Water is considered to be the earliest renewable energy resource to be exploited by man.

The water
wheel, sometimes called a noria, used for collecting water from a flowing source for the purpose of
irrigation was used around the 5th century BC.

Not much later in the history of hydroelectric power, around the 2nd century BC, watermill devices were
invented and probably originally used for grinding grains. These mills were usually vertical axis mills and
were built and used throughout the ancient greek and roman empires.

Eventually in Europe, horizontal axis water mills were invented and used for similar purposes as their
counterpart, the vertical axis.

Modern History of Hydroelectric Power

Throughout ancient history, hydroelectric power technology was slow to progress, and with the later
invention of the steam engine, the growth in hydroelectric power technology was impeded even more.

It was not until 1832 that a Frenchman named Benoit Fourneyron created a very successful water
turbine that was the first to use a guide vane to direct the water flow into the turbine. This was a huge
innovation because it helped Fourneyron build a turbine that could work properly while completely
submerged in water.

Shortly after, James Francis invented the Francis Turbine which was an inward flow reaction turbine and
is a commonly used water turbine today.

Then, in the early 20th century Victor Kaplan invented the Kaplan Turbine which helped developed the
modern usage of low-head water turbine generators.
Hydroelectric Power Today

The growth of hydroelectricity today has slowed over the last few decades, especially in the United
States. This is mostly because all of the best and largest locations for potential hydroelectric production
have already been exploited for their water power.

In the United States, the areas with the most dramatic elevation changes harbor the highest usage of
hydroelectricity. States like Idaho, Oregon, Washington, and South Dakota lead hydroelectric
production in the United States today.

States with relatively flat terrain like Florida, Ohio, or Virginia, produce almost no hydroelectricity.

Earlier in the century, hydro power produced a large portion of the United State’s electricity, but today
it has dropped to supplying around 10% on the nation’s electricity. Even though this number has
decreased, hydroelectricity today is still the leading source of renewable energy.

Hydroelectric production today comes mostly from large projects, with dams that require a reservoir of
water to supply the turbine generator. Since most of the best locations for this type of hydro power in
the United States are already being used, research and development for hydro power is moving towards
micro-hydro systems, which require less water to operate and can supply electricity to smaller
communities or individual homes.

Hydroelectricity is the most commonly used form of renewable energy today, supplying about 20% of
the world’s electricity. China, Canada, Brazil, and the United States are leaders in hydroelectric
production today. There are many unused locations in the world outside of the United States that could
be efficient areas to exploit hydroelectric power.

The future of hydroelectricity seems to be heading towards smaller, micro-hydro systems and away
from the large dam and reservoir systems.
Leading research analysts believe that large-scale dams are a thing of the past because many of the best
locations for them are already being used, and because they can have severe negative effects on the
environment.

Micro-hydro projects have less of a negative impact on the environment because they do not require a
large reservoir of water to operate, they only require a small portion of a stream or river. Micro-hydro
systems can be used for individual homes or supply electricity to a smaller power grid area.

Another new technological idea looming in the future of hydroelectricity are large-scale underwater
ocean projects. The amount of energy produced from ocean waves and ocean currents is magnificent.
Harnessing this power could be a huge hydroelectric resource and would potentially be less damaging to
the environment than large-scale dam and reservoir systems.

With advancements in technology and knowledge, the future cost of hydroelectricity should continue to
decrease. Hopefully advancements in micro-hydro systems and ocean and wave energy systems will be
an efficient and inexpensive alternative for the future of hydroelectricity.

Benefits of Renewable Energy Use

Renewable energy—wind, solar, geothermal, hydroelectric, and biomass—provides substantial benefits

Land use

The size of the reservoir created by a hydroelectric project can vary widely, depending largely on the size
of the hydroelectric generators and the topography of the land. Hydroelectric plants in flat areas tend to
require much more land than those in hilly areas or canyons where deeper reservoirs can hold more
volume of water in a smaller space.

At one extreme, the large Balbina hydroelectric plant, which was built in a flat area of Brazil, flooded
2,360 square kilometers—an area the size of Delaware—and it only provides 250 MW of power
generating capacity (equal to more than 2,000 acres per MW) [1]. In contrast, a small 10 MW run-of-
the-river plant in a hilly location can use as little 2.5 acres (equal to a quarter of an acre per MW) [2].
Flooding land for a hydroelectric reservoir has an extreme environmental impact: it destroys forest,
wildlife habitat, agricultural land, and scenic lands. In many instances, such as the Three Gorges Dam in
China, entire communities have also had to be relocated to make way for reservoirs [3].

Wildlife impacts

Dammed reservoirs are used for multiple purposes, such as agricultural irrigation, flood control, and
recreation, so not all wildlife impacts associated with dams can be directly attributed to hydroelectric
power. However, hydroelectric facilities can still have a major impact on aquatic ecosystems. For
example, though there are a variety of methods to minimize the impact (including fish ladders and in-
take screens), fish and other organisms can be injured and killed by turbine blades.

Apart from direct contact, there can also be wildlife impacts both within the dammed reservoirs and
downstream from the facility. Reservoir water is usually more stagnant than normal river water. As a
result, the reservoir will have higher than normal amounts of sediments and nutrients, which can
cultivate an excess of algae and other aquatic weeds. These weeds can crowd out other river animal and
plant-life, and they must be controlled through manual harvesting or by introducing fish that eat these
plants [4]. In addition, water is lost through evaporation in dammed reservoirs at a much higher rate
than in flowing rivers.

In addition, if too much water is stored behind the reservoir, segments of the river downstream from
the reservoir can dry out. Thus, most hydroelectric operators are required to release a minimum
amount of water at certain times of year. If not released appropriately, water levels downstream will
drop and animal and plant life can be harmed. In addition, reservoir water is typically low in dissolved
oxygen and colder than normal river water. When this water is released, it could have negative impacts
on downstream plants and animals. To mitigate these impacts, aerating turbines can be installed to
increase dissolved oxygen and multi-level water intakes can help ensure that water released from the
reservoir comes from all levels of the reservoir, rather than just the bottom (which is the coldest and has
the lowest dissolved oxygen).

Life-cycle global warming emissions

Global warming emissions are produced during the installation and dismantling of hydroelectric power
plants, but recent research suggests that emissions during a facility’s operation can also be significant.
Such emissions vary greatly depending on the size of the reservoir and the nature of the land that was
flooded by the reservoir.
Small run-of-the-river plants emit between 0.01 and 0.03 pounds of carbon dioxide equivalent per
kilowatt-hour. Life-cycle emissions from large-scale hydroelectric plants built in semi-arid regions are
also modest: approximately 0.06 pounds of carbon dioxide equivalent per kilowatt-hour. However,
estimates for life-cycle global warming emissions from hydroelectric plants built in tropical areas or
temperate peatlands are much higher. After the area is flooded, the vegetation and soil in these areas
decomposes and releases both carbon dioxide and methane. The exact amount of emissions depends
greatly on site-specific characteristics. However, current estimates suggest that life-cycle emissions can
be over 0.5 pounds of carbon dioxide equivalent per kilowatt-hour [5,6].

To put this into context, estimates of life-cycle global warming emissions for natural gas generated
electricity are between 0.6 and 2 pounds of carbon dioxide equivalent per kilowatt-hour and estimates
for coal-generated electricity are 1.4 and 3.6 pounds of carbon dioxide equivalent per kilowatt-hour [7].

References:

[1] Fearnside, Phillip M. 1989. Brazil's Balbina Dam: Environment versus the legacy of the Pharaohs in
Amazonia. Environmental Management, July/Aug 1989, Volume 13, Issue 4, pp 401-423.

[2] National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). 2012. Renewable Electricity Futures Study. Hand,
M.M.; Baldwin, S.; DeMeo, E.; Reilly, J.M.; Mai, T.; Arent, D.; Porro, G.; Meshek, M.; Sandor, D. eds. 4
vols. NREL/TP-6A20-52409. Golden, CO: National Renewable Energy Laboratory.

[3] Yardley, Jim. November 19, 2007. Chinese Dam Projects Criticized for Their Human Costs. New York
Times.

[4] National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). 2012. Renewable Electricity Futures Study.

[5] IPCC, 2011: IPCC Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation.
Prepared by Working Group III of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [O. Edenhofer, R.
Pichs-Madruga, Y. Sokona, K. Seyboth, P. Matschoss, S. Kadner, T. Zwickel, P. Eickemeier, G. Hansen, S.
Schlömer, C. von Stechow (eds)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New
York, NY, USA, 1075 pp. (Chapter 5 & 9).

[6] National Academy of Sciences. 2010. Electricity from Renewable Resources: Status, Prospects, and
Impediments. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. Online at
http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=12619

[7] IPCC, 2011: IPCC Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation.

Share

From our blog

March 31, 2020

Trump Administration Finalizes Car Rule Which Will Worsen Economy, Public Health

March 31, 2020

We’re All in This Together: Support and Solidarity for Our Heroes on the Front Lines

March 30, 2020

While You Were Focused on COVID-19, EPA Gave Polluters Free Rein, Threatening At-Risk Communities

Related resources

FEATURE

A 3D rendering of coronavirus.

UCS and the Coronavirus

The Union of Concerned Scientists is actively monitoring the coronavirus pandemic and its implications
for scientific integrity.
REPORT

Coal plant on water

Minnesota Electric Cooperatives

Minnesota’s electricity sector is still tied to coal-fired power plants.

EXPLAINER

A power plant

The Clean Power Plan

Analysis and information on the EPA's Clean Power Plan.

PODCAST

Got Science? The Podcast - Joe Daniel

Coal Plants, Turn the Power Off and You’ll Make More Money

November 19, 2020. Energy analyst Joe Daniel explains why seasonal shutdowns can save utilities, and
customers, money.

Get email updates

Email

Sign up for updates from UCS; unsubscribe at any time.

Get text alerts

Text "SCIENCE" to 662266 or sign up online. Msg & data rates may apply. Text STOP to opt out. No
purchase necessary. Terms and conditions.

Support our work

Make it monthly

Say it with science.

The Equation
A blog on science, politics, and activism.

All Things Nuclear

A blog on the nuclear threat.

Footer

Privacy Policy

State Disclosures

News

Jobs

Contact

© Union of Concerned Scientists

We are a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization.

2 Brattle Square, Cambridge MA 02138, USA

(617) 547-5552

We use cookies to improve your experience. By continuing, you accept our use of cookies. Learn more.

Support our work

Make it monthly

Other ways to give

Renew

Honor & memory

Become a member
The First Bukidnon Electric Cooperative, Inc. (FIBECO) partnership with King Energy Generation Inc.
(KEGI) on a twin diesel-powered generation plant project is part of Fibeco’s commitment to the progress
and development of Bukidnon.

The first plant—the 3.2MW Bukidnon Power Plant I bunker fuel power plant in Barangay Puntian,
Quezon—was inaugurated on July 29, 2012.

KEGI and FIBECO are currently working in another partnership—the 4.4MW Bukidnon Power Plant II
diesel plant in Bagontaas, Valencia City. As part of FIBECO’s 10-year power supply plan, our ultimate
goal is to have enough power in our coverage area. We are seriously taking moves to address the power
needs in the province as well as in Mindanao, said FIBECO General Manager Engr. Renato S. Cortezano.

Kegi’s entry into the Bukidnon power supply scene is part of immediate solutions to the current power
crisis, said Cortezano.

We hope to contribute to the progress of Bukidnon by inviting investors in power generation to provide
electricity at very reasonable power rate, Cortezano said. MEL N. VELEZ