SPRING 2009
MATH 401 - NOTES
Sequences of functions
Pointwise and Uniform Convergence
Previously, we have studied sequences of real numbers. Now we discuss
sequences of real-valued functions. By a sequence {fn } of real-valued func-
tions on D, we mean a sequence (f1 , f2 , . . . , fn , . . .) such that each fn is a
function having domain D and range a subset of R.
I. Pointwise convergence
Definition. Let D be a subset of R and let {fn } be a sequence of functions
defined on D. We say that {fn } converges pointwise on D if
lim fn (x) exists for each point x in D.
n→∞
In other words, lim fn (x) must be a real number that depends only on x.
n→∞
In this case, we write
f (x) = lim fn (x)
n→∞
for every x in D and f is called the pointwise limit of the sequence {fn }.
Formal Definition: The sequence {fn } converges pointwise to f on D if for
every x ∈ D and for every ǫ > 0, there exists a natural number N = N(x, ǫ)
such that
|fn (x) − f (x)| < ǫ whenever n > N.
Note: The notation N = N(x, ε) means that the natural number N depends
on the choice of x and ε.
Example 1. Let {fn } be the sequence of functions on R defined by fn (x) =
nx. This sequence does not converge pointwise on R because lim fn (x) = ∞
n→∞
for any x > 0.
Example 2. Let {fn } be the sequence of functions on R defined by
x
fn (x) = .
n
1
This sequence converges pointwise to the zero function on R. Indeed, given
any ǫ > 0, choose N > xǫ then
x x
|fn (x) − 0| = < < ǫ, for n > N
n N
Example 3. Consider the sequence {fn } of functions defined by
(x + n)2
fn (x) = for all x in R.
n2
Show that {fn } converges pointwise.
Solution: For every real number x, we have:
2
x 2x 2 1 1
lim fn (x) = lim + +1 =x lim +2x lim +1 = 0+0+1 = 1
n→∞ n→∞ n2 n n→∞ n2 n→∞ n
Thus, {fn } converges pointwise to the function f (x) = 1 on R.
Example 4. Consider the sequence {fn } of functions defined by fn (x) =
n2 xn for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1. Determine whether {fn } is pointwise convergent on
[0, 1].
Solution: First of all, we observe that fn (0) = 0 for every n in N. So the
sequence {fn (0)} is constant and converges to zero. Now suppose 0 < x < 1
then n2 xn = n2 en ln(x) → 0 as n → ∞. Finally, fn (1) = n2 for all n. So,
lim fn (1) = ∞. Therefore, {fn } is not pointwise convergent on [0, 1]. Al-
n→∞
though, it is pointwise convergent on [0, 1).
Example 5. Consider the sequence {fn } of functions defined by
sin(nx + 3)
fn (x) = √ for all x in R.
n+1
Show that {fn } converges pointwise.
Solution: For every x in R, we have
−1 sin(nx + 3) 1
√ ≤ √ ≤√
n+1 n+1 n+1
Moreover,
1
lim √ = 0.
n→∞ n+1
2
Applying the sandwich theorem for sequences, we obtain that
lim fn (x) = 0 for all x in R.
n→∞
Therefore, {fn } converges pointwise to the function f = 0 on R.
Example 6. Let {fn } be the sequence of functions defined by fn (x) = cosn (x)
for −π/2 ≤ x ≤ π/2. Discuss the pointwise convergence of the sequence.
Solution: For −π/2 ≤ x < 0 and for 0 < x ≤ π/2, we have
0 ≤ cos(x) < 1.
It follows that
lim (cos(x))n = 0 for x 6= 0.
n→∞
Moreover, since fn (0) = 1 for all n in N, one gets lim fn (0) = 1. Therefore,
n→∞
{fn } converges pointwise to the function f defined by
0 if − π2 ≤ x < 0 or 0 < x ≤ π
2
f (x) =
1 if x=0
Example 7. Consider the sequence {fn } of functions defined by
x
fn (x) = for all x in R.
3 + nx2
Show that {fn } converges pointwise.
Solution: Moreover, for every real number x, we have:
x
lim fn (x) = lim = 0.
n→∞ n→∞ 3 + nx2
Hence, {fn } converges pointwise to the zero function.
Example 8. Consider the sequence of functions defined by
fn (x) = nx(1 − x)n on [0, 1].
Show that {fn } converges pointwise to the zero function.
3
Solution: Note that fn (0) = fn (1) = 0, for all n ∈ N. Now suppose
0 < x < 1, then
lim fn (x) = 0
n→∞
Therefore, the given sequence converges pointwise to zero.
Example 9. Let {fn } be the sequence of functions on R defined by
0 < x ≤ n1
3
n if
fn (x) =
1 otherwise
Show that {fn } converges pointwise to the constant function f = 1 on R.
Solution: For any x in R there is a natural number N such that x does
not belong to the interval (0, 1/N). The intervals (0, 1/n) get smaller as
n → ∞. We see that fn (x) = 1 for all n > N. Hence,
lim fn (x) = 1 for all x.
n→∞
II. Uniform convergence
Definition. Let D be a subset of R and let {fn } be a sequence of real
valued functions defined on D. Then {fn } converges uniformly to f if given
any ǫ > 0, there exists a natural number N = N(ǫ) such that
|fn (x) − f (x)| < ǫ for every n > N and for every x in D.
Note: In the above definition the natural number N depends only on ε.
Therefore, uniform convergence implies pointwise convergence. But the con-
verse is false as we can see from the following counter-example.
Example 10 Let {fn } be the sequence of functions on (0, ∞) defined by
nx
fn (x) = .
1 + n2 x2
This sequence converges pointwise to zero. Indeed, (1 + n2 x2 ) ∼ n2 x2 as n
gets larger and larger. So,
nx 1 1
lim fn (x) = lim 2 2
= lim = 0.
n→∞ n→∞ nx x n→∞ n
4
But for any ε < 1/2, we have
fn 1 − f 1 = 1 − 0 > ε.
n n 2
Hence {fn } is not uniformly convergent.
Theorem. Let D be a subset of R and let {fn } be a sequence of continuous
functions on D which converges uniformly to f on D. Then its limit f is
continuous on D.
Example 10. Let {fn } be the sequence of functions defined by fn (x) =
cosn (x) for −π/2 ≤ x ≤ π/2. Discuss the uniform convergence of the se-
quence.
Solution: We know that {fn } converges pointwise to the function f defined
by (see Example 6)
0 if − π2 ≤ x < 0 or 0 < x ≤ π2
f (x) =
1 if x=0
Each fn (x) = cosn (x) is continuous on [−π/2, π/2]. But the pointwise limit
is not continuous at x = 0. By the above theorem, we conclude that {fn }
does not converge uniformly on [−π/2, π/2].
Example 11. Consider the sequence {fn } of functions defined by
sin(nx + 3)
fn (x) = √ for all x in R.
n+1
Prove that {fn } converges uniformly to the zero function on Rn .
Solution: We have seen that {fn } converges pointwise to the zero function
on Rn (see Example 5). Moreover
| sin(nx + 3)| 1
|fn (x) − 0| = √ ≤√ .
n+1 n+1
Given any ǫ >, we can find N ∈ N such that
1
√ < ǫ whenever n > N.
n+1
It follows |fn (x) − f (x)| < ǫ for every n > N and for every x inR. Hence,
{fn } converges uniformly to the zero function on R.
