Cellular Transport Notes

About Cell Membranes

1. All cells have a cell membrane

2. Functions:
1. Controls what enters and exits the cell to maintain an internal balance called
homeostasis
2. Provides protection and support for the cell

About Cell Membranes (continued)

1. Structure of cell membrane

Lipid Bilayer -2 layers of phospholipids

1.
1. Phosphate head is polar (water loving)
2. Fatty acid tails non-polar (water fearing)
3. Proteins embedded in membrane

About Cell Membranes (continued)

4. Cell membranes have pores (holes) in it

1.
1. Selectively permeable: Allows some molecules in and keeps other molecules out
2. The structure helps it be selective!

Types of Cellular Transport

Passive Transport

cell doesn’t use energy

1.
1. Diffusion
2. Facilitated Diffusion
3. Osmosis

Active Transport

cell does use energy

 1.
1. Protein Pumps
2. Endocytosis
3. Exocytosis

Passive Transport

cell uses no energy

molecules move randomly

Molecules spread out from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.

(HighàLow)

Three types:

3 Types of Passive Transport

1. Diffusion
2. Facilitative Diffusion – diffusion with the help of transport proteins
3. Osmosis – diffusion of water

Passive Transport: 1. <span>Diffusion</span>

1. Diffusion: <span>random</span> movement of particles from an area of high

concentration to an area of low concentration.

(High to Low)

Diffusion continues until all molecules are evenly spaced (equilibrium is reached)

Note: molecules will still move around but stay spread out.

2. Facilitated diffusion: diffusion of specific particles through transport proteins found in the
membrane

1.
1. Transport Proteins are specific they “select” only certain molecules to cross the
membrane
2. Transports larger or charged molecules

3.Osmosis: diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane

Water moves from high to low concentrations

Active Transport

Types of Active Transport

Types of Active Transport

2. Endocytosis: taking bulky material into a cell

 Uses energy
 Cell membrane in-folds around food particle
 “cell eating”
 forms food vacuole & digests food
 This is how white blood cells eat bacteria!

Types of Active Transport

3. Exocytosis: Forces material out of cell in bulk

 membrane surrounding the material fuses with cell membrane

 Cell changes shape – requires energy
 EX: Hormones or wastes released from cell

Effects of Osmosis on Life

Osmosis- diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane

Water is so small and there is so much of it the cell can’t control it’s movement through the
cell membrane.

Hypotonic Solution

Hypertonic Solution

Isotonic Solution

How Organisms Deal with Osmotic Pressure

Paramecium (protist) removing excess water video

THE CELLULAR LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION   Cell – basic structural and functional unit of life;
enclosed by a             membrane Cell Theory * All living things are composed of one or more
cells; * The chemical reactions of living cells take place within cells; * All cells originate from
pre-existing cells; and * Cells contain hereditary information,which is passed from one
generation to another. Types of cell according to their nucleus: 1. Prokaryotes – organisms lack
membrane-bound organelles pro – before, karyo-  nucleus 2. Eukaryotes - cells display a much
greater degree of structural organization and complexity eu – true, karyo- nucleus
 
GENERAL COMPONENTS OF CELLS 1. CELL MEMBRANE -
 
3 divisions of a cell structure:
1.plasma membrane      2. cytoplasm  3. nucleus
A.PLASMA MEMBRANE
  - boundary between the outside and inside environments
•selectively permeable/ semi-permeable
•regulates flow of materials into and out of the cell
•also provides communication among and between cells and their external environment
•made up of lipids and proteins
•fluidity – movement of bilayer; self-seals during injury; changes position in the bilayer (but not 
flip-flopping); cholesterol component provides strength at normal body temperature; becomes
fluid  at low temperatures
 
  
PROKARYOTIC CELL
- A type of cell that lacks a membrane bounded nucleus and the DNA is not physically separated
from the rest of the cytoplasm. The DNA is usually coiled, attached to the plasma membrane
and concentrated in a region of the cell called the NUCLEOID.
- Are usually very small (less than 5 u in length) with relatively simple internal structure and are
mostly surrounded by a relatively stiff cell wall.
Ex. bacteria (Kingdom Monera)
 
EUKARYOTIC CELL
- A Cell containing distinct membrane bounded nucleus as well as variety of membranous
organelles that lend structural and functional organization to the cell interior
Figure 1. Cell structure
 
  
LIPIDS forms the basic structural framework 2 layers of phospholipid (75%), cholesterol (20%)
and glycolipids (5%) phospholipids – amphipathic molecules (hydrophilic heads – arranged
outward and hydrophobic tails – arranged inwards) glycolipids – made up of carbohydrate and
lipids; positioned outside of the membrane cholesterol – interspersed on both sides   PROTEINS
types: integral proteins – extended into or through the lipid bilayer; forms transmembrane
proteins (protrudes on both sides)    peripheral  proteins – associate with polar heads of lipids
or with integral proteins glycoproteins – carbohydrate + proteins; forms a sugary coating
outside; also forms identity markers
Functions:
 ion channel – pore but may also be selective
 
transporter – moves polar substances from one side to the other
 
receptor – recognition sites
 
cell identity markers – glycoproteins and glycolipids
 
linkers – anchor proteins in the plasma membrane of neighboring cells and to protein filaments
inside and outside the cell
 
 
Figure 2. Parts of the Cell Membrane
 
<span>HOW SUBSTANCES MOVE</span>
selective permeability
 
1. lipid bilayer is permeable to nonpolar substances and uncharged molecules like oxygen gas,
carbon dioxide and steroids but are impermeable to charged ions or polar molecules
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2. it is slightly permeable to water and urea (small gaps created through movement)
 
3. transmembrane proteins allows passage of ions
 
-protein molecules move in and out through endocytosis and exocytosis
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-concentration gradient (high to low concentration) also permits entry and exit of ions (oxygen
gas and sodium – outside; carbon dioxide and potassium – inside
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-  electrochemical gradient/ electrical potential  results due to high concentrations of + and –
ions; movement is down concentration gradient
 
 -  transport – substances needed for a chemical reaction inside; imports materials not
produced by the cell; exports products (waste); 2 mechanisms: active and passive
 
a. active transport – against concentration gradient – low to high concentration; requires ATP
expenditure; processes: exocytosis and endocytosis (pinocytosis & phagocytosis)
b. passive transport – towards concentration gradient – high to low concentration; no ATP is
used; processes: simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion and osmosis
 
 
SIMPLE DIFFUSION
 
-  movement of particles from high to low concentration
-  factors influencing diffusion
   1. steepness of concentration gradient – the higher the concentration the faster the diffusion
process
 
   2.  temperature – at high temperature diffusion also hastens
 
   3.  mass of diffusing substances – the heavier the molecules diffusion tends to be slower
 
   4.  surface area – the more surfaces to attach to, the faster the diffusion process; emphysema
– low SA thus person has difficulty in breathing
 
   5.  distance – the greater the distance to the surface the longer or slower the diffusion
process; in pneumonia, the fluid collecting in the lungs creates a higher distance for diffusion of
oxygen gas
 
  
 
diffusion through the lipid bilayer
   -  oxygen gas, carbon dioxide, nitrogen gas, fatty acids, steroids, and vitamins ADEK, small
alcohols and ammonia, water and urea
   -  does not contribute to tonicity 
 
membrane channels
   -  ion channels; small inorganic ions; ion – specific channels; Cl and K; gated (changes shape)
 

FACILITATED DIFFUSION
 
-  too polar or highly charged solutes; too big molecules
-  aided by carrier protein
-  transporter + solute = inside the cell (if transporter undergoes change in shape)
-  saturation – point at which all transporters are fully occupied; transport maximum is reached
-  glucose, fructose, galactose, some vitamins
-  example: glucose --> binds to glucose transporter (GluT) --> GluT changes shape --> inside -->
GluT releases glucose --> glucose attaches to hexokinase (so that it cannot attach to GluT, thus
preventing  exit of glucose)
-  presence of insulin increases transport maximum of membrane proteins
 
 
 
OSMOSIS
 
-  net movement of solvent in a semipermeable membrane
-  water moves from high concentration to low concentration
-  movement is through the phospholipid bilayer and aquaporins (protein channels for water)
-  osmotic pressure – pressure needed to stop the movement of water into a solution when
solutes cannot pass through the membrane
 
 
<span>tonicity</span> – a measure of the solution’s ability to change the volume of cells by
altering  water content
 
isotonic – equal concentration; 0.9% NaCl sol’n. – physiological saline
 
hypotonic – lower concentration of solutes  outside than inside the cell; results to swelling of
the cell; used in rehydration (IV or oral); example: sportsdrinks – water from blood -->
interstitial fluid --> inside cells
 
hemolysis – rupture of RBC in a hypotonic solution
 
hypertonic – high concentration of solutes outside than inside the cell; results in cell shrinkage;
used to patients with cerebral edema (mannitol – relieves the overload due to osmosis from
interstitial fluid --> blood --> kidney --> urine)
 
crenation – shrinkage of RBC’s
 
  
 
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
 
ions: Na, K, H, Ca, I, Cl; amino acids and monosaccharides
 
primary active transport – protein transporter pumps substance inside; Na-K pump
secondary active transport
-  symporters (move 2 molecules at the same time; example: Na-Glu, Na – amino acid)
-  antiporters – move out molecules (Na+/Ca2+; Na+/H+)
 endocytosis
-  forms a vesicle (sac made through pinching out of the membrane)
-  movement into the cell
3 types
1. receptor -  mediated endocytosis
---- binding to receptor --> invagination --> vesicle --> uncoating inside the cell --> fuse with
endosome --> degradation in lysosomes
 
2. phagocytosis – engulfment of solid particles; cell-eating process; phagosome (vesicle); forms
false feet (pseudopodia) for engulfment; macrophages and neutrophils (WBC)
 
3. pinocytosis – cell-drinking process; tiny droplets of ECF taken up; pinocytic vesicle
 
exocytosis
-  movement out of the cell; secretion; digestive enzymes, hormones, mucus, neurotransmitters
-  secretory vesicles from inside the cell fuses with the plasma membrane going towards the ECF
 
 
 
B. CYTOPLASM
 
1.cytosol – sol-gel; 75 – 90% water; ions, glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, proteins, lipids, ATP
and even waste products; site for chemical reactions
 
2. organelles – maintenance, growth and reproduction of the cell
 
organelles:
1.cytoskeleton – provides framework; organizes contents and provides shape to cells; aids in
movement of organelles
 
Figure 1. Cell structure
 
types:
a. microfilaments – thinnest; made of actin; helps generate movement and provides mechanical
support
b. intermediate filaments – in between microfilaments and microtubules; help stabilize position
of organelles
c. microtubules – thickest; made up of tubulin; helps determine cell shape and function;
movement of chromosomes during cell division
d. centrosome – forms centrioles; made up of tubulin
e. cilia – motile, short, hair-like projection; found in the tracheal wall and fallopian tube
f. flagella – motile, longer than ciliary  projection; sperm cells
 
 
CYTOSKELETON
Centriole/ centrosome
cilia
 
 
2. golgi apparatus/ body/ complex
- checks for quality of products manufactured by the cell
- cis-trans face (entry-exit points); forms secretory vesicles for transport
- double membrane organelle; made up of cisternae
 
 
3. mitochondria (plural)/mitochondrion (singular)
- powerhouse of the cell
- where energy production occurs
- sausage-shaped; made up of coils of cristae; double membrane
 
 
4. endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
- synthesizing units; double membrane; made up of  cisternae
2 types:  
 1. smooth ER – for lipid synthesis, detoxification of drugs and alcohols, metabolism of fats
2. rough ER – with attached ribosomes; where protein synthesis occurs
 
5. ribosomes – 2 types: attached (to ER) and free; where proteins are synthesized
 
 6. lysosomes – suicidal bags (due to acidity of its contents leakage can cause damage to the
entire cell;
example: neutrophils (WBC); contains hydrolytic enzymes which digests materials; webbing of
fetus’ hands forms fingers due to suicide of lysossomes (autophagy)
 
 
7. peroxisomes – transforms toxic H2O2 to water (nontoxic) upon lipid metabolism
 
C. NUCLEUS
 - the brain  of the cell; it directs the cell’s activities
-  enclosed by a nuclear envelope (double membrane)
-  materials from nucleus pass through  the nuclear pore
-  nucleolus – contains chromatin material (DNA and RNA) needed for reproduction and for
protein synthesis; during cell division chromatin material forms chromosomes for mitosis and
meiosis.
 
  
 
                           Nucleus with nucleolus
Figure 1. Cell structure
 
Vacuole
Vacuoles are large empty appearing areas found
in the cytoplasm. They are usually found in plant cells where they store waste. As a plant cell
ages they get larger. In mature cells they  occupy most of the cytoplasm.
 
  
Chloroplast
Traps suns energy and
Makes food
Location:  in plant cells
 Plastids
Stores extra food in
Plant cells
Location:  in plant cell

THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE

Protoplasm – refers to the substance associated with life- substance out of which cells and
organisms are made  

  The basic chemical components that made up the protoplasm are almost the same in almost
all cells but they vary in proportion CHEMICAL COMPOSITION

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1. INORGANC COMPOUNDS

•Are compounds that do not contain hydrocarbon. It also includes the oxides and sulfides of
carbon

A.WATER

-The most abundant protoplasmic compound ranging from 35-90% of the weight of the
protoplasm

-It is about 60-90%of most living organisms

-By far, oxygen,hydrogen and carbon are the most abundant elements in the body and account
for 93% of its weight. Much of the oxygen and hydrogen is linked together as water molecules

CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER THAT IS IMPORTANT TO THE CELL:

1.Universal solvent

2.Favors dissociation of an electrolyte

3.Has a great fluidity which serves as a vehicle for transport of materials

4.High surfae tension

5.High specific heat

  

B. MINERAL & MINERAL SALTS

  -present in the form of cat-ions and anions.

 * Cat-ions

  - K+ and Na+- for conduction of nerve impulse

  - Mg+2 and Ca+2- for muscular contraction

  - Fe +2- for red blood cell formation

  * Anions

  - PO4 - - necessary for nucleic acid formation

  - HCO3- - Control of pH in the blood

 C. GASES

  - the most abundant are oxygen and carbon dioxide

* Carbon dioxide – carried in three ways:

1. 5% in solution in the plasma as carbonic acid

2. 10% in combination with amino groups of hemoglobin

3. 85% in the form of sodium and potassium bicarbonates (blood salts both in the plasma and
RBC

* Oxygen 

-Carried by erythrocytes and partly by the plasma necessary during the oxidation process.

2. ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

  - compounds that contain carbon except for the oxides and sulfides of carbon.

  - The source of the vast diversity of organic molecules found in living things is the bonding
capacity of just one of the 92 naturally occurring elements - CARBON

 * Because life is built largely of Carbon atoms, macromolecules are large carbon-carbon
molecules

•In building large macromolecules carbon usually combines with other carbons, H, O, N, P and
sulfur, leading to almost endless variety of organic (carbon based) molecules

Organic Molecules fall into 4 groupings:

1. Carbohydrates

2. Lipids

3. Proteins

4. Nucleic Acids

Carbohydrates

<span>Role</span>: energy storage, structural role

Not all carbons are macromolecules- some are small: Simple sugars
 

1.Monosaccharides

  - simple sugar with one 6-carbon sugars

  - E.g., glucose, dextrose, galactose, fructose and pentose (constituents of nucleic acids and
nucleotides such as deoxyribose and ribose sugars)

2. Oligosaccharides (mostly disaccharides)

  -   double sugar with two 6-carbon sugars

  Examples:

  Glucose + galactose = lactose

  Glucose + fructose = sucrose

  Glucose + glucose = maltose

3. Polysaccharides

  - a combination of more than 2 monosaccharides that is, a straight or branched chain of

hundreds or thousands of sugar units of the same or different kinds

  Examples:

1.Cellulose – the structural material in plant cell wall and consists of 2,000 united glucose units

2.Glycogen – glucose-storage form that serves as reserve food for animals and is made up of
12-16 glucose units

3.Starch- glucose- storage form that serves as reseve food for plants and is made up of 24-26
glucose units

Lipids: Fats & Oils

 
  -insoluble in water, but soluble in organic solvents such as chloroform

  -nonpolar and hence hydrophobic

  - contain higher proportion of hydrogen and much smaller proportion  oxygen

  - chemically composed of  C, H, and O but they may also contain other elements,particularly
phosphorus and nitrogen

 Examples include: Oils (olive, corn…),Waxes (bee’s, ear),Fats

  Functions:

1.True fats furnish concentated fuel of high-energy value and represent an economical form of
storage reserves in the body

2. Some phospholipids form part of the basic protoplasmic structure

Classes of lipids

1.Fatty acids

  - has a long unbranched carbon backbone with a –COOH group at the end

  -in living organisms usually contain an even number of carbon atoms 

-The length of the chain affects the fluidity of the molecule; short chains are fluid at room
temperature whereas long-chained fatty acids tend to be solid

--C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-COOH

-Examples of lipids with fatty acids are:

-1. glycerides – the body’s most abundant lipids and its richest surce of energy. With 1,2 or 3
fatty acid tails attached to a backbone of glycerol

-2. Saturated fats- including butter and lard, which tend to be solids at room temperature.
Saturated means all the C atoms in the fatty acid tails are joined by single C-C bonds ans as
many H atoms as possible are linked to them

 3. Unsaturated fats or oil

   - tend to be liquid at room temperature. One or more double bonds occur between the C
atoms in the fatty acid tails

  - It is liquid because the double bonds create a “kink” that disrupt packing between tails
thereby making the molecules less densely packed and move about more freely

  - some amounts of unsaturated fats are important in nutrition (e.g., lenoleic acid for rats)

 Saturated & Unsaturated F.A.

Fatty Acids–Saturated, Unsaturated

4. Waxes

  – Some wax secretions form coatings that help protect, lubricate, and maintain the pliability of
skin and hair while other help make feathers water repellant

II.Fats or triglycerides

  - fat molecules have twice as much energy per unit weight as CHO, which is why the body’s
energy requirements are met much more readily on a high-fat diet

  

Functions:

1.Important as energy-storage molecules in living organisms

2. Provide insulation, cushioning and protection for various parts of the body

Composed of  (building blocks):

1.Glycerol

  - also called glycerin with a backbone of 3 carbon atoms, each with hydroxyl group

2. 3 fatty acids

  - formed by condensation reaction or dehydration synthesis (reaction joining 2 compounds

with resultant formation of water) of glycerol and 3 fatty acids
 

Fatty Acids–Cis, Trans, Saturated

  -In general, animal fats tend to be saturated while most vegetable fats (oil) are unsaturated.

III. Phospholipids

  - are lipids wherein the phosphate group substituted for one of the 3 FA

  - among the most common are those composed of 1 unit of glycerol, 2 units of FA and 1
phosphate group

  are sometimes calleed “schizophrenic” molecules because of their split personality-one end is
soluble in water and the other end is not.

  - The main structural  component of the cell membrane

  Phospholipids

 IV. Steroids

  -differ markedly from fats, oils, and phospholipids and are not formed from condensation
reactions between FA and alcohols

  - composed of 4 linked rings of C atoms with various side groups attached to the rings

  - are classified as lipids because they are also soluble in organic solvents and relatively
insoluble in water

Cholesterol is a steroid that is:

1. Important constituent of mammalian cell membranes

 2. Used in the synthesis of vitamin D and certain hormones (e.g., sex hormones)

 3. Proteins

-Far more complex than carbohydrates and lipids

-Play a leading role in both the structure and function of living organisms
-Contains four essential elements: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen;most proteins also
contain some sulfur.These elements are bonded together through condensation reaction to
form the building block molecules called amino acids   ` 

 Fibrous protein (e.g., collagen)

 Functions:

1.Major components of muscles and are responsible for muscle contraction (contractile
proteins like actin & myosin)

2.For structural support

A. Elastin- gives the skin its elasticity

B. Keratin- The principal protein of hair, horns and claws including the silk of spider webs &
silkmoth cocoons

3. Energy storage (albumin in eggs and casein in milk)

4. For oxygen transport in blood (hemoglobin)

5. Immune response (antibodies)

 6. Hormones (a control chemical sceted in one part of the body that effects other parts of the
body) – e.g., insulin & growth hormones

7. Catalysts of biological reaction (protein enzymes guide all chemica reactions that occur inside
the cell)

8. Poison (rattlesnake venom)

4. Nucleic acid

  -are the materials of which genes are made of

  - they are also the messenger substances that convey information that governs the synthesis
of proteins amd thereby determines the structural attributes of the cell and regulates the cell’s
other functional activities

 
 -Composed of the building blocks called nucleotides that are composed of: 5-carbon sugar, a
phosphate group, and an organic nitrogen-containing base. Both the phosphate group and
nitrogeneous base are covalently bonded to the sugar

-- deoxyribonucleic acid acid (DNA) is the nucleic acid most genes are made of. It is compose of
the following:

-1. Deoxyribose (the sugar component)

-2. Nitrogeneous bases

-A. Purine(Double-ring structure)

-1. adenine  2.guanine

B. Pyrimidines (Single-ring structure)

1.Cytosine  2. thymine

Nitrogeneous base pairing

Adenine-thymine A-T

Guanine-cytosine G-C

2. RNA (Ribonuceic acid)

Nitrogeneous base pairing

Adenine – uracil A-U

Guanine – cytosine G-C