies depends upon ionic size and
magnitude of charges on the size (charge density).
H.E decrease down the group due to increasing ionic size and decreasing charge
density.
alkaline earth metals ions have higher hydration enthalpy because of greater
charge density (smaller size and greater charge)
6) Electrode potential: s-block elements have high negative electrode potential values
which show their tendency to lose the electron and act as strong reducing agent.
alkali metals cannot be used in voltaic cell based on water, because of their rapid
oxidation by solvent.
( Li +¿Li ¿) lithium has exceptionally high negative electrode potential.
( s)

7) Melting and boiling point: S-block elements have generally have low melting points.
the melting point and boiling point decreases down the group because increasing
atomic size and decrease in strength of metallic bond.
alkaline earth metals are harder and have high melting point because the divalent cation
in a denser electron cloud.
8) Densities: The densities increase from top to bottom due to rapid in atomic mass.
IIA elements have higher densities because of greater atomic masses and smaller atomic
volume.
Chemical properties of s-block elements:
1) Reaction with halogen:
(IA) 2 M + X 2 → 2 MX
2 Na+ cl 2 → 2 Nacl
(IIA) M + X 2 → M X 2
Mg+ cl 2 → Mg cl 2
2) Reaction with hydrogen:
(IA) 2 M + H 2 →2 MH
2 K + H 2 → 2 KH
(IIA) M + H 2 → 2 MH
Ca+ H 2 → Ca H 2
3) Reaction with nitrogen:
 (IA) 6 M + N 2 → 2 M3 N
6 Na+ N 2 → 2 Na 3 N
(IIA) 3 M + N 2 → M 3 N 2
3 Mg+ N 2 → Mg 3 N 2
4) Reaction with oxygen:
4 Li+O2 →2 Li O2 (Normal oxide)
Lithium oxide
Na+O 2 → Na2 O 2 (O−1)(O−2
2 )
Sodium per oxide
−1
K +O2 → K O2 −1
(O 2 ),(O 2 )