SAP2000 ®

Integrated
Finite Element Analysis
and
Design of Structures

CONCRETE DESIGN MANUAL

COMPUTERS &
STRUCTURES
INC.

Computers and Structures, Inc. Version 7.0

Berkeley, California, USA Revised August 1998
 COPYRIGHT

The computer program SAP2000 and all associated documentation are

proprietary and copyrighted products. Worldwide rights of ownership
rest with Computers and Structures, Inc. Unlicensed use of the program
or reproduction of the documentation in any form, without prior written
authorization from Computers and Structures, Inc., is explicitly prohib-
ited.
Further information and copies of this documentation may be obtained
from:

Computers and Structures, Inc.

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© Copyright Computers and Structures, Inc., 1978–1998.

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SAP2000 is a registered trademark of Computers and Structures, Inc.
 DISCLAIMER

CONSIDERABLE TIME, EFFORT AND EXPENSE HAVE GONE

INTO THE DEVELOPMENT AND DOCUMENTATION OF
SAP2000. THE PROGRAM HAS BEEN THOROUGHLY TESTED
AND USED. IN USING THE PROGRAM, HOWEVER, THE USER
ACCEPTS AND UNDERSTANDS THAT NO WARRANTY IS EX-
PRESSED OR IMPLIED BY THE DEVELOPERS OR THE DIS-
TRIBUTORS ON THE ACCURACY OR THE RELIABILITY OF
THE PROGRAM.
THIS PROGRAM IS A VERY PRACTICAL TOOL FOR THE DE-
SIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES. HOWEVER,
THE USER MUST THOROUGHLY READ THE MANUAL AND
CLEARLY RECOGNIZE THE ASPECTS OF REINFORCED CON-
CRETE DESIGN THAT THE PROGRAM ALGORITHMS DO NOT
ADDRESS.
THE USER MUST EXPLICITLY UNDERSTAND THE ASSUMP-
TIONS OF THE PROGRAM AND MUST INDEPENDENTLY VER-
IFY THE RESULTS.
.
 Table of Contents

CHAPTER I Introduction 1
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Recommended Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

CHAPTER II Design Algorithms 5

Design Load Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Design and Check Stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Identifying Beams and Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Design of Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Design of Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
P-∆ Effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Element Unsupported Lengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Special Considerations for Seismic Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Choice of Input Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

CHAPTER III Design for ACI 318-95 15

Design Load Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Strength Reduction Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Column Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Generation of Biaxial Interaction Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Check Column Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Determine Factored Moments and Forces. . . . . . . . . . . 21
Determine Moment Magnification Factors . . . . . . . . . . 21
Determine Capacity Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Design Column Shear Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Determine Section Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

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SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

Determine Concrete Shear Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Determine Required Shear Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . 28
Beam Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Design Beam Flexural Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Determine Factored Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Determine Required Flexural Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . 29
Design Beam Shear Reinforcement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Determine Shear Force and Moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Determine Concrete Shear Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Determine Required Shear Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . 38

CHAPTER IV Design for AASHTO LRFD 1997 41

Design Load Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Strength Reduction Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Column Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Generation of Biaxial Interaction Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Check Column Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Determine Factored Moments and Forces. . . . . . . . . . . 48
Determine Moment Magnification Factors . . . . . . . . . . 49
Determine Capacity Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Design Column Shear Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Determine Section Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Determine Concrete Shear Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Determine Required Shear Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . 53
Beam Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Design Beam Flexural Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Determine Factored Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Determine Required Flexural Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . 58
Design Beam Shear Reinforcement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Determine Shear Force and Moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Determine Concrete Shear Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Determine Required Shear Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . 65

CHAPTER V Design for CSA-A23.3-94 69

Design Load Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Strength Reduction Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Column Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Generation of Biaxial Interaction Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Check Column Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Determine Factored Moments and Forces. . . . . . . . . . . 75
Determine Moment Magnification Factors . . . . . . . . . . 75
Determine Capacity Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Design Column Shear Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Determine Section Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Determine Concrete Shear Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

ii
 Table of Contents

Determine Required Shear Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . 82

Beam Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Design Beam Flexural Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Determine Factored Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Determine Required Flexural Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . 86
Design Beam Shear Reinforcement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Determine Shear Force and Moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Determine Concrete Shear Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Determine Required Shear Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . 96

CHAPTER VI Design for BS 8110-85 R1989 99

Design Load Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Design Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Column Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Generation of Biaxial Interaction Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Check Column Capacity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Determine Factored Moments and Forces . . . . . . . . . . 105
Determine Additional Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Determine Capacity Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Design Column Shear Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Beam Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Design Beam Flexural Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Determine Factored Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Determine Required Flexural Reinforcement . . . . . . . . 110
Design Beam Shear Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

CHAPTER VII Design for Eurocode 2 117

Design Load Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Design Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Column Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Generation of Biaxial Interaction Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Check Column Capacity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Determine Factored Moments and Forces . . . . . . . . . . 123
Determine Code Total Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Determine Capacity Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Design Column Shear Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Beam Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Design Beam Flexural Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Determine Factored Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Determine Required Flexural Reinforcement . . . . . . . . 129
Design Beam Shear Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

CHAPTER VIII Design for NZS 3101-95 137

Design Load Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

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SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

Strength Reduction Factors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

Column Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Generation of Biaxial Interaction Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Check Column Capacity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Determine Factored Moments and Forces . . . . . . . . . . 144
Determine Moment Magnification Factors . . . . . . . . . 144
Dynamic Moment Magnification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Determine Capacity Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Design Column Shear Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Determine Section Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Determine Concrete Shear Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Determine Required Shear Reinforcement. . . . . . . . . . 151
Beam Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Design Beam Flexural Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Determine Factored Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Determine Required Flexural Reinforcement . . . . . . . . 155
Design Beam Shear Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Determine Shear Force and Moment. . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Determine Concrete Shear Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Determine Required Shear Reinforcement. . . . . . . . . . 164

CHAPTER IX Design Output 169

Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Graphical Display of Design Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Tabular Display of Design Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Member Specific Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

References 177
Index 179

iv
 Chapter I

Introduction

Overview
SAP2000 features powerful and completely integrated modules for design of both
steel and reinforced concrete structures (CSI 1998a, 1998b, 1997). The program
provides the user with options to create, modify, analyze and design structural mod-
els, all from within the same user interface.

The program provides an interactive environment in which the user can study the
stress conditions, make appropriate changes, such as member size revisions, and
update the design without re-analyzing the structure. A single mouse click on an
element brings up detailed design information. Members can be grouped together
for design purposes. The output in both graphical and tabulated formats can be
readily displayed and printed.

The program is structured to support a wide variety of design codes for the auto-
mated design and check of concrete frame members. The program currently sup-
ports the following design codes: U.S. (ACI 1995, AASHTO 1997), Canadian
(CSA 1994), British (BSI 1989), European (CEN 1992), and New Zealand (NZS
3101-95).

The design is based upon a set of user-specified loading combinations. However,

the program provides a set of default load combinations for each design code sup-

Overview 1
SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

ported in SAP2000. If the default load combinations are acceptable, no definition of

additional load combinations are required.

In the design of the columns, the program calculates the required longitudinal and
shear reinforcement. However the user may specify the longitudinal steel, in which
case a column capacity ratio is reported. The column capacity ratio gives an indica-
tion of the stress condition with respect to the capacity of the column.

Every beam member is designed for flexure and shear at a user defined number of
stations along the beam span.

The presentation of the output is clear and concise. The information is in a form that
allows the engineer to take appropriate remedial measures in the event of member
overstress. Backup design information produced by the program is also provided
for convenient verification of the results.

English as well as SI and MKS metric units can be used to define the model geome-
try and to specify design parameters.

Organization
This manual is organized in the following way:

Chapter II outlines various aspects of the concrete design procedures of the

SAP2000 program. This chapter describes the common terminology of concrete
design as implemented in SAP2000.

Each of six subsequent chapters gives a detailed description of a specific code of

practice as interpreted by and implemented in SAP2000. Each chapter describes the
design loading combination, column and beam design procedures, and other spe-
cial consideration required by the code.

Chapter III gives a detailed description of the ACI code (ACI 1995) as implemented
in SAP2000.

Chapter IV gives a detailed description of the AASHTO LRFD concrete code

(AASHTO 1997) as implemented in SAP2000.

Chapter V gives a detailed description of the Canadian code (CSA 1994) as imple-
mented in SAP2000.

Chapter VI gives a detailed description of the British code (BSI 1989) as imple-
mented in SAP2000.

2 Organization
 Chapter I Introduction

Chapter VII gives a detailed description of the Eurocode 2 (CEN 1992) as imple-
mented in SAP2000.

Chapter VIII gives a detailed description of the New Zealand code (NZS 1997) as
implemented in SAP2000.

Chapter IX outlines various aspects of the tabular and graphical output from
SAP2000 related to concrete design.

Recommended Reading
It is recommended that the user read Chapter II “Design Algorithms” and one of six
subsequent chapters corresponding to the code of interest to the user. Finally the
user should read “Design Output” in Chapter IX for understanding and interpreting
SAP2000 output related to concrete design.

A concrete design tutorial is presented in the chapter “Concrete Design Tutorial” in

the SAP2000 Quick Tutorial manual. It is recommended that first time users fol-
low through the steps of this tutorial before reading this manual.

Recommended Reading 3
.
 C h a p t e r II

Design Algorithms

This chapter outlines various aspects of the concrete design and design-check pro-
cedures that are used by the SAP2000 program. The concrete design and check may
be performed in SAP2000 according to one of the following design codes:

• The 1995 American Concrete Institute Building Code Requirements for Struc-
tural Concrete, ACI 318-95 (ACI 1995).
• The 1997 Amerian Association of State Highway and Tranportation Officials
AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, AASHTO LRFD 1997
(AASHTO 1997).
• The 1994 Canadian Standards Association Design of Concrete Structures for
Buildings, CSA-A23.3-94 (CSA 1994).
• The 1989 British Standards Institution Structural Use of Concrete, BS 8110-85
R1989 (BSI 1989).
• The 1992 European Committee for Standardization, Design of Concrete Struc-
tures, EUROCODE 2 (CEN 1992).
• The 1995 Standards New Zealand Concrete Structures Standard, NZS 3101-95
(NZS 1995).

5
SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

Details of the algorithms associated with each of these codes as implemented in

SAP2000 are described in the subsequent chapters. However, this chapter provides
a background which is common to all the design codes.

In writing this manual it has been assumed that the user has an engineering back-
ground in the general area of structural reinforced concrete design and familiarity
with at least one of the above mentioned design codes.

For referring to pertinent sections of the corresponding code, a unique prefix is as-
signed for each code. For example, all references to the AASHTO code are pre-
ceded by the word “AASHTO”. Similarly,

– References to the ACI 318-95 code has the prefix of “ACI”

– References to the Canadian code carry the prefix of “CSA”
– References to the British code carry the prefix of “BS”
– References to the Eurocode 2 carry the prefix of “EC2”
– References to the New Zealand code carry the prefix of “NZS”

Design Load Combinations

The design load combinations are used for determining the various combinations of
the load cases for which the structure needs to be designed/checked. The load com-
bination factors to be used vary with the selected design code. The load combina-
tion factors are applied to the forces and moments obtained from the associated load
cases and are then summed to obtain the factored design forces and moments for the
load combination.

For multi-valued load combinations involving response spectrum, time history,

moving loads and multi-valued combinations (of type enveloping, square-root of
the sum of the squares or absolute) where any correspondence between interacting
quantities is lost, the program automatically produces multiple sub combinations
using maxima/minima permutations of interacting quantities. Separate combina-
tions with negative factors for response spectrum cases are not required because the
program automatically takes the minima to be the negative of the maxima for re-
sponse spectrum cases and the above described permutations generate the required
sub combinations.

When a design combination involves only a single multi-valued case of time his-
tory or moving load, further options are available. The program has an option to re-
quest that time history combinations produce sub combinations for each time step
of the time history. Also an option is available to request that moving load combina-

6 Design Load Combinations

 Chapter II Design Algorithms

tions produce sub combinations using maxima and minima of each design quantity
but with corresponding values of interacting quantities.

For normal loading conditions involving static dead load, live load, wind load, and
earthquake load, and/or dynamic response spectrum earthquake load the program
has built-in default loading combinations for each design code. These are based on
the code recommendations and are documented for each code in the corresponding
chapters.

For other loading conditions involving moving load, time history, pattern live
loads, separate consideration of roof live load, snow load, etc., the user must define
design loading combinations either in lieu of or in addition to the default design
loading combinations.

The default load combinations assume all static load cases declared as dead load to
be additive. Similarly, all cases declared as live load are assumed additive. How-
ever, each static load case declared as wind or earthquake, or response spectrum
cases, is assumed to be non additive with each other and produces multiple lateral
load combinations. Also wind and static earthquake cases produce separate loading
combinations with the sense (positive or negative) reversed. If these conditions are
not correct, the user must provide the appropriate design combinations.

The default load combinations are included in design if the user requests them to be
included or if no other user defined combination is available for concrete design. If
any default combination is included in design, then all default combinations will
automatically be updated by the program any time the design code is changed or if
static or response spectrum load cases are modified.

Live load reduction factors can be applied to the member forces of the live load case
on an element-by-element basis to reduce the contribution of the live load to the
factored loading.

The user is cautioned that if moving load or time history results are not requested to
be recovered in the analysis for some or all the frame members, then the effects of
these loads will be assumed to be zero in any combination that includes them.

Design and Check Stations

For each load combination, each element is designed or checked at a number of lo-
cations along the length of the element. The locations are based on equally spaced
segments along the clear length of the element. The number of segments in an ele-
ment is requested by the user before the analysis is made. The user can refine the de-
sign along the length of an element by requesting more segments.

Design and Check Stations 7

SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

Identifying Beams and Columns

Since SAP2000 is a general purpose analysis and design program, all beams and
columns are represented as frame elements. But design of beams and columns re-
quires separate treatment. Identification for a concrete element is done by specify-
ing the frame section assigned to the element to be of type beam or column.

Design of Beams
In the design of concrete beams, in general, SAP2000 calculates and reports the re-
quired areas of steel for flexure and shear based upon the beam moments, shears,
load combination factors, and other criteria which are described in detail in the code
specific chapters. The reinforcement requirements are calculated at a user-defined
number of stations along the beam span.

All the beams are only designed for major direction flexure and shear. Effects due
to any axial forces, minor direction bending, and torsion that may exist in the beams
must be investigated independently by the user.

In designing the flexural reinforcement for the major moment at a particular section
of a particular beam, the steps involve the determination of the maximum factored
moments and the determination of the reinforcing steel. The beam section is de-
signed for the maximum positive M and maximum negative M factored moment
+
u
-
u

envelopes obtained from all of the load combinations. Negative beam moments
produce top steel. In such cases the beam is always designed as a rectangular sec-
tion. Positive beam moments produce bottom steel. In such cases the beam may be
designed as a rectangular- or a T-beam. For the design of flexural reinforcement,
the beam is first designed as a singly reinforced beam. If the beam section is not
adequate, then the required compression reinforcement is calculated.
In designing the shear reinforcement for a particular beam for a particular set of
loading combinations at a particular station due to the beam major shear, the steps
involve the determination of the factored shear force, the determination of the shear
force that can be resisted by concrete, and the determination of the reinforcement
steel required to carry the balance.

Special considerations for seismic design are incorporated in SAP2000 for ACI,
Canadian, and New Zealand codes.

8 Identifying Beams and Columns

 Chapter II Design Algorithms

Design of Columns
In the design of the columns, the program calculates the required longitudinal steel,
or if the longitudinal steel is specified, the column stress condition is reported in
terms of a column capacity ratio, which is a factor that gives an indication of the
stress condition of the column with respect to the capacity of the column. The de-
sign procedure for the reinforced concrete columns of the structure involves the fol-
lowing steps:

• Generate axial force-biaxial moment interaction surfaces for all of the different
concrete section types of the model. A typical interaction surface is shown in
Figure II-1.
Axial compression
+P0

Pmax

Curve #1 Pbx Curve #NRCV

Pby
Curve #2

M bx 3 M by
2
1

My
Mx

-P0

Axial tension

Figure II-1
A Typical Column Interaction Surface

Design of Columns 9
SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

• Check the capacity of each column for the factored axial force and bending mo-
ments obtained from each loading combination at each end of the column. This
step is also used to calculate the required reinforcement (if none was specified)
that will produce a capacity ratio of 1.0.
• Design the column shear reinforcement.

The generation of the interaction surface is based on the assumed strain and stress
distributions and some other simplifying assumptions. These stress and strain dis-
tributions and the assumptions vary from code to code. A typical assumed strain
distribution is described in Figure II-2.
Varying Linear
Strain Plane
−ε

0
εc
Reinforcement +ε
Bars DIRECTION 1

εc
−ε 0
εc Neutral Axis
Direction
Varying Linear
Strain Plane +ε

εc

DIRECTION 2

Reinforcement 3 2
Bars
Neutral Axis
Direction a a 1

0 εc
−ε +ε

εc
Varying Linear
Strain Plane DIRECTION 3

Neutral Axis
Reinforcement Direction
Bars

Figure II-2
Idealized Strain Distribution for Generation of Interaction Surfaces

10 Design of Columns
 Chapter II Design Algorithms

Here maximum compression strain is limited to ε . For most of the design codes,
c

this assumed distribution remains valid. However, the value of ε varies from code
c

to code. For example, ε = 0.003 for ACI, AASHTO and New Zealand codes, and
c

ε = 0.0035for Canadian, British and European codes. The details of the generation
c

of interaction surfaces differ from code to code. These are described in the chapters
specific to the code.

The capacity check is based on whether the design load points lie inside the interac-
tion volume in a force space, as shown in Figure II-3. If the point lies inside the vol-
ume, the column capacity is adequate, and vice versa.

The shear reinforcement design procedure for columns is very similar to that for
beams, except that the effect of the axial force on the concrete shear capacity needs
to be considered.
Axial Compression

Lines Defining
Failure Surface

C
L
o
P
Mx
My

MX MY

Axial Tension

Figure II-3
Geometric Representation of Column Capacity Ratio

Design of Columns 11
SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

P-∆ Effects
The SAP2000 design algorithms require that the analysis results include the P-∆ ef-
fects. The P-∆ effects are considered differently for “braced” or “nonsway” and
“unbraced” or “sway” components of moments in columns or frames. For the
braced moments in columns, the effect of P-∆ is limited to “individual member sta-
bility”. For unbraced components, “lateral drift effects” should be considered in ad-
dition to individual member stability effect. In SAP2000, it is assumed that
“braced” or “nonsway” moments are contributed from the “dead” or “live” loads.
Whereas, “unbraced” or “sway” moments are contributed from all other types of
loads.

For the individual member stability effects, the moments are magnified with mo-
ment magnification factors as in the ACI, AASHTO, Canadian, and New Zealand
codes or with additional moments as in the British and European codes.

For lateral drift effects, SAP2000 assumes that the P-∆ analysis is performed and
that the amplification is already included in the results. The moments and forces ob-
tained from P-∆ analysis are further amplified for individual column stability effect
if required by the governing code as in the ACI, Canadian, and New Zealand codes.

The users of SAP2000 should be aware that the default analysis option in SAP2000
is turned OFF for P-∆ effect. The user can turn the P-∆ analysis ON and set the
maximum number of iterations for the analysis. The default number of iteration for
P-∆ analysis is 1. For further reference, the user is referred to SAP2000 Analysis
Reference manual.

The user is also cautioned that SAP2000 currently considers P-∆ effects due to axial
loads in frame members only. Forces in other types of elements do not contribute to
this effect. If significant forces are present in other type of elements, for example,
huge axial loads in shear walls which are modeled as shell elements, then the addi-
tional forces computed for P-∆ will not be accurate.

Element Unsupported Lengths

To account for column slenderness effects the column unsupported lengths are re-
quired. The two unsupported lengths are l and l . These are the lengths between
33 22

support points of the element in the corresponding directions. The length l corre-
33

sponds to instability about the 3-3 axis (major axis), and l corresponds to instabil-
22

ity about the 2-2 axis (minor axis).

12 P-∆ Effects
 Chapter II Design Algorithms

Normally, the unsupported element length is equal to the length of the element, i.e.,
the distance between END-I and END-J of the element. See Figure II-4. Therefore,
extraneous joints, as shown in Figure II-5, affect the unsupported length of an ele-
ment.

In determining the values for l and l of the elements, the program needs to recog-
22 33

nize various aspects of the structure that have an effect on these lengths, such as
member connectivity, diaphragm constraints and support points.

The program currently does not have an algorithm to trace the member sunsup-
ported length from the element lengths and support conditions. The member length
is taken as the element length. So if a member is composed of multiple frame ele-
ments, the unsupported length would not be correct. The user, however, has options
to specify the unsupported length of the elements explicitly on an element-by-
element basis.
2

l33 xis
n tA
me 1
Ele
J
D
EN

I l22
D
EN
3

Figure II-4
Axes of Bending and Unsupported Length

Special Considerations for Seismic Loads

The ACI code imposes a special ductility requirement for frames in seismic regions
by specifying frames either as Ordinary, Intermediate, or Special moment resisting

Special Considerations for Seismic Loads

13
SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

frames. The Special moment resisting frame can provide the required ductility and
energy dissipation in the nonlinear range of cyclic deformation. The AASHTO
code requires that the concrete frame must be in either Zone 1, Zone 2, Zone 3, or
Zone 4, where Zone 4 is designated as the zone of severe earthquake. The Canadian
code requires that the concrete frame must be designed as either an Ordinary,
Nominal, or Ductile moment resisting frame. The New Zealand code also requires
that the concrete frame must be designed as either an Ordinary, Elastically respond-
ing, frames with Limited ductility, or Ductile moment resisting frame.

Unlike the ACI, AASHTO, Canadian, and New Zealand codes, the current imple-
mentation of the British code and the Eurocode 2 in SAP2000 does not account for
any special requirements for seismic design.

Figure II-5
Unsupported Lengths and Interior Nodes

Choice of Input Units

English as well as SI and MKS metric units can be used for input. But the codes are
based on a specific system of units. All equations and descriptions presented in the
subsequent chapters correspond to that specific system of units unless otherwise
noted. For example, the ACI code is published in inch-pound-second units. By de-
fault, all equations and descriptions presented in the chapter “Design for ACI 318-
95” correspond to inch-pound-second units. However, any system of units can be
used to define and design the structure in SAP2000.

14 Choice of Input Units

 C h a p t e r III

Design for ACI 318-95

This chapter describes in detail the various aspects of the concrete design procedure
that is used by SAP2000 when the user selects the ACI 318-95 Design Code (ACI
1995). Various notations used in this chapter are listed in Table III-1.

The design is based on user-specified loading combinations. But the program pro-
vides a set of default load combinations that should satisfy requirements for the de-
sign of most building type structures.

SAP2000 provides options to design or check Ordinary, Intermediate (moderate

seismic risk areas), and Special (high seismic risk areas) moment resisting frames
as required for seismic design provisions. The details of the design criteria used for
the different framing systems are described in the following sections.

English as well as SI and MKS metric units can be used for input. But the code is
based on Inch-Pound-Second units. For simplicity, all equations and descriptions
presented in this chapter correspond to Inch-Pound-Second units unless otherwise
noted.

Design Load Combinations

The design load combinations are the various combinations of the prescribed load
cases for which the structure needs to be checked. For the ACI 318-95 code, if a

Design Load Combinations 15

SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

A cv
Area of concrete used to determine shear stress, sq-in
A g
Gross area of concrete, sq-in
A s
Area of tension reinforcement, sq-in
A′ s
Area of compression reinforcement, sq-in
A s ( required )
Area of steel required for tension reinforcement, sq-in
A st
Total area of column longitudinal reinforcement, sq-in
A v
Area of shear reinforcement, sq-in
a Depth of compression block, in
a b
Depth of compression block at balanced condition, in
b Width of member, in
b f
Effective width of flange (T-Beam section), in
b w
Width of web (T-Beam section), in
C m
Coefficient, dependent upon column curvature, used to calculate mo-
ment magnification factor
c Depth to neutral axis, in
c b
Depth to neutral axis at balanced conditions, in
d Distance from compression face to tension reinforcement, in
d′ Concrete cover to center of reinforcing, in
d s
Thickness of slab (T-Beam section), in
E c
Modulus of elasticity of concrete, psi
E s
Modulus of elasticity of reinforcement, assumed as 29,000,000 psi
f′ c
Specified compressive strength of concrete, psi
f y
Specified yield strength of flexural reinforcement, psi
f ys
Specified yield strength of shear reinforcement, psi
h Dimension of column, in
I g
Moment of inertia of gross concrete section about centroidal axis, ne-
glecting reinforcement, in4
I se
Moment of inertia of reinforcement about centroidal axis of
member cross section, in4
k Effective length factor

Table III-1
List of Symbols Used in the ACI code

16 Design Load Combinations

 Chapter III Design for ACI 318-95

L Clear unsupported length, in

M 1
Smaller factored end moment in a column, lb-in
M 2
Larger factored end moment in a column, lb-in
M c
Factored moment to be used in design, lb-in
M ns
Nonsway component of factored end moment, lb-in
M s
Sway component of factored end moment, lb-in
M u
Factored moment at section, lb-in
M ux
Factored moment at section about X-axis, lb-in
M uy
Factored moment at section about Y-axis, lb-in
Pb
Axial load capacity at balanced strain conditions, lb
Pc
Critical buckling strength of column, lb
Pmax
Maximum axial load strength allowed, lb
P0
Axial load capacity at zero eccentricity, lb
Pu
Factored axial load at section, lb
r Radius of gyration of column section, in
Vc
Shear resisted by concrete, lb
VE
Shear force caused by earthquake loads, lb
V +
D L
Shear force from span loading, lb
Vu
Factored shear force at a section, lb
Vp
Shear force computed from probable moment capacity, lb
α Reinforcing steel overstrength factor
β 1
Factor for obtaining depth of compression block in concrete
β d
Absolute value of ratio of maximum factored axial dead load to maxi-
mum factored axial total load
δs
Moment magnification factor for sway moments
δns
Moment magnification factor for nonsway moments
εc
Strain in concrete
εs
Strain in reinforcing steel
ϕ Strength reduction factor

Table III-1
List of Symbols Used in the ACI code (continued)

Design Load Combinations 17

SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

structure is subjected to dead load (DL) and live load (LL) only, the stress check
may need only one load combination, namely 1.4 DL + 1.7 LL (ACI 9.2.1). How-
ever, in addition to the dead and live loads, if the structure is subjected to wind
(WL) and earthquake (EL) loads, and considering that wind and earthquake forces
are reversible, then the following load combinations have to be considered (ACI
9.2).

1.4 DL
1.4 DL + 1.7 LL (ACI 9.2.1)

0.9 DL ± 1.3 WL
0.75 (1.4 DL + 1.7 LL ± 1.7 WL) (ACI 9.2.2)

0.9 DL ± 1.3 * 1.1 EL

0.75 (1.4 DL + 1.7 LL ± 1.7 * 1.1 EL) (ACI 9.2.3)

These are also the default design load combinations in SAP2000 whenever the ACI
318-95 code is used.

Live load reduction factors can be applied to the member forces of the live load
condition on an element-by-element basis to reduce the contribution of the live load
to the factored loading.

Strength Reduction Factors

The strength reduction factors, ϕ, are applied on the nominal strength to obtain the
design strength provided by a member. The ϕ factors for flexure, axial force, shear,
and torsion are as follows:

ϕ = 0.90 for flexure, (ACI 9.3.2.1)

ϕ = 0.90 for axial tension, (ACI 9.3.2.2)

ϕ = 0.90 for axial tension and flexure, (ACI 9.3.2.2)

ϕ = 0.75 for axial compression, and axial compression

and flexure (spirally reinforced column), (ACI 9.3.2.2)

ϕ = 0.70 for axial compression, and axial compression

and flexure (tied column), and (ACI 9.3.2.2)

ϕ = 0.85 for shear and torsion. (ACI 9.3.2.3)

18 Strength Reduction Factors

 Chapter III Design for ACI 318-95

Column Design
The user may define the geometry of the reinforcing bar configuration of each con-
crete column section. If the area of reinforcing is provided by the user, the program
checks the column capacity. However, if the area of reinforcing is not provided by
the user, the program calculates the amount of reinforcing required for the column.
The design procedure for the reinforced concrete columns of the structure involves
the following steps:

• Generate axial force-biaxial moment interaction surfaces for all of the different
concrete section types of the model. A typical biaxial interaction surface is
shown in Figure II-1. When the steel is undefined, the program generates the
interaction surfaces for the range of allowable reinforcement C 1 to 8 percent
for Ordinary and Intermediate moment resisting frames (ACI 10.9.1) and 1 to 6
percent for Special moment resisting frames (ACI 21.4.3.1).
• Calculate the capacity ratio or the required reinforcing area for the factored ax-
ial force and biaxial (or uniaxial) bending moments obtained from each loading
combination at each station of the column. The target capacity ratio is taken as
one when calculating the required reinforcing area.
• Design the column shear reinforcement.

The following three subsections describe in detail the algorithms associated with
the above-mentioned steps.

Generation of Biaxial Interaction Surfaces

The column capacity interaction volume is numerically described by a series of dis-
crete points that are generated on the three-dimensional interaction failure surface.
In addition to axial compression and biaxial bending, the formulation allows for ax-
ial tension and biaxial bending considerations. A typical interaction diagram is
shown in Figure II-1.

The coordinates of these points are determined by rotating a plane of linear strain in
three dimensions on the section of the column. See Figure II-2. The linear strain
diagram limits the maximum concrete strain, ε , at the extremity of the section
c

to 0.003 (ACI 10.2.3).

The formulation is based consistently upon the general principles of ultimate

strength design (ACI 10.3), and allows for any doubly symmetric rectangular,
square, or circular column section.

Column Design 19
SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

The stress in the steel is given by the product of the steel strain and the steel modu-
lus of elasticity, ε E , and is limited to the yield stress of the steel, f (ACI 10.2.4).
s s y

The area associated with each reinforcing bar is assumed to be placed at the actual
location of the center of the bar and the algorithm does not assume any further sim-
plifications in the manner in which the area of steel is distributed over the cross sec-
tion of the column, such as an equivalent steel tube or cylinder. See Figure III-1.

0.85 f'c
εc = 0.003
d' 1
εs1 Cs
C a= 1c
c
2
εs2 Cs

εs3 Ts3

εs4 Ts4

(i) Concrete Section (ii) Strain Diagram (iii) Stress Diagram

Figure III-1
Idealization of Stress and Strain Distribution in a Column Section

The concrete compression stress block is assumed to be rectangular, with a stress

value of 0.85 f ′ (ACI 10.2.7.1). See Figure III-1. The interaction algorithm pro-
c

vides correction to account for the concrete area that is displaced by the reinforce-
ment in the compression zone.

The effects of the strength reduction factor, ϕ, are included in the generation of the
interaction surfaces. The maximum compressive axial load is limited to P , where max

P = 0.85 ϕ [ 0.85 f ′ ( A - A ) + f A ] spiral column,

max c g st y st
(ACI 10.3.5.1)

P = 0.80 ϕ [ 0.85 f ′ ( A - A ) + f A ] tied column,

max c g st y st
(ACI 10.3.5.2)

ϕ = 0.70 for tied columns, and

ϕ = 0.75 for spirally reinforced columns.

20 Column Design
 Chapter III Design for ACI 318-95

The value of ϕ used in the interaction diagram varies from ϕ min

to 0.9 based on the
axial load. For low values of axial load, ϕ is increased linearly from ϕ to 0.9 as
min

the axial load decreases from the smaller of 0.1 f ′ A or P to zero, where P is the
c g b b

axial force at the balanced condition. In cases involving axial tension, ϕ is always
0.9 (ACI 9.3.2.2).

Check Column Capacity

The column capacity is checked for each loading combination at each check station
of each column. In checking a particular column for a particular loading combina-
tion at a particular station, the following steps are involved:

• Determine the factored moments and forces from the analysis load cases and
the specified load combination factors to give P , M , and M .
u ux uy

• Determine the moment magnification factors for the column moments.

• Apply the moment magnification factors to the factored moments. Determine
whether the point, defined by the resulting axial load and biaxial moment set,
lies within the interaction volume.

The factored moments and corresponding magnification factors depend on the

identification of the individual column as either “sway” or “non-sway”.

The following three sections describe in detail the algorithms associated with the
above-mentioned steps.

Determine Factored Moments and Forces

The factored loads for a particular load combination are obtained by applying the
corresponding load factors to all the load cases, giving P , M , and M . The fac-
u ux uy

tored moments are further increased for non-sway columns, if required, to obtain
minimum eccentricities of (0.6 + 0.03 h) inches, where h is the dimension of the
column in the corresponding direction (ACI 10.12.3.2).

Determine Moment Magnification Factors

The moment magnification factors are calculated separately for sway (overall sta-
bility effect), δ and for non-sway (individual column stability effect), δ . Also the
s ns

moment magnification factors in the major and minor directions are in general dif-
ferent.

Column Design 21
SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

The program assumes that a P-∆ analysis has been performed in SAP2000 and,
therefore, moment magnification factors for moments causing sidesway are taken
as unity (ACI 10.10.2). For the P-∆ analysis the load should correspond to a load
combination of 0.75 (1.4 dead load + 1.7 live load) / ϕ, where ϕ is the understrength
factor for stability which is taken as 0.75 (ACI 10.12.3). See also White and Hajjar
(1991).

The moment obtained from analysis is separated into two components: the sway
( M ) and the non-sway (M ) components. The non-sway components which are
s ns

identified as “ns” subscripts are predominantly caused by gravity load. The sway
components are identified by the “s” subscripts. The sway moments are predomi-
nantly caused by lateral loads, and are related to the cause of side sway.

For individual columns or column-members in a floor, the magnified moments

about two axes at any station of a column can be obtained as

M = M +δ M .
ns s s
(ACI 10.13.3)

The factor δ is the moment magnification factor for moments causing side sway.
s

The moment magnification factors for sway moments, δ , is taken as 1 because the
s

component moments M and M are obtained from a “second order elastic (P-∆)
s ns

analysis” (ACI R10.13).

The computed moments are further amplified for individual column stability effect
(ACI 10.13.5) by the nonsway moment magnification factor, δ , as follows:
ns

M = δ M , where
c ns 2
(ACI 10.12.3)

M is the factored moment to be used in design, and

c

M is the larger factored and amplified end moment.

2

The non-sway moment magnification factor, δ , associated with the major or mi-
ns

nor direction of the column is given by (ACI 10.12.3)

C
δ = m
≥ 1.0 , where
ns
P
1− u

0.75 P c

π EI
2

P = ,
( kL)
c 2

k is conservatively taken as 1, however SAP2000 allows the user to override

this value, and

22 Column Design
 Chapter III Design for ACI 318-95

EI is associated with a particular column direction given by:

0.4 E I
EI =
c g
,
1+β d

maximum factored axial dead load

β =
d
, and
maximum factored axial total load
M
C = 0.6 + 0.4 ≥ 0.4 .
a
(ACI 10.12.3.1)
M
m
b

M and M are the moments at the ends of the column, and M is numerically
a b b

larger than M . M M is positive for single curvature bending and negative

a a b

for double curvature bending. The above expression ofC is valid if there is no m

transverse load applied between the supports. If transverse load is present on

the span, or the length is overwritten, or for any other case, C = 1. C can be m m

overwritten by the user on an element by element basis.

The magnification factor, δ , must be a positive number and greater than one.
ns

Therefore P must be less than 0.75P . If P is found to be greater than or equal to

u c u

0.75P , a failure condition is declared.

c

The above calculations use the unsupported length of the column. The two unsup-
ported lengths are l and l corresponding to instability in the minor and major di-
22 33

rections of the element, respectively. See Figure II-4. These are the lengths between
the support points of the element in the corresponding directions.

If the program assumptions are not satisfactory for a particular member, the user
can explicitly specify values of δ and δ . s ns

Determine Capacity Ratio

As a measure of the stress condition of the column, a capacity ratio is calculated.
The capacity ratio is basically a factor that gives an indication of the stress condi-
tion of the column with respect to the capacity of the column.

Before entering the interaction diagram to check the column capacity, the moment
magnification factors are applied to the factored loads to obtain P , M , and M . u ux uy

The point (P , M M ) is then placed in the interaction space shown as point L in

u ux , uy

Figure II-3. If the point lies within the interaction volume, the column capacity is
adequate; however, if the point lies outside the interaction volume, the column is
overstressed.

Column Design 23
SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

This capacity ratio is achieved by plotting the point L and determining the location
of point C. The point C is defined as the point where the line OL (if extended out-
wards) will intersect the failure surface. This point is determined by three-
dimensional linear interpolation between the points that define the failure surface.
OL
See Figure II-3. The capacity ratio, CR, is given by the ratio .
OC

• If OL = OC (or CR=1) the point lies on the interaction surface and the column is
stressed to capacity.
• If OL < OC (or CR<1) the point lies within the interaction volume and the col-
umn capacity is adequate.
• If OL > OC (or CR>1) the point lies outside the interaction volume and the col-
umn is overstressed.

The maximum of all the values of CR calculated from each load combination is re-
ported for each check station of the column along with the controlling
P , M , and M set and associated load combination number.
u ux uy

If the reinforcing area is not defined, SAP2000 computes the reinforcement that
will give an interaction ratio of unity.

Design Column Shear Reinforcement

The shear reinforcement is designed for each loading combination in the major and
minor directions of the column. In designing the shear reinforcing for a particular
column for a particular loading combination due to shear forces in a particular di-
rection, the following steps are involved:

• Determine the factored forces acting on the section, P andV . Note that P is
u u u

needed for the calculation of V . c

• Determine the shear force,V , that can be resisted by concrete alone.

c

• Calculate the reinforcement steel required to carry the balance.

For Special and Intermediate moment resisting frames (ductile frames), the shear
design of the columns is also based upon the probable and nominal moment capaci-
ties of the members, respectively, in addition to the factored moments. Effects of
the axial forces on the column moment capacities are included in the formulation.

The following three sections describe in detail the algorithms associated with the
above-mentioned steps.

24 Column Design
 Chapter III Design for ACI 318-95

Determine Section Forces

• In the design of the column shear reinforcement of an Ordinary moment re-
sisting concrete frame, the forces for a particular load combination, namely,
the column axial force, P , and the column shear force,V , in a particular direc-
u u

tion are obtained by factoring the SAP2000 analysis load cases with the corre-
sponding load combination factors.
• In the shear design of Special moment resisting frames (seismic design) the
following are checked in addition to the requirement for the Ordinary moment
resisting frames. In the design of Special moment resisting concrete frames, the
design shear force in a column, V , in a particular direction is also calculated
u

from the probable moment capacities of the column associated with the fac-
tored axial force acting on the column.
For each load combination, the factored axial load, P , is calculated. Then, the
u

positive and negative moment capacities, M + and M − , of the column in a par-

u u

ticular direction under the influence of the axial force P is calculated using the
u

uniaxial interaction diagram in the corresponding direction. The design shear

force,V , is then given by (ACI 21.4.5.1)
u

V =V + V
u p D+ L
(ACI 21.4.5.1)

where,V is the shear force obtained by applying the calculated probable ulti-
p

mate moment capacities at the two ends of the column acting in two opposite
directions. Therefore,V is the maximum of V 1 and V 2 , where
p P P

M +M- +

V1 = I J
, and
L
P

M +M+ -

V2 = I
, where J

L
P

M+, M−
I I
= Positive and negative moment capacities at end I of
the column using a steel yield stress value of αf y

and no ϕ factors,

M+, M−
J J
= Positive and negative moment capacities at end J of
the column using a steel yield stress value of αf y

and no ϕ factors, and

L = Clear span of column.

Column Design 25
SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

For Special moment resisting frames αis taken as 1.25 (ACI R21.3.4.1). V + is D L

the contribution of shear force from the in-span distribution of gravity loads.
For most of the columns, it is zero.
• For Intermediate moment resisting frames, the shear capacity of the column
is also checked for the design nominal shear based on the nominal moment ca-
pacities at the ends and the factored gravity loads, in addition to the check re-
quired for Ordinary moment resisting frames. The design shear force is taken to
be the minimum of that based on the nominal moment capacity and factored
shear force. The procedure for calculating nominal moment capacity is the
same as that for computing the probable moment capacity for special moment
resisting frames, except that α is taken equal to 1 rather than 1.25. The factored
shear forces are based on the specified load factors except the earthquake load
factors are doubled (ACI 21.8.3).

Determine Concrete Shear Capacity

Given the design force set P andV , the shear force carried by the concrete,V , is
u u c

calculated as follows:

• If the column is subjected to axial compression, i.e. P is positive, u

 P 
V = 2 f ′ 1 + A , u
(ACI 11.3.1.2)
2000 A 
c c cv
 g

where,

f ′ ≤ 100 psi, and

c
(ACI 11.1.2)

 P 
V ≤ 3.5 f ′
1 +  A .
u
(ACI 11.3.2.2)
500 A 
c c cv
 g

P
The term must have psi units. A is the effective shear area which is shown
u

A
cv
g

shaded in Figure III-2.

• If the column is subjected to axial tension, P is negative, u

 P 
V = 2 f ′ 1 + A ≥ 0 u
(ACI 11.3.2.3)
500 A 
c c cv
 g

26 Column Design
 Chapter III Design for ACI 318-95

• For Special moment resisting concrete frame design, V is set to zero if the c

factored axial compressive force, P , including the earthquake effect is small

u

(P < f ′ A / 20) and if the shear force contribution from earthquake, V , is

u c g E

more than half of the total factored maximum shear force over the length of the
memberV (V ≥ 0.5V ) (ACI 21.4.5.2).
u E u

d' d

DIRECTION
OF SHEAR
FORCE
Acv b

RECTANGULAR

d' d

DIRECTION
OF SHEAR
FORCE
A cv b

SQUARE WITH CIRCULAR REBAR

d' d

DIRECTION
OF SHEAR
FORCE
Acv

CIRCULAR

Figure III-2
Shear Stress Area, A cv

Column Design 27
SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

Determine Required Shear Reinforcement

Given V and V , the required shear reinforcement in the form of stirrups or tie
u c

within a spacing, s, is given by

(V /ϕ − V ) s
A = u
,c
(ACI 11.5.6.2)
f d
v
ys

(V / ϕ − V ) ≤ 8 f ′ A
u c c cv
(ACI 11.5.6.8)

Otherwise redimensioning of the concrete section is required. Here ϕ, the strength

reduction factor, is 0.85 (ACI 9.3.2.3). The maximum of all the calculated A val-
v

ues obtained from each load combination are reported for the major and minor di-
rections of the column along with the controlling shear force and associated load
combination label.

The column shear reinforcement requirements reported by the program are based
purely upon shear strength consideration. Any minimum stirrup requirements to
satisfy spacing considerations or transverse reinforcement volumetric considera-
tions must be investigated independently of the program by the user.

Beam Design
In the design of concrete beams, SAP2000 calculates and reports the required areas
of steel for flexure and shear based upon the beam moments, shears, load combina-
tion factors, and other criteria described below. The reinforcement requirements
are calculated at a user defined number of check/design stations along the beam
span.
All the beams are only designed for major direction flexure and shear. Effects due
to any axial forces, minor direction bending, and torsion that may exist in the beams
must be investigated independently by the user.

The beam design procedure involves the following steps:

• Design beam flexural reinforcement

• Design beam shear reinforcement

28 Beam Design
 Chapter III Design for ACI 318-95

Design Beam Flexural Reinforcement

The beam top and bottom flexural steel is designed at check/design stations along
the beam span. In designing the flexural reinforcement for the major moment for a
particular beam for a particular section, the following steps are involved:

• Determine the maximum factored moments

• Determine the reinforcing steel

Determine Factored Moments

In the design of flexural reinforcement of Special, Intermediate, or Ordinary mo-
ment resisting concrete frame beams, the factored moments for each load combina-
tion at a particular beam section are obtained by factoring the corresponding mo-
ments for different load cases with the corresponding load factors.

The beam section is then designed for the maximum positive M and maximum
+
u

negative M factored moments obtained from all of the load combinations.

u
-

Negative beam moments produce top steel. In such cases the beam is always de-
signed as a rectangular section. Positive beam moments produce bottom steel. In
such cases the beam may be designed as a Rectangular- or a T-beam.

Determine Required Flexural Reinforcement

In the flexural reinforcement design process, the program calculates both the ten-
sion and compression reinforcement. Compression reinforcement is added when
the applied design moment exceeds the maximum moment capacity of a singly re-
inforced section. The user has the option of avoiding the compression reinforce-
ment by increasing the effective depth, the width, or the grade of concrete.

The design procedure is based on the simplified rectangular stress block as shown
in Figure III-3 (ACI 10.2). Furthermore it is assumed that the compression carried
by concrete is less than 0.75 times that which can be carried at the balanced condi-
tion (ACI 10.3.3). When the applied moment exceeds the moment capacity at this
designed balanced condition, the area of compression reinforcement is calculated
on the assumption that the additional moment will be carried by compression and
additional tension reinforcement.

The design procedure used by SAP2000, for both rectangular and flanged sections
(L- and T-beams) is summarized below. It is assumed that the design ultimate axial

Beam Design 29
SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

force does not exceed 0.1 f ′ A (ACI 10.3.3), hence all the beams are designed for
c g

major direction flexure and shear only.

Design for Rectangular Beam

In designing for a factored negative or positive moment, M , (i.e. designing top or

u

bottom steel) the depth of the compression block is given by a (see Figure III-3),
where,

2 M
a= d− d −
2 u

′
,
0.85 f ϕ b
c

ε = 0.003 0.85f'c
b

A's Cs
d' c a= 1c

εs Ts Tc
As

(i) BEAM (ii) STRAIN (iii) STRESS

SECTION DIAGRAM DIAGRAM

Figure III-3
Design of Rectangular Beam Section

where, the value of ϕ is 0.90 (ACI 9.3.2.1) in the above and the following equations.
Also β and c are calculated as follows:
1 b

 f ′ − 4000 
β = 0.85 − 0.05 
1
, c
0.65 ≤ β ≤ 0.85,
1
(ACI 10.2.7.3)
 1000 

87 000
c = d.
87 000 + f
b
y

30 Beam Design
 Chapter III Design for ACI 318-95

The maximum allowed depth of compression block is given by

a max
= 0.75β c 1 b
(ACI 10.2.7.1)

• If a ≤ a max
, the area of tensile steel reinforcement is then given by
M
A = . u

 a
s

ϕ f d − 
 2
y

This steel is to be placed at the bottom if M is positive, or at the top if M is

u u

negative.
• If a > a , compression reinforcement is required (ACI 10.3.3) and is calcu-
max

lated as follows:
– The compressive force developed in concrete alone is given by

C = 0.85 f ′ ba c max
, and (ACI 10.2.7.1)

the moment resisted by concrete compression and tensile steel is

 a 
M = C d −  ϕ. max

 2 
uc

– Therefore the moment resisted by compression steel and tensile steel is

M =M −M
us u uc
.

– So the required compression steel is given by

M
A′ = ′
us
, where
f ( d − d′ )ϕ
s

 c − d′ 
f ′ = 0.003 E  . (ACI 10.2.4)
s
 c  s

– The required tensile steel for balancing the compression in concrete is

M
A = uc
, and
 a 
s1

f d − ϕ max

 2 
y

the tensile steel for balancing the compression in steel is given by

Beam Design 31
SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

M
A = us
.
f ( d − d′ )ϕ
s2
y

– Therefore, the total tensile reinforcement, A = A + A , and total com- s s1 s2

pression reinforcement is A ′ . A is to be placed at bottom and A ′ is to be

s s s

placed at top if M is positive, and vice versa if M is negative.

u u

Design for T-Beam

In designing for a factored negative moment, M , (i.e. designing top steel), the cal- u

culation of the steel area is exactly the same as above, i.e., no T-Beam data is to be
used. See Figure III-4. If M > 0 , the depth of the compression block is given by
u

2M
a= d− d −
2 u
.
0.85 f ′ ϕ b
c f

The maximum allowed depth of compression block is given by

a max
= 0.75β c . 1 b
(ACI 10.2.7.1)

ε = 0.003 0.85f'c 0.85f'c

bf ds

d' fs' Cs
As' Cf
c

d
Cw

As εs Ts Tw Tf
bw

(i) BEAM (ii) STRAIN (iii) STRESS

SECTION DIAGRAM DIAGRAM

Figure III-4
Design of a T-Beam Section

32 Beam Design
 Chapter III Design for ACI 318-95

• If a ≤ d , the subsequent calculations for A are exactly the same as previously

s s

defined for the rectangular section design. However, in this case the width of
the compression flange is taken as the width of the beam for analysis. Whether
compression reinforcement is required depends on whether a > a . max

• If a > d , calculation for A is done in two parts. The first part is for balancing
s s

the compressive force from the flange, C , and the second part is for balancing f

the compressive force from the web, C , as shown in Figure III-4. C is given w f

by

C = 0.85 f ′ ( b − b )d .
f c f w s

C
Therefore, A = and the portion of M that is resisted by the flange is
f

f
s1 u
y

given by
 d 
M = C d− ϕ. s

 2
uf f

Again, the value for ϕ is 0.90. Therefore, the balance of the moment, M to be u

carried by the web is given by

M uw
= M − M u uf
.

The web is a rectangular section of dimensions b and d, for which the design w

depth of the compression block is recalculated as

2M
a = d− d − 2

′
uw
.
0.85 f ϕ b
1

c w

• If a ≤ a 1 max
, the area of tensile steel reinforcement is then given by
M
A = , and uw
s2
 a 
ϕ f d −  1

 2 
y

A =A +A .
s s1 s2

This steel is to be placed at the bottom of the T-beam.

• If a > a , compression reinforcement is required (ACI 10.3.3) and is cal-
1 max

culated as follows:

Beam Design 33
SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

– The compressive force in web concrete alone is given by

C = 0.85 f ′ ba c max
. (ACI 10.2.7.1)

– Therefore the moment resisted by concrete web and tensile steel is

 a 
M = C d −  ϕ , and max
uc
 2 

the moment resisted by compression steel and tensile steel is

M =M us uw
−M uc
.

– Therefore, the compression steel is computed as

M
A′ = ′
us
, where
f ( d − d′ )ϕ
s

 c − d′ 
f ′ = 0.003 E  . (ACI 10.2.4)
s
 c  s

– The tensile steel for balancing compression in web concrete is

M
A = uc
, and
s2
 a 
f d − ϕ max

 2 
y

the tensile steel for balancing compression in steel is

M
A = . us

f ( d − d′ )ϕ
s3
y

– The total tensile reinforcement, A = A + A + A , and total com- s s1 s2 s3

pression reinforcement is A ′ . A is to be placed at bottom and A ′ is to be

s s s

placed at top.

Minimum Tensile Reinforcement

The minimum flexural tensile steel provided in a rectangular section in an Ordinary

moment resisting frame is given by the minimum of the two following limits:
 3 f ′ 
200
A ≥ max b d and b d  or
c
(ACI 10.5.1)
 f f 
s w w
y y

34 Beam Design
 Chapter III Design for ACI 318-95

4
A ≥ s
A s ( required ).
(ACI 10.5.3)
3

Special Consideration for Seismic Design

For Special moment resisting concrete frames (seismic design), the beam design
satisfies the following additional conditions (see also Table III-2 for comprehen-
sive listing) :

• The minimum longitudinal reinforcement shall be provided at both at the top

and bottom. Any of the top and bottom reinforcement shall not be less than
A (ACI 21.3.2.1).
s ( min )

 3 f ′ 
200
A ≥ max b d and b d  or
c
(ACI 10.5.1)
 f f 
s(min) w w
y y

4
A s(min)
≥ A s ( required )
. (ACI 10.5.3)
3

• The beam flexural steel is limited to a maximum given by

A ≥ 0.025 b d .
s w
(ACI 21.3.2.1)

• At any end (support) of the beam, the beam positive moment capacity (i.e. as-
sociated with the bottom steel) would not be less than 1/2 of the beam negative
moment capacity (i.e. associated with the top steel) at that end (ACI 21.3.2.2).
• Neither the negative moment capacity nor the positive moment capacity at any
of the sections within the beam would be less than 1/4 of the maximum of posi-
tive or negative moment capacities of any of the beam end (support) stations
(ACI 21.3.2.2).

For Intermediate moment resisting concrete frames (seismic design), the beam de-
sign would satisfy the following conditions:

• At any support of the beam, the beam positive moment capacity would not be
less than 1/3 of the beam negative moment capacity at that end (ACI 21.8.4.1).
• Neither the negative moment capacity nor the positive moment capacity at any
of the sections within the beam would be less than 1/5 of the maximum of posi-
tive or negative moment capacities of any of the beam end (support) stations
(ACI 21.8.4.1.).

Beam Design 35
SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

Design Beam Shear Reinforcement

The shear reinforcement is designed for each load combination at a user defined
number of stations along the beam span. In designing the shear reinforcement for a
particular beam for a particular loading combination at a particular station due to
the beam major shear, the following steps are involved:

• Determine the factored shear force,V . u

• Determine the shear force,V , that can be resisted by the concrete.

c

• Determine the reinforcement steel required to carry the balance.

For Special and Intermediate moment resisting frames (ductile frames), the shear
design of the beams is also based upon the probable and nominal moment capacities
of the members, respectively, in addition to the factored load design.

The following three sections describe in detail the algorithms associated with the
above-mentioned steps.

Determine Shear Force and Moment

• In the design of the beam shear reinforcement of an Ordinary moment resist-
ing concrete frame, the shear forces and moments for a particular load combi-
nation at a particular beam section are obtained by factoring the associated
shear forces and moments with the corresponding load combination factors.
• In the design of Special moment resisting concrete frames (seismic design),
the shear capacity of the beam is also checked for the probable shear due to the
probable moment capacities at the ends and the factored gravity load. This
check is done in addition to the design check required for Ordinary moment re-
sisting frames. The shear force,V , is calculated from the probable moment ca-
u

pacities of each end of the beam and the gravity shear forces. The procedure for
calculating the design shear force in a beam from probable moment capacity is
the same as that described for a column in section “Column Design” on page
25. See also Table III-2 for details.
The design shear forceV is then given by (ACI 21.4.5.1)
u

V =V + V
u p D+ L
(ACI 21.4.5.1)

where,V is the shear force obtained by applying the calculated probable ulti-
p

mate moment capacities at the two ends of the beams acting in two opposite di-
rections. Therefore,V is the maximum ofV 1 andV 2 , where
p P P

36 Beam Design
 Chapter III Design for ACI 318-95

M +M
- +

V1 = I J
, and
L
P

M +M
+ -

V2 = I J
, where
L
P

M− I
= Moment capacity at end I, with top steel
in tension, using a steel yield stress value
of αf and no ϕ factors,
y

M+ J
= Moment capacity at end J, with bottom
steel in tension, using a steel yield stress
value of αf and no ϕ factors,
y

M+ I
= Moment capacity at end I, with bottom
steel in tension, using a steel yield stress
value of αf and no ϕ factors,
y

M J− = Moment capacity at end J, with top steel

in tension, using a steel yield stress value
of αf and no ϕ factors, and
y

L = Clear span of beam.

For Special moment resisting frames αis taken as 1.25 (ACI R21.3.4.1). V + is D L

the contribution of shear force from the in-span distribution of gravity loads.
• For Intermediate moment resisting frames, the shear capacity of the beam is
also checked for the design nominal shear based on the nominal moment ca-
pacit ies at the ends and the factored gravity loads, in addition to the check re-
quired for Ordinary moment resisting frames. The design shear force in beams
is taken to be the minimum of that based on the nominal moment capacity and
factored shear force. The procedure for calculating nominal moment capacity
is the same as that for computing the probable moment capacity for Special mo-
ment resisting frames, except that αis taken equal to 1 rather than 1.25. The fac-
tored shear forces are based on the specified load factors except the earthquake
load factors are doubled (ACI 21.8.3). The computation of the design shear
force in a beam of an Intermediate moment resisting frame, is also the same
as that for columns, which is described earlier on page 26. See also Table III-2
for details.

Beam Design 37
SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

Determine Concrete Shear Capacity

The allowable concrete shear capacity is given by

V = 2 f ′ b d.
c c w
(ACI 11.3.1.1)

For Special moment resisting frame concrete design,V is set to zero if both the fac-
c

tored axial compressive force including the earthquake effect P is less than
u

f ′ A / 20 and the shear force contribution from earthquakeV is more than half of
c g E

the total maximum shear force over the length of the member V (i.e. V ≥ 0.5V )
u E u

(ACI 21.3.4.2).

Determine Required Shear Reinforcement

Given V and V , the required shear reinforcement in area/unit length is calculated
u c

as
(V /ϕ − V ) s
A = u
. c
(ACI 11.5.6.2)
f d
v
ys

The shear force resisted by steel is limited by

(V /ϕ − V ) ≤ 8 f ′ bd ,
u c c
(ACI 11.5.6.8)

where, ϕ, the strength reduction factor, is 0.85 (ACI 9.3.2.3). The maximum of all
the calculated A values, obtained from each load combination, is reported along
v

with the controlling shear force and associated load combination number.

The beam shear reinforcement requirements displayed by the program are based
purely upon shear strength considerations. Any minimum stirrup requirements to
satisfy spacing and volumetric considerations must be investigated independently
of the program by the user.

38 Beam Design
 Chapter III Design for ACI 318-95

Type of Ordinary Moment Intermediate Moment Special Moment

Check/ Resisting Frames Resisting Frames Resisting Frames
Design (non-Seismic) (Seismic) (Seismic)

Column
Check NLDH Combinations NLDH Combinations NLDH Combinations
(interaction)

Column NLDH Combinations

NLDH Combinations NLDH Combinations
Design α = 1.0
1% < ρ < 8% 1% < ρ < 8%
(Interaction) 1% < ρ < 6%

Modified NLDH Combinations

NLDH Combinations and
Column H (earthquake loads doubled)
NLD Combinations Column shear capacity
Shears Column Capacity
ϕ = 1.0 and α = 1.25
ϕ = 1.0 and α = 1.0

NLDH Combinations
Beam ρ ≤ 0.025
Design NLDH Combinations NLDH Combinations 3 f c′ 200
Flexure ρ≥ ,ρ ≥
fy fy

+ 1 - + 1 -
M uEND ≥ M uEND M uEND ≥ M uEND
3 2
Beam Min.
Moment
No Requirement
+
M uSPAN
1
5
{ }END
≥ max M u+ , M u− +
M uSPAN
1
{
≥ max M u+ , M u−
4
}END
Override
Check
−
M uSPAN
1
5
{ }END
≥ max M u+ , M u− -
M uSPAN
1
{
≥ max M u- , M u-
4
}END

Modified NLDH Combinations NLDH Combinations

(earthquake loads doubled) Beam Capacity Shear (VP )
Beam Design
NLDH Combinations Beam Capacity Shear (VP ) with α = 1.25 and ϕ = 1.0
Shear
with α = 1.0 and ϕ = 1.0 plus VD + L
plus VD + L Vc = 0

H
Number of specified loading

Table III-2
Design Criteria Table

Beam Design 39
.
 C h a p t e r IV

Design for AASHTO LRFD 1997

This chapter describes in detail the various aspects of the concrete design procedure
that is used by SAP2000 when the user selects the AASHTO LRFD 1997 Design
Code (AASHTO 1997). Various notations used in this chapter are listed in Table
IV-1.

The design is based on user-specified loading combinations. But the program pro-
vides a set of default load combinations that should help satisfying requirements for
the design of most bridge type structures.

SAP2000 provides options to design or check moment resisting frames of Zones 1

(low seismic activity), 2, 3, and 4 (high seismic activity) as required for seismic de-
sign provisions. The details of the design criteria used for the different seismic
zones are described in the following sections.

English as well as SI and MKS metric units can be used for input. But the code is
based on Inch-Kip-Second units. For simplicity, all equations and descriptions pre-
sented in this chapter correspond to Inch-Kip-Second units unless otherwise
noted.

41
SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

A cv
Area of concrete used to determine shear stress, sq-in
A g
Gross area of concrete, sq-in
A s
Area of tension reinforcement, sq-in
A′ s
Area of compression reinforcement, sq-in
A s ( required )
Area of steel required for tension reinforcement, sq-in
A st
Total area of column longitudinal reinforcement, sq-in
A v
Area of shear reinforcement, sq-in
a Depth of compression block, in
a b
Depth of compression block at balanced condition, in
a max
Maximum allowed depth of compression block, in
b Width of member, in
b f
Effective width of flange (T-Beam section), in
b w
Width of web (T-Beam section), in
C m
Coefficient, dependent upon column curvature, used to calculate moment
magnification factor
c Depth to neutral axis, in
c b
Depth to neutral axis at balanced conditions, in
d Distance from compression face to tension reinforcement, in
d′ Concrete cover to center of reinforcing, in
d s
Thickness of slab (T-Beam section), in
E c
Modulus of elasticity of concrete, psi
E s
Modulus of elasticity of reinforcement, assumed as 29,000 ksi
f′ c
Specified compressive strength of concrete, ksi
f y
Specified yield strength of flexural reinforcement, ksi
f yh
Specified yield strength of shear reinforcement, ksi
h Dimension of column, in
I g
Moment of inertia of gross concrete section about centroidal axis, ne-
glecting reinforcement, in4
I se
Moment of inertia of reinforcement about centroidal axis of
member cross section, in4

Table IV-1
List of Symbols Used in the AASHTO code

42
 Chapter IV Design for AASHTO LRFD 1997

k Effective length factor

L Clear unsupported length, in
M 1
Smaller factored end moment in a column, kip-in
M 2
Larger factored end moment in a column, kip-in
M c
Factored moment to be used in design, kip-in
M b
Nonsway component of factored end moment, kip-in
M s
Sway component of factored end moment, kip-in
M u
Factored moment at section, kip-in
M ux
Factored moment at section about X-axis, kip-in
M uy
Factored moment at section about Y-axis, kip-in
Pb
Axial load capacity at balanced strain conditions, kip
Pe
Euler buckling strength of column, kip
Pmax
Maximum axial load strength allowed, kip
P0
Axial load capacity at zero eccentricity, kip
Pu
Factored axial load at section, kip
r Radius of gyration of column section, in
Vc
Shear resisted by concrete, kip
V +
D L
Shear force from span loading, kip
Vu
Factored shear force at a section, kip
Vp
Shear force computed from probable moment capacity, kip
α Reinforcing steel overstrength factor
β 1
Factor for obtaining depth of compression block in concrete
β d
Absolute value of ratio of maximum factored axial dead load to maxi-
mum factored axial total load
δs
Moment magnification factor for sway moments
δb
Moment magnification factor for nonsway (braced) moments
εc
Strain in concrete
εs
Strain in reinforcing steel
ϕ Strength reduction factor

Table IV-1
List of Symbols Used in the AASHTO code (continued)

43
SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

Design Load Combinations

The design load combinations are the various combinations of the prescribed load
cases for which the structure needs to be checked. There are more different types of
loads specified in the code than are considered in the current implementation of the
default load combinations. However, the user has full control of the definition of
loads and load combinations.

There are six types of dead loads: dead load of structural components and nonstruc-
tural attachments (DC), downdrag (DD), dead load of wearing surface and utilities
(DW), horizontal earth pressure load (EH), vertical earth pressure load (EV), earth
surcharge load (ES). Each type of dead load case requires separate load factor.

There are six types of live loads: vehicular live load (LL), vehicular dynamic load
allowance (IM), vehicular centrifugal force (CE), vehicular braking force (BR), pe-
destrian live load (PL), and live load surcharge (LS). All these load cases require
the same factor and do not need to be treated separately.

If the structure is subjected to structural dead load (DL), live load (LL), wind load
(WL), and earthquake loads (EL), and considering that wind and earthquake forces
are reversible, the following default load combinations have been considered for
Strength and Extreme Event limit states (AASHTO 3.4.1).

1.50 DL (Strength-IV)
1.25 DL + 1.75 LL (Strength-I)

0.90 DL ± 1.4 WL (Strength-III)

1.25 DL ± 1.4 WL (Strength-III)
1.25 DL + 1.35 LL ± 0.40 WL (Strength-V)

0.90 DL ± 1.0 EL (Extreme-I)

1.25 DL + 0.5 LL ± 1.0 EL (Extreme-I)

These are also the default design load combinations in SAP2000 whenever the
AASHTO LRFD 1997 code is used. The user is expected to define the other load
combinations as necessary.

Live load reduction factors can be applied to the member forces of the live load case
on an element-by-element basis to reduce the contribution of the live load to the
factored loading.

44 Design Load Combinations

 Chapter IV Design for AASHTO LRFD 1997

Strength Reduction Factors

The strength reduction factors, ϕ, are applied on the nominal strength to obtain the
design strength provided by a member. The ϕ factors for flexure, axial force, shear,
and torsion are as follows:

ϕ = 0.90 for flexure, (AASHTO 5.5.4.2.1)

ϕ = 0.90 for axial tension, (AASHTO 5.5.4.2.1)

ϕ = 0.90 for axial tension and flexure, (AASHTO 5.5.4.2.1)

ϕ = 0.90 for shear and torsion, and (AASHTO 5.5.4.2.1)

ϕ = 0.75 for axial compression only, or axial compression and flexure.

(AASHTO 5.5.4.2.1)

ϕ = 0.50 for axial compression only, or axial compression and flexure in

seismic zone 3 and 4. (AASHTO 5.5.4.2.3, 5.10.11.4.1b)

The value of ϕ involving axial compression and flexure varies from 0.75 to 0.9
based on the axial load. For low values of axial load, ϕ is increased linearly from
0.75 to 0.9 as the axial load decreases from 0.1 f ′ A to zero (AASHTO 5.5.4.2.1).
c g

For seismic design in Zones 3 and 4, the value of ϕ involving axial compression and
flexure varies from 0.5 to 0.9 based on the axial load. For low values of axial load, ϕ
is increased linearly from 0.5 to 0.9 as the axial load decreases from 0.2 f ′ A to
c g

zero (AASHTO 5.10.11.4.1b). In cases involving axial tension, ϕ is always 0.9

(AASHTO 5.5.4.2.1).

Column Design
The user may define the geometry of the reinforcing bar configuration of each con-
crete column section. If the area of reinforcing is provided by the user, the program
checks the column capacity. However, if the area of reinforcing is not provided by
the user, the program calculates the amount of reinforcing required for the column.
The design procedure for the reinforced concrete columns of the structure involves
the following steps:

• Generate axial force-biaxial moment interaction surfaces for all of the different
concrete section types of the model. A typical biaxial interaction surface is
shown in Figure II-1. When the steel is undefined, the program generates the

Strength Reduction Factors 45

SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

interaction surfaces for the range of allowable reinforcement ratio (A A ) C

st g

0.135 f ′ f to 0.08 percent for moment resisting frames (AASHTO 5.7.4.2)

c y

and 0.01 to 0.06 for ductile moment resisting frames in seismic Zones 3 and 4
(AASHTO 5.10.11.4.1a).
• Calculate the capacity ratio or the required reinforcing area for the factored ax-
ial force and biaxial (or uniaxial) bending moments obtained from each loading
combination at each station of the column. The target capacity ratio is taken as
1.0 when calculating the required reinforcing area.
• Design the column shear reinforcement.

The following three subsections describe in detail the algorithms associated with
the above-mentioned steps.

Generation of Biaxial Interaction Surfaces

The column capacity interaction volume is numerically described by a series of dis-
crete points that are generated on the three-dimensional interaction failure surface.
In addition to axial compression and biaxial bending, the formulation allows for ax-
ial tension and biaxial bending considerations. A typical interaction diagram is
shown in Figure II-1.

The coordinates of these points are determined by rotating a plane of linear strain in
three dimensions on the section of the column. See Figure II-2. The linear strain
diagram limits the maximum concrete strain, ε , at the extremity of the section
c

to 0.003 (AASHTO 5.7.2.1).

The formulation is based consistently upon the general principles of ultimate

strength design (AASHTO 5.7), and allows for any doubly symmetric rectangular,
square, or circular column section.

The stress in the steel is given by the product of the steel strain and the steel modu-
lus of elasticity, ε E , and is limited to the yield stress of the steel, f (AASHTO
s s y

5.7.2.1). The area associated with each reinforcing bar is assumed to be placed at
the actual location of the center of the bar and the algorithm does not assume any
further simplifications in the manner in which the area of steel is distributed over
the cross section of the column, such as an equivalent steel tube or cylinder. See
Figure IV-1.

46 Column Design
 Chapter IV Design for AASHTO LRFD 1997

0.85 f'c
εc = 0.003
d' 1
εs1 Cs
C a= 1c
c
2
εs2 Cs

εs3 Ts3

εs4 Ts4

(i) Concrete Section (ii) Strain Diagram (iii) Stress Diagram

Figure IV-1
Idealization of Stress and Strain Distribution in a Column Section

The concrete compression stress block is assumed to be rectangular (AASHTO

5.7.2.1), with a stress value of 0.85 f ′ (AASHTO 5.7.2.2). See Figure IV-1. The
c

depth of the stress block of β c, where

1

β = 0.85 − 0.05 ( f ′ − 4),

1 c
(AASHTO 5.7.2.2)

0.65 ≤ β ≤ 0.85, and

1
(AASHTO 5.7.2.2)

The limit of f ′ is taken to be 10 ksi for all seismic regions:

c

f ′ ≤ 10 ksi.
c
(AASHTO 5.1, 5.4.2.1)

The limit of f is taken to be 75 ksi for all frames:

y

f ≤ 75 ksi.
y
(AASHTO 5.4.3.1)

The interaction algorithm provides a correction to account for the concrete area that
is displaced by the reinforcement in the compression zone.

The effects of the strength reduction factor, ϕ, are included in the generation of the
interaction surfaces. The maximum compressive axial load is limited to P , where max

Column Design 47
SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

P = 0.85 ϕ [ 0.85 f ′ ( A - A ) + f A ] spiral column, (AASHTO 5.7.4.4)

max c g st y st

P = 0.80 ϕ [ 0.85 f ′ ( A - A ) + f A ] tied column.

max c g st y st
(AASHTO 5.7.4.4)

The value of ϕ involving axial compression and flexure varies from 0.75 to 0.9
based on the axial load. For low values of axial load, ϕ is increased linearly from
0.75 to 0.9 as the axial load decreases from 0.1 f ′ A to zero (AASHTO 5.5.4.2.1).
c g

For seismic design in Zones 3 and 4, the value of ϕ involving axial compression and
flexure varies from 0.5 to 0.9 based on the axial load. For low values of axial load, ϕ
is increased linearly from 0.5 to 0.9 as the axial load decreases from 0.2 f ′ A to c g

zero (AASHTO 5.10.11.4.1b). In cases involving axial tension, ϕ is always 0.9

(AASHTO 5.5.4.2.1).

Check Column Capacity

The column capacity is checked for each loading combination at each check station
of each column. In checking a particular column for a particular loading combina-
tion at a particular station, the following steps are involved:

• Determine the factored moments and forces from the analysis load cases and
the specified load combination factors to give P , M , and M .
u ux uy

• Determine the moment magnification factors for the column moments.

• Apply the moment magnification factors to the factored moments. Determine
whether the point, defined by the resulting axial load and biaxial moment set,
lies within the interaction volume.

The factored moments and corresponding magnification factors depend on the

identification of the individual column as either “braced” or “unbraced”.

The following three sections describe in detail the algorithms associated with the
above-mentioned steps.

Determine Factored Moments and Forces

The factored loads for a particular load combination are obtained by applying the
corresponding load factors to all the load cases, giving P , M , and M . The com-
u ux uy

puted moments are further amplified by using “Moment Magnification Factors” to

allow for stability effects.

48 Column Design
 Chapter IV Design for AASHTO LRFD 1997

Determine Moment Magnification Factors

The moment magnification factors are calculated separately for sway (overall sta-
bility effect), δ , and for nonsway or braced (individual column stability effect), δ .
s ns

Also the moment magnification factors in the major and minor directions are in
general different.

The program assumes that a P-∆ analysis has been performed in SAP2000 and,
therefore, moment magnification factors for moments causing sidesway are taken
as unity (AASHTO 4.5.3). For the P-∆ analysis the load should correspond to a load
combination of (1.25 dead load + 1.35 live load) / ϕ, where ϕ is the resistance factor
for axial compression which is taken as 0.75 for seismic zones 1 and 2, and as 0.5
for seismic zones 3 and 4 by default (AASHTO 5.5.4.2.1). See also White and
Hajjar (1991).

The moment obtained from analysis is separated into two components: the sway
( M ) and the nonsway ( M ) components. The non-sway or braced components
s b

which are identified by “b” subscripts are predominantly caused by gravity load.
The sway components are identified by “s” subscripts. The sway moments are pre-
dominantly caused by lateral loads, and are related to the cause of side sway.

For individual columns or column-members in a floor, the magnified moments

about two axes at any station of a column can be obtained as

M =δ M +δ M .
b b s s
(AASHTO 4.5.3.2.2b)

The factor δ is the moment magnification factor for moments causing side sway.
s

This factor is taken as 1 because the component moments M and M are obtained
s b

from a “second order elastic (P-∆) analysis”.

The nonsway moment magnification factor, δ , associated with the major or minor
b

direction of the column is given by (AASHTO 4.5.3.2.2b),

C
δ = m
≥ 1.0 , where (AASHTO 4.5.3.2.2b)
b
P
1− u

ϕP e

π EI2

P = , (AASHTO 4.5.3.2.2b)
( kL)
e 2

k is taken as 1, however SAP2000 allows the user to override this value

(AASHTO 4.6.2.5, 5.7.4.3), and

Column Design 49
SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

EI is associated with a particular column direction given by:

E I 2.5
EI =
c g
, (AASHTO 5.7.4.3)
1+β d

maximum factored dead load moment

β =
d
, and (AASHTO 5.7.4.3)
maximum factored total load moment

M
C = 0.6 + 0.4 ≥ 0.4 .
a
(AASHTO 4.5.3.2.2b)
M
m
b

M and M are the moments at the ends of the column, and M is numerically
a b b

larger than M . M M is positive for single curvature bending and negative

a a b

for double curvature bending. The above expression ofC is valid if there is no
m

transverse load applied between the supports and the member is braced against
side-sway. If transverse load is present on the span, or the length is overwritten,
or for any other case, C = 1. C can be overwritten by the user on an element
m m

by element basis.

The magnification factor, δ , must be a positive number and greater than one.
b

Therefore P must be less than ϕP . If P is found to be greater than or equal to ϕP , a

u e u e

failure condition is declared.

The above calculations use the unsupported lengths of the column. The two unsup-
ported lengths are l and l corresponding to instability in the minor and major di-
22 33

rections of the element, respectively. See Figure II-4. These are the lengths between
the support points of the element in the corresponding directions.

If the program assumptions are not satisfactory for a particular member, the user
can explicitly specify values of δ and δ . s b

Determine Capacity Ratio

As a measure of the stress condition of the column, a capacity ratio is calculated.
The capacity ratio is basically a factor that gives an indication of the stress condi-
tion of the column with respect to the capacity of the column.

Before entering the interaction diagram to check the column capacity, the moment
magnification factors are applied to the factored loads to obtain P , M , and M . u ux uy

The point (P , M M ) is then placed in the interaction space shown as point L in

u ux , uy

Figure II-3. If the point lies within the interaction volume, the column capacity is
adequate; however, if the point lies outside the interaction volume, the column is
overstressed.

50 Column Design
 Chapter IV Design for AASHTO LRFD 1997

This capacity ratio is achieved by plotting the point L and determining the location
of point C. The point C is defined as the point where the line OL (if extended out-
wards) will intersect the failure surface. This point is determined by three-
dimensional linear interpolation between the points that define the failure surface.
OL
See Figure II-3. The capacity ratio, CR, is given by the ratio .
OC

• If OL = OC (or CR=1) the point lies on the interaction surface and the column is
stressed to capacity.
• If OL < OC (or CR<1) the point lies within the interaction volume and the col-
umn capacity is adequate.
• If OL > OC (or CR>1) the point lies outside the interaction volume and the col-
umn is overstressed.

The maximum of all the values of CR calculated from each load combination is re-
ported for each check station of the column along with the controlling
P , M , and M set and associated load combination number.
u ux uy

If the reinforcing area is not defined, SAP2000 computes the reinforcement that
will give an interaction ratio of unity.

Design Column Shear Reinforcement

The shear reinforcement is designed for each loading combination in the major and
minor directions of the column. In designing the shear reinforcing for a particular
column for a particular loading combination due to shear forces in a particular di-
rection, the following steps are involved:

• Determine the factored forces acting on the section, M , P and V . Note that
u u u

M and P are needed for the calculation of v .

u u c

• Determine the shear stress, v , that can be resisted by concrete alone.

c

• Calculate the reinforcement steel required to carry the balance.

For moment resisting frames in seismic Zones 3 and 4, the shear design of the col-
umns is also based upon the overstrength moment capacities of the members in ad-
dition to the factored moments (AASHTO 3.10.9.4.3). Effects of the axial forces on
the column moment capacities are included in the formulation.

The following three sections describe in detail the algorithms associated with the
above-mentioned steps.

Column Design 51
SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

Determine Section Forces

• In the design of the column shear reinforcement of moment resisting concrete
frames in seismic Zones 1 and 2, the forces for a particular load combination,
namely, the column axial force, P , and the column shear force, V , in a par-
u u

ticular direction are obtained by factoring the SAP2000 analysis load cases
with the corresponding load combination factors.
• In the shear design of moment resisting frames in seismic Zones 3 and 4
(seismic design), the following are checked in addition to the requirement for
the moment resisting frames in Zones 1 and 2. In the design of moment resist-
ing concrete frames in seismic Zones 3 and 4, the design shear force in a col-
umn, V , in a particular direction is also calculated from the overstrength mo-
u

ment capacities of the column associated with the factored axial force acting on
the column (AASHTO 3.10.9.4.3).

For each load combination, the factored axial load, P , is calculated. Then, the
u

positive and negative moment capacities, M + and M − , of the column in a par-

u u

ticular direction under the influence of the axial force P is calculated using the
u

uniaxial interaction diagram in the corresponding direction. The design shear

force,V , is then given by (AASHTO 3.10.9.4.3)
u

V =V + V
u p D+ L
(AASHTO 3.10.9.4.3)

where, V is the shear force obtained by applying the calculated overstrength

p

ultimate moment capacities at the two ends of the column acting in two oppo-
site directions. Therefore,V is the maximum of V 1 and V 2 , where
p P P

M +M- +

V1 = I J
, and
L
P

M +M+ -

V2 = I
, where J

L
P

M + , M − = Positive and negative moment capacities at end I of the col-

I I

umn obtained by multiplying the nominal resistance by 1.3,

M + , M − = Positive and negative moment capacities at end J of the col-

J J

umn obtained by multiplying the nominal resistance by 1.3,

and
L = Clear span of column.

52 Column Design
 Chapter IV Design for AASHTO LRFD 1997

V + is the contribution of shear force from the in-span distribution of gravity

D L

loads. For most of the columns, it is zero. See also Table IV-2 for details.

Determine Concrete Shear Capacity

Given the design force set M , P andV , the shear capacity provided by the con-
u u u

crete alone, v , is calculated as follows:

c

• For designing moment resisting concrete frames in any seismic zone, v is c

set to:

v = 0.0316 β f ′ ,
c c
(AASHTO 5.8.3.3)

where, β is a factor indicating the ability of diagonally cracked concrete to

transmit tension. It is a function of stress condition and its approximate value is
2.0 (AASHTO 5.8.3.4.1). It is computed from AASHTO Table 5.8.3.4.2-1
through an iterative procedure.

• For designing moment resisting concrete frames in seismic Zones 3 and 4,

v is taken as that given earlier (AASHTO 5.8.3.3) if compressive axial force is
c

high (P > 0.1 f ′ A ) (AASHTO 5.10.11.4.1c). v is taken as zero if axial

u c g c

force is tensile. v is linearly interpolated between zero and that given by

c

AASHTO 5.8.3.3, if the factored axial compressive force, P , including the u

earthquake effect is small (P ≤ 0.1 f ′ A ) (AASHTO 5.10.11.4.1c). This pro-

u c g

vision is applied to all locations of the column irrespective of whether it is in the

end region or not.

Determine Required Shear Reinforcement

• The average shear stress is computed for a rectangular section as,
V
v= u
.
b d w

For other types of sections b d is replaced by A , the effective shear area

w cv

which is shown in Figure IV-2.

• The average shear stress, v, is limited to a maximum limit, v max

, given by

v max
= 0.25 f ′ . c
(AASHTO 5.8.3.3)

Column Design 53
SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

• The shear reinforcement per unit spacing is computed as follows:

If v ≤ ϕ ( v 2) , c

A
=0,
v
(AASHTO 5.8.2.4)
s

else if ϕ ( v 2) < v ≤ ϕ v + 0.0316 f ′ cot θ ,

c ( c c )
′
A 0.0316 f b
=
v c w
, (AASHTO 5.8.2.5)
s f yh

(
else if ϕ v + 0.0316 f ′ cot θ < v ≤ ϕ v
c c ) max
,

A (v − ϕ v ) b
=
v
, c w
(AASHTO 5.8.3.3)
s ϕ f cot θ yh

else if v > v max

,

a failure condition is declared. (AASHTO 5.8.3.3)

Here θ is an angle of inclination of diagonal compressive stresses. It is a function of

current stress condition and its approximate value is 45 degree (AASHTO
5.8.3.4.1). It is computed from AASHTO Table 5.8.3.4.2-1 through an iterative
procedure. Here the default value of ϕ, the strength reduction factor, is 0.90
(AASHTO 5.5.4.2.1).

The limit of f yh
is taken to be 60 ksi for all frames:

f yh
≤ 60 ksi. (AASHTO 5.8.2.8)

In calculating the shear reinforcement for seismic moment resisting frames in Zone
3 and 4, a limit was imposed on the f as ys

f ys
≤f . y
(AASHTO 5.10.11.4.1d)

The maximum of all the calculated A s values, obtained from each load combina-
v

tion, is reported for the major and minor directions of the column along with the
controlling shear force and associated load combination number.

For all columns and at any station, the minimum area of transverse circular hoop re-
inforcement is imposed as follows:

54 Column Design
 Chapter IV Design for AASHTO LRFD 1997

A A  f ′
h
≥ 0.45  − 1
v g c core
(AASHTO 5.7.4.6)
s A f c yh
4

In potential plastic hinge locations, as described later, of Seismic moment resisting

frames in Zones 2, 3 and 4, the minimum area of circular hoops and transverse stir-
rups is imposed as follows:

A  1.25 P  f ′
h
≥ 0.16  0.5 + ′
v

u c core
(Hoops) (AASHTO 5.10.11.4.1d)
s  f A f c g yh
4

A A  f ′
≥ 0.30  − 1 h
v g c
(Stirrups) (AASHTO 5.10.11.4.1d)
s A f
core
c yh

A  1.25 P  f ′
≥ 0.12  0.5 + ′
v

u c
h (Stirrups) (AASHTO 5.10.11.4.1d)
s f A f
core
 c g yh

In the above equations, the following limits are imposed:

 1.25 P 
 0.5 + ′  ≥ 1.0
u
(AASHTO 5.10.11.4.1d)
 f A  c g

f yh
≤f y
(AASHTO 5.10.11.4.1d)

For the definition of the potential plastic hinge, it is assumed in the current version
of the program that any beam and column segment near the joint is a potential plas-
tic hinge. The length of the plastic hinge, L , in a column is taken as follows: hinge

L hinge {
= max h, b, l 6 , 18 ′′
} (AASHTO 5.10.11.4.1c)

The column shear reinforcement requirements reported by the program are based
purely upon the above considerations. Any other minimum stirrup requirements to
satisfy spacing and/or volumetric requirements must be investigated independently
of the program by the user.

Column Design 55
SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

d' d

DIRECTION
OF SHEAR
FORCE
Acv b

RECTANGULAR

d' d

DIRECTION
OF SHEAR
FORCE
A cv b

SQUARE WITH CIRCULAR REBAR

d' d

DIRECTION
OF SHEAR
FORCE
Acv

CIRCULAR

Figure IV-2
Shear Stress Area, A cv

56 Column Design
 Chapter IV Design for AASHTO LRFD 1997

Beam Design
In the design of concrete beams, SAP2000 calculates and reports the required areas
of steel for flexure and shear based upon the beam moments, shears, load combina-
tion factors, and other criteria described below. The reinforcement requirements
are calculated at a user defined number of check/design stations along the beam
span.

All the beams are only designed for major direction flexure and shear. Effects due
to any axial forces, minor direction bending, and torsion that may exist in the beams
must be investigated independently by the user.
The beam design procedure involves the following steps:

• Design beam flexural reinforcement

• Design beam shear reinforcement

Design Beam Flexural Reinforcement

The beam top and bottom flexural steel is designed at check/design stations along
the beam span. In designing the flexural reinforcement for the major moment for a
particular beam for a particular section, the following steps are involved:

• Determine the maximum factored moments

• Determine the reinforcing steel

Determine Factored Moments

In the design of flexural reinforcement of moment resisting concrete beams, the
factored moments for each load combination at a particular beam section are ob-
tained by factoring the corresponding moments for different load cases with the
corresponding load factors. The beam section is then designed for the maximum
positive M and maximum negative M factored moments obtained from all of the
+
u
-
u

load combinations.

Negative beam moments produce top steel. In such cases the beam is always de-
signed as a rectangular section. Positive beam moments produce bottom steel. In
such cases the beam may be designed as a Rectangular- or a T-beam.

Beam Design 57
SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

Determine Required Flexural Reinforcement

In the flexural reinforcement design process, the program calculates both the ten-
sion and compression reinforcement. Compression reinforcement is added when
the applied design moment exceeds the maximum moment capacity of a singly re-
inforced section. The user has the option of avoiding the compression reinforce-
ment by increasing the effective depth, the width, or the grade of concrete.

The design procedure is based on the simplified rectangular stress block as shown
in Figure IV-3 (AASHTO 5.7). Furthermore it is assumed that the maximum depth
of compression block is limited to 0.42 d (AASHTO 5.7.3.3.1). When the applied
moment exceeds the moment capacity at this limiting condition, the area of com-
pression reinforcement is calculated on the assumption that the additional moment
will be carried by compression and additional tension reinforcement.

In designing the beam flexural reinforcement, the following limits are imposed on
the steel tensile strength and the concrete compressive strength:

f ′ ≤ 10 ksi.
c
(AASHTO 5.1, 5.4.2.1)

f ≤ 75 ksi.
y
(AASHTO 5.4.3.1)

The design procedure used by SAP2000, for both rectangular and flanged sections
(L- and T-beams) is summarized below. All the beams are designed for major di-
rection flexure and shear only.

Design for Rectangular Beam

In designing for a factored negative or positive moment, M , (i.e. designing top or

u

bottom steel) the depth of the compression block is given by a (see Figure IV-3), is
computed as,

2 M
a= d− d − 2 u

′
, (AASHTO 5.7.2.1
0.85 f ϕ b
c

where, the value of ϕ is 0.90 (AASHTO 5.5.4.2.1) in the above and the following
equations. Also β and c are calculated as follows:
1 b

β = 0.85 − 0.05 ( f ′ − 4) ,
1 c
0.65 ≤ β ≤ 0.85,
1
(AASHTO 5.7.2.2)

87
c = d. (AASHTO 5.7.2.1)
87 + f
b
y

58 Beam Design
 Chapter IV Design for AASHTO LRFD 1997

The maximum allowed depth of the compression block is given by

a max
= min{ β c , 0.42d} .
1 b
(AASHTO 5.7.2.2, 5.7.3.3.1)

ε = 0.003 0.85f'c
b

A's Cs
d' c a= 1c

εs Ts Tc
As

(i) BEAM (ii) STRAIN (iii) STRESS

SECTION DIAGRAM DIAGRAM

Figure IV-3
Design of Rectangular Beam Section

• If a ≤ a max
(AASHTO 5.7.3.3.1), the area of tensile steel reinforcement is then
given by
M
A = u
.
 a
s

ϕ f d − 
y
 2

This steel is to be placed at the bottom if M is positive, or at the top if M is

u u

negative.

• If a > a (AASHTO 5.7.3.3.1), compression reinforcement is required and is

max

calculated as follows:
– The compressive force developed in concrete alone is given by

C = 0.85 f ′ ba c max
, and (AASHTO 5.7.2.2)

the moment resisted by concrete compression and bottom steel is

Beam Design 59
SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

 a 
M = C d −  ϕ. max

 2 
uc

– Therefore the moment resisted by compression steel and tensile steel is

M =M −M
us u uc
.

– So the required compression steel is given by

M
A′ = ′ ′
us
, where
( f − α f )( d − d′ ) ϕ
s

s 1 c

 c − d′ 
f ′ = 0.003 E  . (AASHTO 5.7.2.1)
s
 c  s

– The required tensile steel for balancing the compression in concrete is

M
A = uc
, and
s1
a
f (d −
y
max
)ϕ
2

the tensile steel for balancing the compression in steel is given by

M
A = us
.
f ( d − d′ )ϕ
s2
y

– Therefore, the total tensile reinforcement, A = A + A , and total com-

s s1 s2

pression reinforcement is A ′ . A is to be placed at bottom and A ′ is to be

s s s

placed at top if M is positive, and vice versa.

u

Design for Flexure of a T-Beam

(i) Flanged Beam Under Negative Moment

In designing for a factored negative moment, M , (i.e. designing top steel), the cal-
u

culation of the steel area is exactly the same as above, i.e., no T-Beam data is to be
used.

(ii) Flanged Beam Under Positive Moment

If M > 0, the depth of the compression block is given by (see Figure IV-4).
u

60 Beam Design
 Chapter IV Design for AASHTO LRFD 1997

2M
a= d− d − 2

′
u
, (AASHTO 5.7.2.1)
0.85 f ϕ b c f

where, the value of ϕ is 0.90 (AASHTO 5.5.4.2.1) in the above and the following
equations. Also β and c are calculated as follows:
1 b

β = 0.85 − 0.05 ( f ′ − 4) ,
1 c
0.65 ≤ β ≤ 0.85,
1
(AASHTO 5.7.2.1)

87
c = d. (AASHTO 5.7.2.1)
87 + f
b
y

The maximum allowed depth of the compression block is given by

a max
= min{ β c , 0.42d} . 1 b
(AASHTO 5.7.2.2, 5.7.3.3.1)

• If a ≤ β d (AASHTO 5.7.3.2.2), the subsequent calculations for A are exactly

1 s s

the same as previously done for the rectangular section design. However, in
this case b is taken as the width of the beam. Whether compression reinforce-
f

ment is required depends on whether a > a . max

• If a > β d (AASHTO 5.7.3.2.2), calculation for A is done in two parts. The

1 s s

first part is for balancing the compressive force from the flange, C , and the f

second part is for balancing the compressive force from the web,C . As shown w

in Figure IV-4,

C = 0.85 f ′ ( b − b ) β d .
f c f w 1 s
(AASHTO 5.7.3.2.2)

C
Therefore, A = and the portion of M that is resisted by the flange is
f

f
s1 u
y

given by
 βd 
M = C d− ϕ. 1 s

 2 
uf f

Therefore, the balance of the moment, M to be carried by the web is given by u

M uw
= M − M u uf
.

The web is a rectangular section of dimensions b and d, for which the design w

depth of the compression block is recalculated as

2M
a = d− d − 2 uw
.
0.85 f ′ ϕ b
1

c w

Beam Design 61
SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

ε = 0.003 0.85f'c 0.85f'c

bf ds

d' fs' Cs
As' Cf
c

d
Cw

As εs Ts Tw Tf
bw

(i) BEAM (ii) STRAIN (iii) STRESS

SECTION DIAGRAM DIAGRAM

Figure IV-4
Design of a T-Beam Section

• If a ≤ a 1
(AASHTO 5.7.3.3.1), the area of tensile steel reinforcement is
max

then given by
M
A = uw
, and
s2
 a 
ϕ f d −  1

 2 
y

A =A +A .
s s1 s2

This steel is to be placed at the bottom of the T-beam.

• If a > a 1
(AASHTO 5.7.3.3.1), compression reinforcement is required
max

and is calculated as follows:

– The compressive force in web concrete alone is given by

C = 0.85 f ′ ba c max
. (AASHTO 5.7.2.2)

– Therefore the moment resisted by concrete web and tensile steel is

 a 
M = C d −  ϕ , and
max

 2 
uc

62 Beam Design
 Chapter IV Design for AASHTO LRFD 1997

the moment resisted by compression steel and tensile steel is

M =M us uw
−M uc
.

– Therefore, the compression steel is computed as

M
A′ = ′ ′
us
, where
( f − α f )( d − d′ ) ϕ
s

s 1 c

 c − d′ 
f ′ = 0.003 E  ≤f . (AASHTO 5.7.2.1)
s
 c  s y

– The tensile steel for balancing compression in web concrete is

M
A = uc
, and
s2
a
f (d −
y
max
)ϕ
2

the tensile steel for balancing compression in steel is

M
A = . us

f ( d − d′ )ϕ
s3
y

– The total tensile reinforcement, A = A + A + A , and total compres- s s1 s2 s3

sion reinforcement is A ′ . A is to be placed at bottom and A ′ is to be

s s s

placed at top.

Minimum and Maximum Tensile Reinforcement

The minimum temperature and shrinkage flexural tensile steel provided in a rectan-
gular section is given by:
 0.11 
A ≥ min  b d and 0.0015 b d  or (AASHTO 5.10.8.2)
 f
s w w
y 

The minimum flexural tensile steel provided to prevent premature flexural failure
in a rectangular section is given by:
 f′ 4 
A ≥ min  0.03 b d and c
A  or (AASHTO 5.7.3.3.2)
f
s w s ( required )
 y
3 

An upper limit of 0.04 times the gross web area on both the tension reinforcement
and the compression reinforcement is imposed, upon request, as follows:

Beam Design 63
SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

 0.04 b d Rectangular beam

A ≤
 0.04 b d T -beam
s
w

 0.04 b d Rectangular beam

A′ ≤ 
 0.04 b d T -beam
s
w

Design Beam Shear Reinforcement

The shear reinforcement is designed for each load combination at a user defined
number of stations along the beam span. In designing the shear reinforcement for a
particular beam for a particular loading combination at a particular station due to
the beam major shear, the following steps are involved:

• Determine the factored forces acting on the section, M and V . Note that M
u u u

is needed for the calculation of v .

c

• Determine the shear stress, v , that can be resisted by concrete alone.

c

• Calculate the reinforcement steel required to carry the balance.

For moment resisting frames in seismic zones 3 and 4, the shear design of the beams
is also based upon the overstrength moment capacities of the members in addition
to the factored moments (AASHTO 3.10.9.4.3).

The following three sections describe in detail the algorithms associated with the
above-mentioned steps.

Determine Shear Force and Moment

• In the design of the beam shear reinforcement of moment resisting concrete
frames in seismic Zones 1 and 2, the shear forces and moments for a particular
load combination at a particular beam section are obtained by factoring the as-
sociated shear forces and moments with the corresponding load combination
factors.
• In the shear design of moment resisting frames in seismic Zones 3 and 4
(seismic design), the following are checked in addition to the requirement for
the moment resisting frames in Zones 1 and 2. In the design of moment resist-
ing concrete frames in seismic Zones 3 and 4, the design shear force in a beam,
V , is also calculated from the overstrength moment capacities of the beam
u

(AASHTO 3.10.9.4.3). The design shear forceV is then given by

u

V =V + V
u p D+ L
(AASHTO 3.10.9.4.3)

64 Beam Design
 Chapter IV Design for AASHTO LRFD 1997

where V is the shear force obtained by applying the calculated overstrength ul-
p

timate moment capacities at the two ends of the beams acting in two opposite
directions. Therefore,V is the maximum ofV 1 andV 2 , where
p P P

M +M- +

V1 = I J
, and
L
P

M +M+ -

V2 = I J
, where
L
P

M + , M − = Positive and negative moment capacities at end I of the beam

I I

obtained by multiplying the nominal resistance by 1.3,

M + , M − = Positive and negative moment capacities at end J of the beam

J J

obtained by multiplying the nominal resistance by 1.3, and

L = Clear span of beam.

V + is the contribution of shear force from the in-span distribution of gravity

D L

loads. See also Table IV-2 for details.

Determine Concrete Shear Capacity

Given the design force set M and V , the shear capacity provided by the concrete
u u

alone, v , is calculated as follows:

c

• For designing moment resisting concrete frames in any seismic zone, v is c

set to:

v = 0.0316 β f ′ ,
c c
(AASHTO 5.8.3.3)

where, β is a factor indicating the ability of diagonally cracked concrete to

transmit tension. It is a function of stress condition and its approximate value is
2.0 (AASHTO 5.8.3.4.1). It is computed from AASHTO Table 5.8.3.4.2-1
through an iterative procedure.

Determine Required Shear Reinforcement

• The average shear stress is computed for a rectangular section as,
V
v= .u

b d w

Beam Design 65
SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

For other types of sections b d is replaced by A , the effective shear area

w cv

which is shown in Figure IV-2.

• The average shear stress, v, is limited to a maximum limit, v max

, given by

v max
= 0.25 f ′ . c
(AASHTO 5.8.3.3)

• The shear reinforcement per unit spacing is computed as follows:

If v ≤ ϕ ( v 2) , c

Av
=0, (AASHTO 5.8.2.4)
s

else if ϕ ( v 2) < v ≤ ϕ v + 0.0316 f ′ cot θ ,

c ( c c )
′
A 0.0316 f b
=
v c w
, (AASHTO 5.8.2.5)
s f yh

(
else if ϕ v + 0.0316 f ′ cot θ < v ≤ ϕ v
c c ) max
,

A (v − ϕ v ) b
v
= , c w
(AASHTO 5.8.3.3)
s ϕ f cot θ yh

else if v > v max

,

a failure condition is declared. (AASHTO 5.8.3.3)

Here θ is an angle of inclination of diagonal compressive stresses. It is a function of

current stress condition and its approximate value is 45 degree (AASHTO
5.8.3.4.1). It is computed from AASHTO Table 5.8.3.4.2-1 through an iterative
procedure. Here the default value of ϕ, the strength reduction factor, is 0.90
(AASHTO 5.5.4.2.1).

The limit of f yh
is taken to be 60 ksi for all frames:

f yh
≤ 60 ksi. (AASHTO 5.8.2.8)

In calculating the shear reinforcement for seismic moment resisting frames in Zone
3 and 4, a limit was imposed on the f as ys

f yh
≤f . y
(AASHTO 5.10.11.4.1d)

66 Beam Design
 Chapter IV Design for AASHTO LRFD 1997

The maximum of all the calculated A s values, obtained from each load combina-
v

tion, is reported for the major and minor directions of the column along with the
controlling shear force and associated load combination number.

The beam shear reinforcement requirements reported by the program are based
purely upon the above considerations. Any minimum stirrup requirements to sat-
isfy spacing and/or volumetric requirements must be investigated independently of
the program by the user.

Beam Design 67
SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

Moment Resisting Frames Moment Resisting Frames

Type of
in Zones 1 and 2 in Zones 3 and 4
Check/Design
(non-Seismic) (Seismic)

ϕ In Compression ϕ = 0.75, if Pu > 0.10 f c′ ϕ = 0.50, if Pu > 0.20 f c′

Column Check
NLDH Combinations NLDH Combinations
(Interaction)

Column Design NLDH Combinations NLDH Combinations

(Interaction) 0.135 f c′ f y < ρ < 0.08 0.01 < ρ < 0.06

NLDH Combinations NLDH Combinations and

Column capacity shear (VP ) with
overstrenth factor 1.3

v c = 0.0316 β f c′ v c = 0.0316 β f c′ if Pu ≥ 0.1 f c′Ag

Column Shears Pu
v c = 0.0316 β f c′ ≥ 0 otherwise
0.1 f c′Ag
Minimum volumatric shear Minimum volumatric shear reinforcement in
reinforcement in potential plastic potential plastic hinge for both Zone 3 and 4
hinge only for Zone 2

NLDH Combinations
Beam Design ρ ≤ 0.025
NLDH Combinations 3 f c′ 200
(Flexure) ρ≥ ,ρ ≥
fy fy

0.11 0.11
bw d , 0.0015 bw d , bw d , 0.0015 bw d ,
Beam Minimum fy fy
Flexural
f c′ 4 f c′ 4
Reinforcement 0.03 , As required 0.03 , As required
ff 3 ff 3
, ,

NLDH Combinations NLDH Combinations

Beam capacity shear (VP ) with
Beam Design
overstrenth factor 1.3
(Shear)
v c = 0.0316 β f c′ v c = 0.0316 β f c′

H
Number of specified loading
Table IV-2
Design Criteria Table

68 Beam Design
 Chapter V

Design for CSA-A23.3-94

This chapter describes in detail the various aspects of the concrete design procedure
that is used by SAP2000 when the user selects the Canadian code, CSA-A23.3-94
(CSA 1994). Various notations used in this chapter are listed in Table V-1.

The design is based on user-specified loading combinations. But the program pro-
vides a set of default load combinations that should satisfy requirements for the de-
sign of most building type structures.

SAP2000 provides options to design or check Ordinary, Nominal (moderate seis-

mic risk areas), and Ductile (high seismic risk areas) moment resisting frames as re-
quired for seismic design. The details of the design criteria used for the different
framing systems are described in the following sections.

English as well as SI and MKS metric units can be used for input. But the code is
based on Newton-Millimeter-Second units. For simplicity, all equations and de-
scriptions presented in this chapter correspond to Newton-Millimeter-Second
units unless otherwise noted.

69
SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

A cv
Area of concrete used to determine shear stress, sq-mm
A core
Area of concrete core, sq-mm
A g
Gross area of concrete, sq-mm
A s
Area of tension reinforcement, sq-mm
A′ s
Area of compression reinforcement, sq-mm
A s ( required )
Area of steel required for tension reinforcement, sq-mm
A st
Total area of column longitudinal reinforcement, sq-mm
A v
Area of shear reinforcement, sq-mm
a Depth of compression block, mm
a b
Depth of compression block at balanced condition, mm
b Width of member, mm
b f
Effective width of flange (T-Beam section), mm
b w
Width of web (T-Beam section), mm
C m
Coefficient, dependent upon column curvature, used to
calculate moment magnification factor
c Depth to neutral axis, mm
c b
Depth to neutral axis at balanced conditions, mm
d Distance from compression face to tension reinforcement, mm
d′ Concrete cover to center of reinforcing, mm
d s
Thickness of slab (T-Beam section), mm
E c
Modulus of elasticity of concrete, MPa
E s
Modulus of elasticity of reinforcement, assumed as 200,000 MPa
f′ c
Specified compressive strength of concrete, MPa
f y
Specified yield strength of flexural reinforcement, MPa
f yh
Specified yield strength of shear reinforcement, MPa
h Dimension of beam or column, mm
I g
Moment of inertia of gross concrete section about centroidal axis,
neglecting reinforcement, mm4
I st
Moment of inertia of reinforcement about centroidal axis of member
cross section, mm4
k Effective length factor

Table V-1
List of Symbols Used in the Canadian code

70
 Chapter V Design for CSA-A23.3-94

L Clear unsupported length, mm

M 1
Smaller factored end moment in a column, N-mm
M 2
Larger factored end moment in a column, N-mm
M c
Factored moment to be used in design, N-mm
M ns
Nonsway component of factored end moment, N-mm
M s
Sway component of factored end moment, N-mm
M f
Factored moment at section, N-mm
M fx
Factored moment at section about X-axis, N-mm
M fy
Factored moment at section about Y-axis, N-mm
Pb
Axial load capacity at balanced strain conditions, N
Pc
Critical buckling strength of column, N
Pr,max
Maximum axial load strength allowed, N
P0
Axial load capacity at zero eccentricity, N
P f
Factored axial load at section, N
Vc
Shear resisted by concrete, N
V +
D L
Shear force from span loading, N
Vp
Shear force computed from probable moment capacity, N
V f
Factored shear force at a section, N
Vs
Shear force at a section resisted by steel, N
α Reinforcing steel overstrength factor
β 1
Factor for obtaining depth of compression block in concrete
α 1
Factor for obtaining average compressive stress in concrete block
β d
Absolute value of the ratio of the maximum factored axial
dead load moment to the maximum factored total load moment
δb
Moment magnification factor for nonsway moments
δs
Moment magnification factor for sway moments
εc
Strain in concrete
εs
Strain in reinforcing steel
ϕ c
Strength reduction factor for concrete
ϕ s
Strength reduction factor for steel
ϕ m
Strength reduction factor for member
λ Shear strength factor
Table V-1
List of Symbols Used in the Canadian code (continued)

71
SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

Design Load Combinations

The design load combinations are the various combinations of the prescribed load
cases for which the structure needs to be checked. For this code, if a structure is sub-
jected to dead load (DL), live load (LL), wind (WL), and earthquake (EL) loads,
and considering that wind and earthquake forces are reversible, then the following
load combinations may have to be considered (CSA 8.3):

1.25 DL
1.25 DL + 1.50 LL (CSA 8.3.2)

1.25 DL ± 1.50 WL
0.85 DL ± 1.50 WL
1.25 DL + 0.7 (1.50 LL ± 1.50 WL) (CSA 8.3.2)

1.00 DL ± 1.50 EL
1.00 DL + (0.50 LL ± 1.00 EL) (CSA 8.3.2)

These are also the default design load combinations in SAP2000 whenever the Ca-
nadian Code is used.

In generating the above default loading combinations, the importance factor is

taken as 1. The user should use other appropriate loading combinations if roof live
load is separately treated, other types of loads are present, or pattern live loads are
to be considered.

Live load reduction factors can be applied to the member forces of the live load case
on an element-by-element basis to reduce the contribution of the live load to the
factored loading.

Strength Reduction Factors

The strength reduction factor, ϕ, is material dependent and is defined as

ϕ = 0.60 for concrete and

c
(CSA 8.4.2 )

ϕ = 0.85 for steel.

s
(CSA 8.4.3)

In some special cases, a member resistance factor, ϕ , is used as an additional re-

m

duction factor in addition to ϕ and ϕ (CSA 8.4.1). In connection with buckling re-
c s

sistance, ϕ is taken as 0.75 (CSA 10.15.3).

m

72 Design Load Combinations

 Chapter V Design for CSA-A23.3-94

Column Design
The user may define the geometry of the reinforcing bar configuration of each con-
crete column section. If the area of reinforcing is provided by the user, the program
checks the column capacity. However, if the area of reinforcing is not provided by
the user, the program calculates the amount of reinforcing required for the column.
The design procedure for the reinforced concrete columns of the structure involves
the following steps:

• Generate axial force-biaxial moment interaction surfaces for all of the different
concrete section types of the model. A typical biaxial interaction surface is
shown in Figure II-1. When the steel is undefined, the program generates the
interaction surfaces for the range of allowable reinforcement  1 to 8 percent
for Ordinary and Nominal moment resisting frames (CSA 10.9.1 and CSA
10.9.2) and 1 to 6 percent for Ductile moment resisting frames (CSA 21.4.3.1).
• Calculate the capacity ratio or the required reinforcing area for the factored ax-
ial force and biaxial (or uniaxial) bending moments obtained from each loading
combination at each station of the column. The target capacity ratio is taken as
one when calculating the required reinforcing area.
• Design the column shear reinforcement.

The following three subsections describe in detail the algorithms associated with
the above-mentioned steps.

Generation of Biaxial Interaction Surfaces

The column capacity interaction surface is numerically described by a series of dis-
crete points that are generated in the three-dimensional interaction failure space. In
addition to axial compression and biaxial bending, the formulation allows for axial
tension and biaxial bending considerations. A typical interaction diagram is shown
in Figure II-1.

The coordinates of these points are determined by rotating a plane of linear strain in
three dimensions on the section of the column. See Figure II-2. The linear strain
diagram limits the maximum concrete strain, ε , at the extremity of the section,
c

to 0.0035 (CSA 10.1.3).

The formulation is based consistently upon the general principles of ultimate

strength design (CSA 10.1), and allows for any doubly symmetric rectangular,
square, or circular column section.

Column Design 73
SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

The stress in the steel is given by the product of the steel strain and the steel modu-
lus of elasticity, ε E , and is limited to the yield stress of the steel, f (CSA 8.5.3.2).
s s y

The area associated with each reinforcing bar is assumed to be placed at the actual
location of the center of the bar and the algorithm does not assume any further sim-
plifications in the manner in which the area of steel is distributed over the cross sec-
tion of the column (such as an equivalent steel tube or cylinder). See Figure V-1.

α1 f'c
εc = 0.0035
d' 1
εs1 Cs
C a= 1c
c
2
εs2 Cs

εs3 Ts3

εs4 Ts4

(i) Concrete Section (ii) Strain Diagram (iii) Stress Diagram

Figure V-1
Idealization of Stress and Strain Distribution in a Column Section

The concrete compression stress block is assumed to be rectangular, with a stress

value of α f ′ (CSA 10.1.7). See Figure V-1. The depth of the stress block is β c,
1 c 1

where

α = 0.85 − 0.0015 f ′ , α ≥ 0.67 .

1 c 1
(CSA 10.1.7)

β = 0.97 − 0.0025 f ′ , β ≥ 0.67 .

1 c 1
(CSA 10.1.7)

The limit of f ′ is taken to be 80 MPa for Ordinary moment resisting frames and 55
c

MPa for Nominal and Ductile moment resisting frames:

f ′ ≤ 80 MPa (Ordinary)
c
(CSA 8.6.1.1)

f ′ ≤ 55 MPa (Nominal and Ductile)

c
(CSA 21.2.3.1)

74 Column Design
 Chapter V Design for CSA-A23.3-94

The limit of f is taken to be 500 MPa for all frames:

y

f ≤ 500 MPa.
y
(CSA 8.5.1)

The interaction algorithm provides a correction to account for the concrete area that
is displaced by the reinforcement in the compression zone.

The effects of the strength reduction factors are included in the generation of the in-
teraction surfaces. The maximum compressive axial load is limited to P , where r,max

the maximum factored axial load resistance is given by

Pr,max
= 0.80 [ ϕ α f ′ ( A - A ) + ϕ f A ] (tied column),
c 1 c g st s y st
(CSA 10.10.4)

Pr,max
= 0.85 [ ϕ α f ′ ( A - A ) + ϕ f A ] (spiral column).
c 1 c g st s y st
(CSA 10.10.4)

Check Column Capacity

The column capacity is checked for each loading combination at each check station
of each column. In checking a particular column for a particular loading combina-
tion at a particular location, the following steps are involved:

• Determine the factored moments and forces from the analysis load cases and
the specified load combination factors to give P , M , and M . f fx fy

• Determine the moment magnification factors for the column moments.

• Apply the moment magnification factors to the factored loads obtained in the
first step. Determine whether the point, defined by the resulting axial load and
biaxial moment set, lies within the interaction volume.

The following three sections describe in detail the algorithms associated with the
above-mentioned steps.

Determine Factored Moments and Forces

The factored loads for a particular load combination are obtained by applying the
corresponding load factors to all the load conditions, giving P , M , and M . The
f fx fy

computed moments are further amplified by using “Moment Magnification Fac-

tors” to allow for “Lateral Drift Effect” and “Member Stability Effect”.

Determine Moment Magnification Factors

The moment magnification factors are applied in two different stages. First the mo-
ments are separated into their “sway” and “non-sway” components. The sway com-

Column Design 75
SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

ponents are amplified for lateral drift effect (CSA 10.16). Although according to
the code, this amplification is significant for “unbraced” frames only and may be
avoided for “braced” frames, SAP2000 treats all frames uniformly to amplify non-
sway components of moments. These amplified moments are further amplified for
individual member stability effect. According to the code, the individual member
stability effect is only significant if
kL 25 − 10 M M
≥ 1 2
, for braced frames, and (CSA 10.15.2)
r P f ′A
f c g

kL 35
≥ , for unbraced frames. (CSA 10.16.4)
r P f ′A
f c g

However, SAP2000 considers individual member stability effect for all compres-
sion column elements.

Lateral Drift Effect

For all frames, the moment magnification factor for lateral drift effect is applied
only to the “sway” moment in SAP2000.

M = M +δ M
ns s s
(CSA 10.16.2)

The moment obtained from analysis is separated into two components: the sway
( M ) and the nonsway ( M ) components. The non-sway or braced components
s ns

which are identified by “ns” subscripts are predominantly caused by gravity load.
The sway components are identified by “s” subscripts. The sway moments are pre-
dominantly caused by lateral loads, and are related to the cause of side sway.

The moment magnification factors in the major and minor directions can, in gen-
eral, be different. The moment magnification factors for moments causing
sidesway, δ and δ , can be taken as 1.0 if a P-∆ analysis is carried out (CSA
sx sy

10.16.3.1). The program assumes that a P-∆ analysis has been performed in
SAP2000 and, therefore, moment magnification factors for moments causing
sidesway are taken as unity. For the P-∆ analysis the load should correspond to a
load combination of (1.25 DL + 1.50 LL)/ϕ (CSA 10.16.5), where ϕ is the
m m

strength reduction factor for stability and is equal to 0.75 (CSA 10.15.3). See also
White and Hajjar (1991).

The user is reminded of the special analysis requirements, especially those related
to the value of EI used in analysis (CSA 10.14.1). SAP2000 analysis uses EI of
gross cross-sectional area in conjunction with a multiplication factor. The multipli-

76 Column Design
 Chapter V Design for CSA-A23.3-94

cation factors are defined in a section-by-section basis, so that effect of axial force
and cracking can be modeled in a first order analysis.

If the program assumptions are not satisfactory for a particular member, the user
can explicitly specify values of δ and δ . sx sy

Member Stability Effects

All compression members are designed using the factored axial load, P , from the f

analysis and a magnified factored moment, M . The magnified moment is com- c

puted as,

M =δ M ≥ M ,
c b 2 2
(CSA 10.15.3)

where M is the column maximum end moment obtained from elastic analysis af-
2

ter considering minimum eccentricity and lateral drift effect, and M is the maxi- c

mum moment occurring either at the end or at an interior point within the span of
the column. The moment magnification factor, δ , for moments not causing b

sidesway associated with the major or minor direction of the column is given by
C
δ = m
≥ 1.0 , where (CSA 10.15.3)
b
P
1-
f

ϕ P m c

ϕ = 0.75 ,
m
(CSA 10.15.3)
π EI2

P = , (CSA 10.15.3)
( kL)
c 2

k is conservatively taken as 1, however the user can override the value,

EI is associated with a particular column direction given by

EI = 0.25 E I , and c g
(CSA 10.15.3)
M
C = 0.6 + 0.4 ≥ 0.4 ,
a
(CSA 10.15.3.1)
M
m
b

M and M are the moments at the ends of the column, and M is numeri-
a b b

cally larger than M . M M is positive for single curvature bending and

a a b

negative for double curvature bending. The above expression ofC is valid m

if there is no transverse load applied between the supports. If transverse

load is present on the span, or the length is overwritten, or for any other

Column Design 77
SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

case,C = 1 (CSA 10.15.3.2) . C can be overwritten by the user on an ele-

m m

ment by element basis.

The pre-magnified factored moments are increased, if required, to obtain minimum

eccentricities, such thatC M P is at least (15+ 0.03h) mm about each axis sepa-
m f

rately, where h is the dimension of the column in mm unit in the corresponding di-
rection (CSA 10.15.3).

C M ≥ P ( 15 + 0.03 h)
m f
(CSA 10.15.3)

The moment magnification factor, δ , must be a positive number and greater than
b

one. Therefore P must be less than ϕ P . If P is found to be greater than or equal

f m c f

to ϕ P , a failure condition is declared. δ is taken as 1 for tension members.

m c b

The above calculations use the unsupported length of the column. The two unsup-
ported lengths are l and l corresponding to instability in the minor and major di-
22 33

rections of the element, respectively. See Figure II-4. These are the lengths between
the support points of the element in the corresponding directions.

If the program assumptions are not satisfactory for a particular member, the user
can explicitly specify values of δ and δ . s b

Determine Capacity Ratio

As a measure of the stress condition of the column, a capacity ratio is calculated.
The capacity ratio is basically a factor which gives an indication of the stress condi-
tion of the column with respect to the capacity of the column.

Before entering the interaction diagram to check the column capacity, the moment
magnification factors are applied to the factored loads to obtain P , M , and M .
f fx fy

The point (P , M , M ) is then placed in the interaction space shown as point L in

f fx fy

Figure II-3. If the point lies within the interaction volume, the column capacity is
adequate; however, if the point lies outside the interaction volume, the column is
overstressed.

This capacity ratio is achieved by plotting the point L and determining the location
of point C. The point C is defined as the point where the line OL (if extended out-
wards) will intersect the failure surface. This point is determined by three-
dimensional linear interpolation between the points that define the failure surface.
OL
See Figure II-3. The capacity ratio, CR, is given by the ratio .
OC

• If OL = OC (or CR=1) the point lies on the interaction surface and the column is
stressed to capacity.

78 Column Design
 Chapter V Design for CSA-A23.3-94

• If OL < OC (or CR<1) the point lies within the interaction volume and the col-
umn capacity is adequate.
• If OL > OC (or CR>1) the point lies outside the interaction volume and the col-
umn is overstressed.

The maximum of all the values of CR calculated from each load combination is re-
ported for each check station of the column along with the controlling P , M , and
f fx

M set and associated load combination number.

fy

If the reinforcing area is not defined, SAP2000 computes the reinforcement that
will give an interaction ratio of unity.

Design Column Shear Reinforcement

The shear reinforcement is designed for each loading combination in the major and
minor directions of the column. In designing the shear reinforcing for a particular
column for a particular loading combination due to shear forces in a particular di-
rection, the following steps are involved:

• Determine the factored forces acting on the section, M , P and V . Note that
f f f

M and P are needed for the calculation of v .

f f c

• Determine the shear stress, v , that can be resisted by concrete alone.

c

• Calculate the reinforcement steel required to carry the balance.

For Ductile and Nominal moment resisting concrete frames, the shear design of the
columns is also based upon the probable and nominal moment capacities, respec-
tively, of the members in addition to the factored moments (CSA 21.7.2.2,
21.9.2.3). Effects of the axial forces on the column moment capacities are included
in the formulation.

The following three sections describe in detail the algorithms associated with the
above-mentioned steps.

Determine Section Forces

• In the design of the column shear reinforcement of an Ordinary moment re-
sisting concrete frame, the forces for a particular load combination, namely,
the column axial force, P , the column moment, M , and the column shear
f f

force, V , in a particular direction are obtained by factoring the SAP2000

f

analysis load cases with the corresponding load combination factors.

Column Design 79
SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

• In the shear design of Ductile moment resisting frames (seismic design) the
following are checked in addition to the requirement for the Ordinary moment
resisting frames. In the design of Ductile moment resisting concrete frames, the
design shear force, V , in a particular direction is also calculated from the prob-
f

able moment capacities of the column associated with the factored axial force
acting on the column (CSA 21.7.2.2).
For each load combination, the factored axial load, P , is calculated. Then, the
f

positive and negative moment capacities, M + and M − , of the column in a par-

f f

ticular direction under the influence of the axial force P is calculated using the
f

uniaxial interaction diagram in the corresponding direction. The design shear

force,V , is then given by
f

V = V +V
f p D+ L
(CSA 21.7.2.2)

where,V is the shear force obtained by applying the calculated probable ulti-
p

mate moment capacities at the two ends of the column acting in two opposite
directions. Therefore,V is the maximum of V 1 and V 2 , where
p P P

M +M- +

V1 = I J
, and
L
P

M +M+ -

V2 = I
, where J

L
P

M+, M− I I
= Positive and negative moment capacities at end I of the
column using a steel yield stress value of αf and y

no ϕ factors,

M+, M− J J
= Positive and negative moment capacities at end J of the
column using a steel yield stress value of αf and y

no ϕ factors, and

L = Clear span of column.

For Ductile moment resisting frames α is taken as 1.25 (CSA 21.1). V + is the D L

contribution of shear force from the in-span distribution of gravity loads. For
most of the columns, it is zero.
• In the design of Nominal moment resisting frames (seismic), the shear capac-
ity of the column is also checked for the nominal shear due to the nominal mo-
ment capacities and the factored gravity load (CSA 21.9.2.3), in addition to the
design checks required for Ordinary moment resisting frames. The procedure
for calculating nominal moment capacity is the same as that for computing the

80 Column Design
 Chapter V Design for CSA-A23.3-94

probable moment capacity for Ductile moment resisting frames, except that αis
taken equal to 1 (CSA 21.0) rather than 1.25. The design shear force from
nominal moment capacities is enforced not to be greater than the factored shear
force with the seismic load doubled (CSA 21.9.2.3, 21.9.1). See also Table V-2
for details.

Determine Concrete Shear Capacity

Given the design force set M , P andV , the shear capacity provided by the con-
f f f

crete alone, v , is calculated using the “General Method” or “Compression Field

c

Theory” as follows (CSA 11.4):

• For designing Ordinary and Nominal moment resisting concrete frames, v c

is set to:

v = 1.3 λβ f ′ ,
c c
(CSA 11.4.3.1)

where, β is a factor indicating the ability of diagonally cracked concrete to re-

sist shear. It is a function of stress condition and its average value is 0.2 usually
with a range of 0.1 to 0.4 (CSA 11.4.4). It is computed from CSA Table 11-1
through an iterative procedure. In computing the β factor, the following two pa-
rameters are used:

M d + 0.5 N + 0.5 V cot θ

ε =
f v f f
(CSA 11.4.6)
E A
x
s s

0 ≤ ε ≤ 0.002
x
(CSA 11.4.6)
V b d
v =
f w v

′
(CSA 11.4.5)
λϕ f
ratio

c c

In the above equations d , the distance between the resultants of the tensile and
v

compressive forces, is conservatively taken to be 0.9d.

d = 0.9 d
v
(CSA 11.0)

The shear strength factor, λ, is taken to be 1, assuming normal density concrete

(CSA 11.0, 8.6.5).

• For designing Ductile moment resisting concrete frames, v is computed c

based on the assumption that ε = 0.002 (CSA 21.7.3.1b, 11.4.3.1 ). Otherwise

x

Column Design 81
SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

the procedure for computing v is the same as that for Ordinary and Nominal c

moment resisting frames.

Determine Required Shear Reinforcement

• The average shear stress is computed for a rectangular section as,
V
v=
f
.
b d
w v

In the above equation d , the distance between the resultants of the tensile and
v

compressive forces, is conservatively taken to be 0.9d.

d = 0.9 d
v
(CSA 11.0)

For other types of sections b d is replaced by 0.9 times A , the effective shear
w v cv

area, which is shown in Figure V-2.

• The average shear stress, v, is limited to a maximum limit, v max

, given by

v max
= 0.25 f ′ . c
(CSA 11.4.3)

• The shear reinforcement per unit spacing is computed as follows:

If v ≤ ϕ ( v 2) , c c

Av
=0, (CSA 11.2.8.1)
s

else if ϕ ( v 2) < v ≤ ϕ v + ϕ 0.06 f ′ cot θ ,

c c ( c c s c )
′
A 0.06 f b
=
v c w
, (CSA 11.2.8.4)
s f yh

else if (ϕ v c c
+ ϕ 0.06 f ′ cot θ < v ≤ ϕ v
s c ) c max
,

A (v − ϕ v ) b
v
= , c c w
(CSA 11.4.3.2)
s ϕ f cot θ s yh

else if v > ϕ v c max

,

a failure condition is declared. (CSA 11.3.4)

82 Column Design
 Chapter V Design for CSA-A23.3-94

Here θ is an angle of inclination of diagonal compressive stresses. It is a function of

current stress condition and its approximate value is 34 degree with a range of 27
degrees to 45 degrees (CSA 11.4.4). It is computed from CSA Table 11-1 using the
parameters ε and v
x ratio
through an iterative procedure.

d' d

DIRECTION
OF SHEAR
FORCE
Acv b

RECTANGULAR

d' d

DIRECTION
OF SHEAR
FORCE
A cv b

SQUARE WITH CIRCULAR REBAR

d' d

DIRECTION
OF SHEAR
FORCE
Acv

CIRCULAR

Figure V-2
Shear Stress Area, A cv

Column Design 83
SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

The limit of f ′ is taken to be 80 MPa for Ordinary moment resisting frames and 55
c

MPa for Nominal and Ductile moment resisting frames:

f ′ ≤ 80 MPa (Ordinary)
c
(CSA 8.6.1.1)

f ′ ≤ 55 MPa (Nominal and Ductile)

c
(CSA 21.2.3.1)

The limit of f yh
is taken to be 500 MPa for all frames:

f yh
≤ 500 MPa. (CSA 8.5.1)

The maximum of all the calculated A s values, obtained from each load combina-
v

tion, is reported for the major and minor directions of the column along with the
controlling shear force and associated load combination number.

For all columns and at any station, the minimum area of transverse circular hoop re-
inforcement is imposed as follows:

A  A  f ′
h
≥ 0.45  − 1
v g c core
(CSA 10.9.4)
s A core f yh
4

In potential plastic hinge locations, as described later, of Ductile moment resisting

frames, the minimum area of circular hoops and transverse stirrups is imposed as
follows:
′
A f h
≥ 0.12
v c core
(Hoops) (CSA 21.4.4.2)
s f yh
4

A  A  f ′
h
≥ 0.45  − 1
v g c core
(Hoops) (CSA 21.4.4.2, 10.9.4)
s A core f yh
4
′
A f
≥ 0.09
v c
h (Stirrups) (CSA 21.4.4.2)
s f
core
yh

A  A  f ′
≥ 0.30  − 1 h
v g c
(Stirrups) (CSA 21.4.4.2)
s A f
core
core yh

For the definition of the potential plastic hinge, it is assumed in the current version
of the program that any beam and column segment near the joint is a potential plas-
tic hinge. The length of the plastic hinge, L , in a column is taken as follows:
hinge

L hinge
= max{h, b, l 6 , 450 mm} (CSA 21.4.4.5)

84 Column Design
 Chapter V Design for CSA-A23.3-94

The column shear reinforcement requirements reported by the program are based
purely upon the above considerations. Any other minimum stirrup requirements to
satisfy spacing and/or volumetric requirements must be investigated independently
of the program by the user.

Beam Design
In the design of concrete beams, SAP2000 calculates and reports the required areas
of steel for flexure and shear based upon the beam moments, shears, load combina-
tion factors and other criteria described below. The reinforcement requirements are
calculated at a user defined number of check stations along the beam span.

All the beams are only designed for major direction flexure and shear. Effects due
to any axial forces, minor direction bending, and torsion that may exist in the beams
must be investigated independently by the user.

The beam design procedure involves the following steps:

• Design beam flexural reinforcement

• Design beam shear reinforcement

Design Beam Flexural Reinforcement

The beam top and bottom flexural steel is designed at a user defined number of de-
sign stations along the beam span. In designing the flexural reinforcement for the
major moment of a particular beam for a particular section, the following steps are
involved:

• Determine the maximum factored moments

• Determine the reinforcing steel

Determine Factored Moments

In the design of flexural reinforcement of Ductile, Nominal, or Ordinary moment
resisting concrete frame beams, the factored moments for each load combination at
a particular beam station are obtained by factoring the corresponding moments for
different load cases with the corresponding load factors. The beam section is then
designed for the maximum positive M and maximum negative M factored mo-
+
f
-
f

ments obtained from all of the load combinations.

Beam Design 85
SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

Positive beam moments produce bottom steel. In such cases the beam may be de-
signed as a Rectangular- or T-beam. Negative beam moments produce top steel. In
such cases the beam is always designed as a rectangular section.

Determine Required Flexural Reinforcement

In the flexural reinforcement design process, the program calculates both the ten-
sion and compression reinforcement. Compression reinforcement is added when
the applied design moment exceeds the maximum moment capacity of a singly re-
inforced section. The user has the option of avoiding the compression reinforce-
ment by increasing the effective depth, the width, or the grade of concrete.

The design procedure is based on the simplified rectangular stress block as shown
in Figure V-3 (CSA 10.1.7). Furthermore it is assumed that the compression carried
by concrete is less than that which can be carried at the balanced condition (CSA
10.1.4). When the applied moment exceeds the moment capacity at the balanced
condition, the area of compression reinforcement is calculated on the assumption
that the additional moment will be carried by compression and additional tension
reinforcement.

In designing the beam flexural reinforcement, the limit of f ′ is taken to be 80 MPa

c

for Ordinary moment resisting frames and 55 MPa for Nominal and Ductile mo-
ment resisting frames:

f ′ ≤ 80 MPa (Ordinary)
c
(CSA 8.6.1.1)

f ′ ≤ 55 MPa (Nominal and Ductile)

c
(CSA 21.2.3.1)

The limit of f is taken to be 500 MPa for all frames:

y

f ≤ 500 MPa.
y
(CSA 8.5.1)

The design procedure used by SAP2000 for both rectangular and flanged sections
(L- and T-beams) is summarized below. It is assumed that the design ultimate axial
force in a beam is negligible, hence all the beams are designed for major direction
flexure and shear only.

Design for Flexure of a Rectangular Beam

In designing for a factored negative or positive moment, M , (i.e. designing top or

f

bottom steel) the depth of the compression block is given by a, as shown in Figure
V-3, where,

86 Beam Design
 Chapter V Design for CSA-A23.3-94

2 M
a= d− d −
2 f

′
, (CSA 10.1)
α f ϕ b
1 c c

where the value of ϕ is 0.60 (CSA 8.4.2) in the above and following equations.
c

Also α , β , and c are calculated as follows:

1 1 b

α = 0.85 − 0.0015 f ′ ≥ 0.67 ,

1 c
(CSA 10.1.7)

β = 0.97 − 0.0025 f ′ ≥ 0.67 , and

1 c
(CSA 10.1.7)

700
c = d. (CSA 10.5.2)
700 + f
b
y

The balanced depth of the compression block is given by

a =β c .
b 1 b
(CSA 10.1.7)

ε= 0.0035 α1 fc' φc
b

A's Cs
d' c a= 1c

εs Ts Tc
As

Beam Section Stress Diagram Strain Diagram

Figure V-3
Design of a Rectangular Beam Section

Beam Design 87
SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

• If a ≤ a (CSA 10.5.2), the area of tensile steel reinforcement is then given by

b

M
A =
f
.
 a
s

ϕ f d − 
s
2
y

This steel is to be placed at the bottom if M is positive, or at the top if M is f f

negative.

• If a > a (CSA 10.5.2), compression reinforcement is required and is calculated

b

as follows:
– The factored compressive force developed in the concrete alone is given by

C = ϕ α f ′ ba , and
c 1 c b
(CSA 10.1.7)

the factored moment resisted by the concrete and bottom steel is

 a 
M = C d −  . b

 2
fc

– The moment resisted by compression steel and tensile steel is

M =M −Mfs f fc
.

– So the required compression steel is given by

M
A′ =
fs
, where
(ϕ f − ϕ α f ′ )( d − d′ )
′
s

s s c 1 c

 c − d′ 
f ′ = 0.0035 E  ≤f . (CSA 10.1.2 and CSA 10.1.3)
s
 c  s y

– The required tensile steel for balancing the compression in concrete is

M
A =
fc
, and
s1
 a 
f d −  ϕ b

 2
y s

the tensile steel for balancing the compression in steel is

M
A =
fs
.
f ( d − d′) ϕ
s2
y s

88 Beam Design
 Chapter V Design for CSA-A23.3-94

– Therefore, the total tensile reinforcement, A = A + A , and total com- s s1 s2

pression reinforcement is A ′ . A is to be placed at the bottom and A ′ is to be

s s s

placed at the top if M is positive, and vice versa.

f

Design for Flexure of a T-Beam

(i) Flanged Beam Under Negative Moment

In designing for a factored negative moment, M , (i.e. designing top steel), the f

contribution of the flange to the strength of the beam is ignored. The design proce-
dure is therefore identical to the one used for rectangular beams except that in the
corresponding equations b is replaced by b . w

(ii) Flanged Beam Under Positive Moment

If M > 0, the depth of the compression block is given by (see Figure V-4).
f

2M
a= d− d −
2 f

′
. (CSA 10.1)
α f ϕ b
1 c c f

where the value of ϕ is 0.60 (CSA 8.4.2) in the above and following equations. See
c

Figure V-4. Also α , β , and c are calculated as follows:

1 1 b

α = 0.85 − 0.0015 f ′ ≥ 0.67 ,

1 c
(CSA 10.1.7)

β = 0.97 − 0.0025 f ′ ≥ 0.67 , and

1 c
(CSA 10.1.7)

700
c = d. (CSA 10.5.2)
700 + f
b
y

The depth of compression block under balanced condition is given by

a = βc .
b 1 b
(CSA 10.1.7)

• If a ≤ d , the subsequent calculations for A are exactly the same as previously

s s

done for the rectangular section design. However, in this case the width of the
beam is taken as b . Whether compression reinforcement is required depends
f

on whether a > a . b

Beam Design 89
SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

ε = 0.0035 α1 fc' φc α1 fc' φc

bf ds

d' fs' Cs
As' Cf
c

d
Cw

As εs Ts Tw Tf
bw

Beam Section Strain Diagram Stress Diagram

Figure V-4
Design of a T-Beam Section

• If a > d , calculation for A is done in two parts. The first part is for balancing
s s

the compressive force from the flange, C , and the second part is for balancing f

the compressive force from the web, C . As shown in Figure V-4, w

C = α f ′ ( b − b )d .
f 1 c f w s
(CSA 10.1.7)

C ϕ
Therefore, A = and the portion of M that is resisted by the flange is
f c

f ϕ
s1 f
y s

 d 
M = C d−  ϕ . s

 2
ff f c

Therefore, the balance of the moment, M to be carried by the web is given by f

M fw
= M −M . f ff

The web is a rectangular section of dimensions b and d, for which the depth of w

the compression block is recalculated as

90 Beam Design
 Chapter V Design for CSA-A23.3-94

2M
a = d− d − 2 fw

′
. (CSA 10.1)
α f ϕ b
1

1 c c w

• If a ≤ a
1 b
(CSA 10.5.2), the area of tensile steel reinforcement is then
given by
M
A =
fw
, and
s2
 a 
ϕ f d −  1

 2 
s y

A = A +A .
s s1 s2

This steel is to be placed at the bottom of the T-beam.

• If a > a (CSA 10.5.2), compression reinforcement is required and is cal-
1 b

culated as follows:
– The factored compressive force in the concrete web alone is given by

C = ϕ α f ′ ba , and c 1 c b
(CSA 10.1.7)

the factored moment resisted by the concrete web and tensile steel is
 a 
M = C d −  . b

 2
fc

– The moment resisted by compression steel and tensile steel is

M = M fs fw
−M fc
.

– Therefore, the compression steel is computed as

M
A′ =
fs
, where
( ϕ f − ϕ α f ′ )( d − d′ )
′
s

s s c 1 c

 c − d′ 
f ′ = 0.0035 E  ≤f . (CSA 10.1.2 and CSA 10.1.3)
s
 c  s y

– The tensile steel for balancing compression in web concrete is

M
A =
fc
, and
s2
 a 
f d −  ϕ b

 2
y s

Beam Design 91
SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

the tensile steel for balancing compression in steel is

M
A =
fs
.
f ( d − d′ ) ϕ
s3
y s

Total tensile reinforcement, A = A + A + A , and total compression rein-

s s1 s2 s3

forcement is A ′ . A is to be placed at the bottom and A ′ is to be placed at the top.

s s s

Minimum and Maximum Tensile Reinforcement

The minimum flexural tensile steel required for a beam section is given by the mini-
mum of the two limits:
′
0.2 f
A ≥ b h, or
c
(CSA 10.5.1.2)
f
s w
y

4
A ≥
s
As ( required )
. (CSA 10.5.1.3)
3

In addition, the minimum flexural tensile steel provided in a T-section with flange
under tension is given by the limit:

A ≥ 0.004 ( b − b ) d .
s w s
(CSA 10.5.3.1)

An upper limit of 0.04 times the gross web area on both the tension reinforcement
and the compression reinforcement is arbitrarily imposed as follows:
 0.04 b d Rectangular beam
A ≤
 0.04 b d T -beam
s
w

 0.04 b d Rectangular beam

A′ ≤ 
 0.04 b d T -beam
s
w

Special Consideration for Seismic Design

For Ductile moment resisting concrete frames (seismic design), the beam design
satisfies the following additional conditions (see also Table V-2 for comprehensive
listing):

• The minimum longitudinal reinforcement shall be provided at both the top and
the bottom. Any of the top and bottom reinforcement shall not be less than
A .
s ( min )

92 Beam Design
 Chapter V Design for CSA-A23.3-94

1.4
A ≥ b d (CSA 21.3.2.1)
f
s(min) w
y

• The beam flexural steel is limited to a maximum given by

A ≤ 0.025 b d .
s w
(CSA 21.3.2.1)

• At any end (support) of the beam, the beam positive moment capacity (i.e. as-
sociated with the bottom steel) would not be less than 1/2 of the beam negative
moment capacity (i.e. associated with the top steel) at that end (CSA 21.3.2.2).
• Neither the negative moment capacity nor the positive moment capacity at any
of the sections within the beam would be less than 1/4 of the maximum of posi-
tive or negative moment capacities of any of the beam end (support) stations
(CSA 21.3.2.2).

For Nominal moment resisting concrete frames (seismic design), the beam design
would satisfy the following conditions:

• At any support of the beam, the beam positive moment capacity would not be
less than 1/3 of the beam negative moment capacity at that end (CSA
21.9.2.1.1).
• Neither the negative moment capacity nor the positive moment capacity at any
of the sections within the beam would be less than 1/5 of the maximum of posi-
tive or negative moment capacities of any of the beam end (support) stations
(CSA 21.9.2.1.1).

Design Beam Shear Reinforcement

The shear reinforcement is designed for each load combination at a user defined
number of stations along the beam span. In designing the shear reinforcement for a
particular beam for a particular loading combination at a particular station due to
the beam major shear, the following steps are involved:

• Determine the factored forces acting on the section, M and V . Note that M
f f f

is needed for the calculation of v .

c

• Determine the shear stress, v , that can be resisted by concrete alone.

c

• Calculate the reinforcement steel required to carry the balance.

For Ductile and Nominal moment resisting frames, the shear design of the beams is
also based on the probable and nominal moment capacities of the members, respec-
tively (CSA 21.7.2.1, 21.9.2.3).

Beam Design 93
SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

The following three sections describe in detail the algorithms associated with the
above-mentioned steps.

Determine Shear Force and Moment

• In the design of the beam shear reinforcement of an Ordinary moment resist-
ing concrete frame, the shear forces and moments for a particular load combi-
nation at a particular beam section are obtained by factoring the associated
shear forces and moments with the corresponding load combination factors.
• In the design of Ductile moment resisting concrete frames (seismic design),
the shear capacity of the beam is also checked for the probable shear due to the
probable moment capacities and the factored gravity load, in addition to the de-
sign checks required for Ordinary moment resisting frames. The procedure for
calculating the design shear force in a beam from probable moment capacities
is the same as that described for a column in section “Column Design” on page
80. See also Table V-2 for more details. The design shear forceV is then given
f

by

V =V + V
f p D+ L
(CSA 21.7.2.1)

where,V is the shear force obtained by applying the calculated probable ulti-
p

mate moment capacities at the two ends of the beams acting in two opposite di-
rections. Therefore,V is the maximum ofV 1 andV 2 , where
p P P

M +M- +

V1 = I J
, and
L
P

M +M+ -

V2 = I
, where J

L
P

M − = Moment capacity at end I, with top steel in tension, using a steel yield
I

stress value of αf and no ϕ factors, y

M + = Moment capacity at end J, with bottom steel in tension, using a steel

J

yield stress value of αf and no ϕ factors, y

M + = Moment capacity at end I, with bottom steel in tension, using a steel

I

yield stress value of αf and no ϕ factors, y

−
M = Moment capacity at end J, with top steel in tension, using a steel yield
J

stress value of αf and no ϕ factors, and y

94 Beam Design
 Chapter V Design for CSA-A23.3-94

L = Clear span of beam.

The overstrength factor α is always taken as 1.25 for Ductile moment resisting
frames (CSA 21.0).V + is the contribution of shear force from the in-span dis-
D L

tribution of gravity loads. The design shear force from probable moment ca-
pacities is enforced not be greater than the factored shear force with the seismic
load doubled (CSA 21.7.2.1, 21.7).
• In the design of Nominal moment resisting frames (seismic), the shear capac-
ity of the beam is also checked for the nominal shear due to the nominal mo-
ment capacities and the factored gravity load (CSA 21.9.2.3), in addition to the
design checks required for Ordinary moment resisting frames. The procedure
for calculating nominal moment capacity is the same as that for computing the
probable moment capacity for Ductile moment resisting frames, except that αis
taken equal to 1 (CSA 21.0) rather than 1.25. The design shear force from
nominal moment capacities is enforced not to be greater than the factored shear
force with the seismic load doubled (CSA 21.9.2.3, 21.9.1). See also Table V-2
for details.

Determine Concrete Shear Capacity

Given the design force set M and , theV shear capacity provided by the concrete
f f

alone, , is calculated v using the “General Method” or “Compression Field Theory”

c

as follows (CSA 11.4):

• For designing Ordinary and Nominal moment resisting concrete frames, v c

is set to:

v = 1.3 λβ f ′ ,
c c
(CSA 11.4.3.1)

where, β is a factor indicating the ability of diagonally cracked concrete to re-

sist shear. It is a function of stress condition and its average value is 0.2 usually
with a range of 0.1 to 0.4 (CSA 11.4.4). It is computed from CSA Table 11-1
through an iterative procedure. In computing the β factor, the following two pa-
rameters are used:

M d + 0.5 V cot θ
ε = 0 ≤ ε ≤ 0.002
f v f
, (CSA 11.4.6)
E A
x x
s s

V b d
v =
f w v

′
(CSA 11.4.5)
λϕ f
ratio

c c

Beam Design 95
SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

In the above equations d , the distance between the resultants of the tensile and
v

compressive forces, is conservatively taken to be 0.9d.

d = 0.9 d
v
(CSA 11.0)

The shear strength factor, λ, is taken to be 1, assuming normal density concrete

(CSA 11.0, 8.6.5).

• For designing Ductile moment resisting concrete beams, v is taken as zero, β c

is taken as zero, and θ is taken as 45 degrees (CSA 21.7.3.1a, 11.4.3.1 ).

Determine Required Shear Reinforcement

• The average shear stress is computed for a rectangular section as,
V
v=
f
.
b d w v

In the above equation d , the distance between the resultants of the tensile and
v

compressive forces, is conservatively taken to be 0.9d.

d = 0.9 d
v
(CSA 11.0)

For other types of sections b d is replaced by 0.9 times A , the effective shear
w v cv

area, which is shown in Figure V-2.

• The average shear stress, v, is limited to a maximum limit, v max

, given by

v max
= 0.25 f ′ . c
(CSA 11.4.3)

• The shear reinforcement per unit spacing is computed as follows:

If v ≤ ϕ ( v 2) , c c

Av
=0, (CSA 11.2.8.1)
s

else if ϕ ( v 2) < v ≤ ϕ v + ϕ 0.06 f ′ cot θ ,

c c ( c c s c )
′
A 0.06 f b
=
v c w
, (CSA 11.2.8.4)
s f yh

96 Beam Design
 Chapter V Design for CSA-A23.3-94

else if (ϕ v c c s c )
+ ϕ 0.06 f ′ cot θ < v ≤ ϕ v
c max
,

A (v − ϕ v ) b
v
= , c c w
(CSA 11.4.3.2)
s ϕ f cot θ s yh

else if v > ϕ v c max

,

a failure condition is declared. (CSA 11.3.4)

Here θ is an angle of inclination of diagonal compressive stresses. It is a function of

current stress condition and its approximate value is 34 degree with a range of 27
degrees to 45 degrees (CSA 11.4.4). It is computed from CSA Table 11-1 using the
parameters ε and vx
through an iterative procedure. For Ductile moment resist-
ratio

ing frames, θ is taken as 45 degrees (CSA 21.7.3.1).

The limit of f ′ is taken to be 80 MPa for Ordinary moment resisting frames and 55
c

MPa for Nominal and Ductile moment resisting frames:

f ′ ≤ 80 MPa (Ordinary)
c
(CSA 8.6.1.1)

f ′ ≤ 55 MPa (Nominal and Ductile)

c
(CSA 21.2.3.1)

The limit of f yh
is taken to be 500 MPa for all frames:

f yh
≤ 500 MPa. (CSA 8.5.1)

The maximum of all the calculated A s values, obtained from each load combina-
v

tion, is reported for the major and minor directions of the along with the controlling
shear force and associated load combination number.

The beam shear reinforcement requirements reported by the program are based
purely upon the above considerations. Any other minimum stirrup requirements to
satisfy spacing and/or volumetric requirements must be investigated independently
of the program by the user.

Beam Design 97
SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

Type of Ordinary Moment Nominal Moment Resisting Ductile Moment

Check/ Resisting Frames Frames Resisting Frames
Design (non-Seismic) (Seismic) (Seismic)

Strength of f c′ ≤ 80 MPa f c′ ≤ 55 MPa f c′ ≤ 55 MPa

materials f y ≤ 500 MPa f y ≤ 500 MPa f y ≤ 500 MPa

Column
Check NLDH Combinations NLDH Combinations NLDH Combinations
(interaction)

Column NLDH Combinations NLDH Combinations NLDH Combinations

Design 1% < ρ < 8% 1% < ρ < 8% 1% < ρ < 6%
(Interaction) α = 1.0

NLDH Combinations Modified Combinations Or NLDH Combinations and

Nominal Capacity Shear (V p ) Probable Capacity Shear (V p )
Column ϕ = 1.0 and α = 1.0 ϕ = 1.0 and α = 1.25
Shears Strength based on ε x = 0.002
Minimum hoop Minimum hoop reinforcement Minimum hoop reinforcement
Special reinforcement in hinge

Beam NLDH Combinations NLDH Combinations NLDH Combinations

Design ρ ≤ 0.04 ρ ≤ 0.04 ρ ≤ 0.025
Flexure ρ ≥ 0.2 f c′ f y ρ ≥ 0.2 f c′ f y ρ ≥ 0.2 f c′ f y , ρ ≥ 14
. fy

+ 1 - + 1 -
M uEND ≥ M uEND M uEND ≥ M uEND
Beam Min. 3 2
Moment
Override
No Requirement
+
M uSPAN
1
5
{ }END
≥ max M u+ , M u− +
M uSPAN
1
{
≥ max M u+ , M u−
4
}END
Check −
M uSPAN
1
5
{ }END
≥ max M u+ , M u− −
M uSPAN
1
{
≥ max M u+ , M u−
4
}END
Modified NLDH Combinations Modified NLDH Combinations
Nominal Capacity Shear (V p ) Probable Capacity Shear (V p )
Beam Design
NLDH Combinations with α = 1.0 and ϕ = 1.0 with α = 1.25 and ϕ = 1.0
Shear
plus VD + L plus VD+L
Strength based on β = 0 , θ = 45o

H
Number of specified loading

Table V-2
Comparison of Ordinary, Ductile, and Nominal Moment Resisting Frame Design

98 Beam Design
 C h a p t e r VI

Design for BS 8110-85 R1989

This chapter describes in detail the various aspects of the concrete design procedure
that is used by SAP2000 when the user selects the British limit state design code BS
8110 R1989 (BSI 1989). Various notations used in this chapter are listed in Table
VI-1.

The design is based on user-specified loading combinations. But the program pro-
vides a set of default load combinations that should satisfy requirements for the de-
sign of most building type structures.

English as well as SI and MKS metric units can be used for input. But the code is
based on Newton-Millimeter-Second units. For simplicity, all equations and de-
scriptions presented in this chapter correspond to Newton-Millimeter-Second
units unless otherwise noted.

Design Load Combinations

The design loading combinations define the various factored combinations of the
load cases for which the structure is to be checked. The design loading combina-
tions are obtained by multiplying the characteristic loads by appropriate partial fac-
tors of safety, γ (BS 2.4.1.3). If a structure is subjected to dead load (DL) and live
f

load (LL) only, the design will need only one loading combination, namely 1.4 DL
+ 1.6 LL. However, in addition to the dead load and live load, if the structure is sub-

Design Load Combinations 99

SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

A cv
Area of section for shear resistance, mm2
A s
Area of tension reinforcement, mm2
A′ s
Area of compression reinforcement, mm2
A sc
Total area of column longitudinal reinforcement, mm2
A sv
Total cross-sectional area of links at the neutral axis, mm2
a Depth of compression block, mm
b Width or effective width of the section in the compression zone, mm
b′ Shorter section dimension, mm
Shorter effective depth of biaxially bent column, mm
b f
Width or effective width of flange, mm
b w
Average web width of a flanged beam, mm
C Compression force, N
d Effective depth of tension reinforcement, mm
d′ Depth to center of compression reinforcement, mm
E c
Modulus of elasticity of concrete, MPa
E s
Modulus of elasticity of reinforcement, assumed as 200000 MPa
e min
Minimum or nominal eccentricity, mm
f cu
Characteristic cube strength at 28 days, MPa
′
f s
Compressive stress in a beam compression steel, MPa
f y
Characteristic strength of reinforcement, MPa
f yv
Characteristic strength of link reinforcement, MPa (< 460 MPa)
h Overall depth of a section in the plane of bending, mm
h f
Flange thickness, mm
M
K′ Maximum u
for a singly reinforced concrete section taken as 0.156
bd f
2
cu

by assuming that moment redistribution is limited to 10%

k 1
Shear strength enhancement factor
Concrete shear strength factor, [ f 25]
1/ 3
k 2 cu

l
e
Effective height of a column, mm

Table VI-1
List of Symbols Used in the BS code

100 Design Load Combinations

 Chapter VI Design for BS 8110-85 R1989

l
0
Clear height between end restraints, mm
M Design moment at a section, MPa
M ,M 1 2
Smaller and larger end moments in a slender column, N-mm
M add
Maximum additional moment column, N-mm
M i
Initial moment at the point of maximum additional moment, N-mm
M ,M x y
Applied moments about the major and minor axes of a column, N-mm
N Ultimate axial load, N
s
v
Spacing of links, mm
T Tension force, N
V Shear force at ultimate design load, N
v Shear stress, MPa
v
c
Design ultimate shear stress resistance of a concrete beam, MPa
v ′
c
Design concrete shear stress corrected for axial forces, MPa
v ,v
x y
Design ultimate shear stress of a concrete section, MPa
x Neutral axis depth, mm
x
bal
Depth of neutral axis in a balanced section, mm
z Lever arm, mm
β Effective length factor
β b
Moment redistribution factor in a member
γ f
Partial safety factor for load
γ m
Partial safety factor for material strength
ε
c
Concrete strain
ε
s
Strain in tension steel
ε′
s
Strain in compression steel

Table VI-1
List of Symbols Used in the BS code (continued)

Design Load Combinations 101

SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

jected to wind (WL) and/or earthquake (EL) loads, and considering that those loads
are subject to reversals, the following load combinations for ultimate limit state
might have to be considered (BS 2.4.3):

1.4 DL
1.4 DL + 1.6 LL (BS 2.4.3)

1.0 DL ± 1.4 WL
1.4 DL ± 1.4 WL
1.2 DL + 1.2 LL ± 1.2 WL (BS 2.4.3)

1.0 DL ± 1.4 EL
1.4 DL ± 1.4 EL
1.2 DL + 1.2 LL ± 1.2 EL

These are the default load combinations. In addition to the above load combina-
tions, the code requires that all buildings should be capable of resisting a notional
design ultimate horizontal load applied at each floor or roof level. The notional load
should be equal to 0.015 times the dead load (BS 3.1.4.2). It is recommended that
the user define additional load cases for considering the notional load in SAP2000.

Live load reduction factors, as allowed by some design codes, can be applied to the
member forces of the live load case on a member-by-member basis to reduce the
contribution of the live load to the factored loading.

Design Strength
The design strength for concrete and steel are obtained by dividing the characteris-
tic strength of the material by a partial factor of safety, γ . The values of γ used in
m m

the program are listed below (BS 2.4.4.1).

Values of γ m for the ultimate limit state

Reinforcement 1.15

Concrete in flexure and

1.50
axial load

Shear strength without

1.25
shear reinforcement

102 Design Strength

 Chapter VI Design for BS 8110-85 R1989

Column Design
The user may define the geometry of the reinforcing bar configuration of each con-
crete column section. If the area of reinforcing is provided by the user, the program
checks the column capacity. However, if the area of reinforcing is not provided by
the user, the program calculates the amount of reinforcing required for the column.
The design procedure for the reinforced concrete columns of the structure involves
the following steps:

• Generate axial force-biaxial moment interaction surfaces for all of the different
concrete section types of the model. A typical biaxial interaction surface is
shown in Figure II-1. When the steel is undefined, the program generates the
interaction surfaces for the range of allowable reinforcement from 0.4 to 6 per-
cent (BS 3.12.5.3 and BS 3.12.6.2).
• Calculate the capacity ratio or the required reinforcing area for the factored ax-
ial force and biaxial (or uniaxial) bending moments obtained from each loading
combination at each station of the column. The target capacity ratio is taken as
one when calculating the required reinforcing area.
• Design the column shear reinforcement.

The following three subsections describe in detail the algorithms associated with
the above-mentioned steps.

Generation of Biaxial Interaction Surfaces

The column capacity interaction volume is numerically described by a series of dis-
crete points that are generated on the three-dimensional interaction failure surface.
In addition to axial compression and biaxial bending, the formulation allows for ax-
ial tension and biaxial bending considerations (BS 3.8.4.1). A typical interaction
diagram is shown in Figure II-1.

The coordinates of these points are determined by rotating a plane of linear strain in
three dimensions on the section of the column (BS 3.4.4.1). See Figure II-2. The
linear strain diagram limits the maximum concrete strain, ε , at the extremity of the
c

section, to 0.0035 (BS 3.4.4.1).

The formulation is based consistently upon the basic principles of ultimate strength
design and allows for any doubly symmetric rectangular, square, or circular column
section (BS 3.8.4).

Column Design 103

SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

The stress in the steel is given by the product of the steel strain and the steel modu-
lus of elasticity, ε E and is limited to the design strength the steel, f 1.15
s s y

(0.87 f ). The area associated with each reinforcing bar is placed at the actual loca-
y

tion of the center of the bar and the algorithm does not assume any simplifications
in the manner in which the area of steel is distributed over the cross section of the
column (such as an equivalent steel tube or cylinder). See Figure VI-1.

0.67 fcu/γm
εc = 0.0035
d' 1
εs1 Cs
C
x a = 0.9 x
εs2
2
Cs

εs3 3
Ts

εs4 4
Ts

(i) CONCRETE (ii) STRAIN (iii) STRESS

SECTION DIAGRAM DIAGRAM

Figure VI-1
Idealized Stress and Strain Distribution in a Column Section

The concrete compression stress block is assumed to be rectangular, with a stress

value of 0.67 f γ = 0.45 f (BS 3.4.4.1). See Figure VI-1. The interaction al-
cu m cu

gorithm provides corrections to account for the concrete area that is displaced by
the reinforcement in the compression zone.

Check Column Capacity

The column capacity is checked for each loading combination at each output station
of each column. In checking a particular column for a particular loading combina-
tion at a particular location, the following steps are involved:

104 Column Design

 Chapter VI Design for BS 8110-85 R1989

• Determine the factored moments and forces from the analysis load cases and
the specified load combination factors to give N ,V ,V , M , and M .
x y x y

• Determine the additional moments due to slender column effect. Compute mo-
ments due to minimum eccentricity.
• Determine total design moments by adding the corresponding additional mo-
ments to the factored moments obtained from the analysis. Determine whether
the point, defined by the resulting axial load and biaxial moment set, lies within
the interaction volume.

The following three subsections describe in detail the algorithms associated with
the above-mentioned steps.

Determine Factored Moments and Forces

Each load combination is defined with a set of load factors corresponding to the
load cases. The factored loads for a particular load combination are obtained by ap-
plying the corresponding load factors to the load cases, giving N ,V ,V , M and
x y x

M .
y

Determine Additional Moments

The determination of additional moments depends on whether the frame is
“braced” or “unbraced” against side-sway (BS 3.8.1.5). For “unbraced” columns
additional moment is automatically considered in the P-∆ analysis. But for
“braced” columns, further calculation is required for stability of individual column
members.

Braced Column

The additional moment in a braced column in a particular plane is the product of the
axial load and the lateral deflection of the column in that plane (BS 3.8.3),

M add
=Na ,
u
(BS 3.8.3.1)

where, a is the deflection at the ultimate limit state which is obtained from
u

a = β Kh
u e
and (BS 3.8.3.1)

1 l 
2

β =   . e
(BS 3.8.3.1)
2000  b′ 
e

In the above equations,

Column Design 105

SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

• l is the effective length in the plane under consideration. It is obtained from

e

l =βl ,
e 0
(BS 3.8.1.6.1)

where β is the effective length factor, and l the unsupported length correspond-
0

ing to instability in the major or minor direction of the element, l or l in

x y

Figure II-4. In calculating the value of the effective length, the β factor is con-
servatively taken as 1. However, SAP2000 allows the user to override this de-
fault value.
• b′ is the dimension of the column in the plane of bending considered,
• h is also the dimension of the column in the plane of bending considered, and
• K is the correction factor to the deflection to take care of the influence of the
axial force and K is conservatively taken as 1.

SAP2000 then calculates the total design moments by combining the factored mo-
ments obtained from analysis and the additional moments. If M and M 1 2

( M > M ) are the initial end moments in a column member in a particular plane,
2 1

then the maximum design moment for the column is taken as the greatest of the fol-
lowing:

M 2
(BS 3.8.3.2)

M +M1 add
(BS 3.8.3.2)

M +Mi add
/2 (BS 3.8.3.2)

Ne min
(BS 3.8.3.2)

where,

M is the initial moment in a column due to design ultimate loads at the point of
i

maximum additional moment and is given by

M = 0.4 M + 0.6 M
i 1 2
≥ 0.4 M .
2
(BS 3.8.3.2)

M and M are the smaller and the larger end moments respectively. Both mo-
1 2

ments are assumed to be positive if the column is in single curvature. If the col-
umn is in double curvature, M is assumed to be negative.
1

e is the minimum eccentricity which is taken as 0.05 times the overall di-
min

mension of the column in the plane of bending considered but not more than 20
mm (BS 3.8.2.4).
h
e min
= ≤ 20 mm (BS 3.8.2.4)
20

106 Column Design

 Chapter VI Design for BS 8110-85 R1989

Unbraced Column

In the case of the unbraced column, it is assumed that the SAP2000 analysis in-
cludes P-∆ effects so that the analysis results include the effects of the additional
moments. Therefore, no additional computation is required. That means, moment
magnification factors for moments causing sidesway are taken as unity. However,
it is recommended that for P-∆ analysis a factor be used to obtain a P equivalent to
1.2 DL + 1.2 LL (White and Hajjar 1991).

Also, the minimum eccentricity requirement are satisfied so the design moment
should at least be

M u
≥ Ne min
, (BS 3.8.3.2)

where, e is the minimum eccentricity which is described in the previous section.

min

In biaxial bending the algorithm ensures that the eccentricity exceeds the minimum
about both the axes simultaneously.

Determine Capacity Ratio

As a measure of the stress condition of the column, a capacity ratio is calculated.
The capacity ratio is basically a factor that gives an indication of the stress condi-
tion of the column with respect to the capacity of the column.

Before entering the interaction diagram to check the column capacity, the design
forces N , M and M are obtained according to the previous subsections. The
x, y

point (N , M M ) is then placed in the interaction space shown as point L in Figure

x, y

II-3. If the point lies within the interaction volume, the column capacity is ade-
quate; however, if the point lies outside the interaction volume, the column is over-
stressed.

This capacity ratio is achieved by plotting the point L and determining the location
of point C. The point C is defined as the point where the line OL (if extended out-
wards) will intersect the failure surface. This point is determined by three-
dimensional linear interpolation between the points that define the failure surface.
OL
See Figure II-3. The capacity ratio, CR, is given by the ratio .
OC

• If OL = OC (or CR=1) the point lies on the interaction surface and the column is
stressed to capacity.
• If OL < OC (or CR<1) the point lies within the interaction volume and the col-
umn capacity is adequate.

Column Design 107

SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

• If OL > OC (or CR>1) the point lies outside the interaction volume and the col-
umn is overstressed.

The maximum of all the values of CR calculated from each load combination is re-
ported for each check station of the column along with the controlling
N , M , and M set and associated load combination number.
x y

If the reinforcing area is not defined, SAP2000 computes the reinforcement that
will give an interaction ratio of unity.

Design Column Shear Reinforcement

The shear reinforcement is designed for each loading combination in the major and
minor directions of the column. In designing the shear reinforcement for a particu-
lar column for a particular loading combination due to shear forces in a particular
direction, the following steps are involved (BS 3.8.4.6):

• Calculate the design shear stress from

V
v= , A = bd , where (BS 3.4.5.2)
A
cv
cv

v ≤ 0.8 f cu
, and (BS 3.4.5.12)

v ≤ 5 N/mm2 . (BS 3.4.5.12)

If v exceeds either 0.8 f cu

or 5 N/mm2, the section area should be increased.

• Calculate the design concrete shear stress from (BS 3.8.4.6)

N Vd
v′ = v + 0.75 , with (BS 3.4.5.12)
A M
c c
c

1 1
0.79 k k  100 A  3  400  4
v =   1 2
 , s
(BS 3.4.5.4)
c
γ  bd   d 
m

where,
k is the enhancement factor for support compression and taken conserva-
1

tively as 1, (BS 3.4.5.8)

1
f 3
k =   , cu
(BS 3.4.5.4)
2
 25 

108 Column Design

 Chapter VI Design for BS 8110-85 R1989

γ m
= 1.25 ,
100 A
0.15 ≤ ≤ 3,
s
(BS 3.4.5.4)
bd
400
≥ 1, (BS 3.4.5.4)
d
Vd
≤ 1, (BS 3.4.5.12)
M

f cu
≤ 40 N/mm2, and (BS 3.4.5.4)

A is the area of tensile steel.

s

• If v ≤ v′ + 0.4 , provide minimum links defined by

c

A 0.4 b
sv
≥ , (BS 3.4.5.3)
s v
0.87 f yv

else if v > v′ + 0.4 , provide links given by

c

A ( v - v′ ) b
sv
≥ c
, (BS 3.4.5.3)
s v
0.87 f yv

where f yv
can not be greater than 460 MPa (BS 3.4.5.1).

Beam Design
In the design of concrete beams, SAP2000 calculates and reports the required areas
of steel for flexure and shear based upon the beam moments, and shears, load com-
bination factors, and other criteria described below. The reinforcement require-
ments are calculated at a user defined number of check stations along the beam
span.

All the beams are only designed for major direction flexure and shear. Effects due
to any axial forces, minor direction bending, and torsion that may exist in the beams
must be investigated independently by the user.

The beam design procedure involves the following steps:

• Design beam flexural reinforcement

• Design beam shear reinforcement

Beam Design 109

SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

Design Beam Flexural Reinforcement

The beam top and bottom flexural steel is designed at a user defined number of
check stations along the beam span. In designing the flexural reinforcement for the
major moment for a particular beam at a particular section, the following steps are
involved:

• Determine the maximum factored moments

• Determine the reinforcing steel

Determine Factored Moments

In the design of flexural reinforcement of concrete frame beams, the factored mo-
ments for each load combination at a particular beam station are obtained by factor-
ing the corresponding moments for different load cases with the corresponding load
factors.

The beam section is then designed for the maximum positive and maximum nega-
tive factored moments obtained from all of the load combinations at that section.

Negative beam moments produce top steel. In such cases the beam is always de-
signed as a rectangular section. Positive beam moments produce bottom steel. In
such cases, the beam may be designed as a rectangular section, or T-Beam effects
may be included.

Determine Required Flexural Reinforcement

In the flexural reinforcement design process, the program calculates both the ten-
sion and compression reinforcement. Compression reinforcement is added when
the applied design moment exceeds the maximum moment capacity of a singly re-
inforced section. The user has the option of avoiding the compression reinforce-
ment by increasing the effective depth, the width, or the grade of concrete.

The design procedure is based on the simplified rectangular stress block as shown
in Figure VI-2 (BS 3.4.4.1). Furthermore it is assumed that moment redistribution
in the member does not exceed 10% (i.e. β ≥ 0.9) (BS 3.4.4.4). The code also
b

places a limitation on the neutral axis depth, x d ≤ 0.5, to safeguard against non-
ductile failures (BS 3.4.4.4). In addition, the area of compression reinforcement is
calculated on the assumption that the neutral axis depth remains at the maximum
permitted value.

The design procedure used by SAP2000, for both rectangular and flanged sections
(L- and T-beams) is summarized below. It is assumed that the design ultimate axial

110 Beam Design

 Chapter VI Design for BS 8110-85 R1989

force does not exceed 0.1 f A (BS 3.4..4.1), hence all the beams are designed for
cu g

major direction flexure and shear only.

Design of a Rectangular beam

For rectangular beams, the moment capacity as a singly reinforced beam, M , is single

obtained first for a section. The reinforcing steel area is determined based on
whether M is greater than, less than, or equal to M . See Figure VI-2. single

• Calculate the ultimate moment of resistance of the section as singly reinforced.

M = K ′ f bd , where
single cu
2
(BS 3.4.4.4)

K ′ = 0.156 .
ε = 0.0035 0.67fcu/γm
b

fs' Cs
A's d' c a=0.9x

Ts Tc
As εs

(i) BEAM (ii) STRAIN (iii) STRESS

SECTION DIAGRAM DIAGRAM

Figure VI-2
Design of Rectangular Beam Section

• If M ≤ M single
the area of tension reinforcement, A , is obtained from
s

M
A = , where (BS 3.4.4.4)
( 0.87 f ) z
s
y

Beam Design 111

SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

 K 
z = d  0.5 + 0.25 -  ≤ 0.95d , and
 0.9 

M
K= .
f bd
cu
2

This is the top steel if the section is under negative moment and the bottom
steel if the section is under positive moment.

• If M > M single
, the area of compression reinforcement, A ′ , is given by
s

M−M
A′ =
single

′
,
f ( d - d′ )
s

where d′ is the depth of the compression steel from the concrete compression
face, and

d′ 1 f 
f ′= 0.87 f if ≤ -
y
1 ,
d 2  800 
s y

 2d′  d′ 1 f 
f ′ = 700 1 - if > 1-
y
.
 d  d 2  800 

s

This is the bottom steel if the section is under negative moment. From equilib-
rium, the area of tension reinforcement is calculated as
M M−M
A = +
single single
, where (BS 3.4.4.4)
( 0.87 f ) z f ( d - d′ )
s
y y

 K′ 
z = d  0.5 + 0.25 -  = 0.776 887 d .
 0.9 

Design as a T-Beam

(i) Flanged beam under negative moment

The contribution of the flange to the strength of the beam is ignored. The design
procedure is therefore identical to the one used for rectangular beams except that in
the corresponding equations b is replaced by b . See Figure VI-3. w

112 Beam Design

 Chapter VI Design for BS 8110-85 R1989

(ii) Flanged beam under positive moment

With the flange in compression, the program analyzes the section by considering
alternative locations of the neutral axis. Initially the neutral axis is assumed to be lo-
cated in the flange. Based on this assumption, the program calculates the exact
depth of the neutral axis. If the stress block does not extend beyond the flange thick-
ness the section is designed as a rectangular beam of width b . If the stress block ex-
f

tends beyond the flange width, then the contribution of the web to the flexural
strength of the beam is taken into account. See Figure VI-3.

Assuming the neutral axis to lie in the flange, the normalized moment is computed
as
M
K= .
f b d
cu f
2

Then the moment arm is computed as

 K 
z = d  0.5 + 0.25 −  ≤ 0.95d ,
 0.9 

the depth of neutral axis is computed as

1
x= ( d - z ) , and
0.45

the depth of compression block is given by

a = 0.9 x .
• If a ≤ h , the subsequent calculations for A are exactly the same as previously
f s

defined for the rectangular section design. However, in this case the width of
the compression flange, b , is taken as the width of the beam, b, for analysis.
f

Whether compression reinforcement is required depends on whether K > K ′.

• If a > h , calculation for A is done in two parts. The first part is for balancing
f s

the compressive force from the flange, C , and the second part is for balancing
f

the compressive force from the web, C , as shown in Figure VI-3.

w

In this case, the ultimate resistance moment of the flange is given by

M = 0.45 f ( b − b ) h ( d − 0.5 h ) ,
f cu f w f f

the balance of moment taken by the web is computed as

M = M − M , and
w f

Beam Design 113

SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

ε = 0.0035 0.67 fcu/γm 0.67 fcu/γm

bf hf

d' fs' Cs
As' Cf
x

d
Cw

As εs Ts Tw Tf
bw

(i) BEAM (ii) STRAIN (iii) STRESS

SECTION DIAGRAM DIAGRAM

Figure VI-3
Design of a T-Beam Section

the normalized moment resisted by the web is given by

M
K = .w

f b d
w 2
cu w

– If K ≤ 0.156, the beam is designed as a singly reinforced concrete beam. The

w

area of steel is calculated as the sum of two parts, one to balance compression in
the flange and one to balance compression in the web.
M M
A = +
f w
, where
0.87 f ( d − 0.5 h ) 0.87 f z
s
y f y

 K 
z = d  0.5 + 0.25 −  ≤ 0.95d . w

 0.9 

114 Beam Design

 Chapter VI Design for BS 8110-85 R1989

– If K > K ′, compression reinforcement is required and is calculated as fol-

w

lows:
The ultimate moment of resistance of the web only is given by

M uw
= K′ f b d . cu w
2

The compression reinforcement is required to resist a moment of magnitude

M − M . The compression reinforcement is computed as
w uw

M − M
A′ = ′
w uw
,
f ( d − d′ )
s

where, d′ is the depth of the compression steel from the concrete compression
face, and

d′ 1 f 
f′= 0.87 f , if ≤ −
y
1 , and
d 2  800 
s y

 2d′  d′ 1 f 
f ′= 700 1 − , if > 1−
y

 .
 d  d 2 800 
s

The area of tension reinforcement is obtained from equilibrium

1  M M M −M 
A=
f uw w uw
s 
0.87 f  d − 0.5 h
+
0.777 d
+
d − d′ .
y f 

Design Beam Shear Reinforcement

The shear reinforcement is designed for each loading combination in the major and
minor directions of the column. In designing the shear reinforcement for a particu-
lar beam for a particular loading combination due to shear forces in a particular di-
rection, the following steps are involved (BS 3.4.5):

• Calculate the design shear stress as

V
v= , A = bd , where (BS 3.4.5.2)
A
cv
cv

v ≤ 0.8 f cu
, and (BS 3.4.5.2)

v ≤ 5 N/mm2 . (BS 3.4.5.2)

Beam Design 115

SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

• Calculate the design concrete shear stress from

1 1
0.79 k k  100 A  3  400  4
v =    1
 , 2 s
(BS 3.4.5.4)
c
γ  bd   d m

where,
k is the enhancement factor for support compression, and is conserva-
1

tively taken as 1, (BS 3.4.5.8)

1
f 3
k =   ≥ 1 , andcu
(BS 3.4.5.4)
 25 
2

γ m
= 1.25 .
However, the following limitations also apply:
100 A
0.15 ≤ ≤ 3, s
(BS 3.4.5.4)
bd
400
≥ 1 , and (BS 3.4.5.4)
d

f cu
≤ 40 N/mm2 (for calculation purpose only). (BS 3.4.5.4)

A is the area of tensile steel.

s

• If v ≤ v + 0.4, provide minimum links defined by

c

A 0.4 b
sv
≥ , (BS 3.4.5.3)
s v
0.87 f yv

else if v > v + 0.4, provide links given by

c

A (v − v ) b
sv
≥ , c
(BS 3.4.5.3)
s v
0.87 f yv

where f yv
can not be greater than 460 MPa (BS 3.4.5.1).

116 Beam Design

 C h a p t e r VII

Design for Eurocode 2

This chapter describes in detail the various aspects of the concrete design procedure
that is used by SAP2000 when the user selects the 1992 Eurocode 2 (CEN 1992).
Various notations used in this chapter are listed in Table VII-1.

The design is based on user-specified loading combinations. However, the program

provides a set of default load combinations that should satisfy requirements for the
design of most building type structures.

English as well as SI and MKS metric units can be used for input. But the code is
based on Newton-Millimeter-Second units. For simplicity, all equations and de-
scriptions presented in this chapter correspond to Newton-Millimeter-Second
units unless otherwise noted.

Design Load Combinations

The design loading combinations define the various factored combinations of the
load cases for which the structure is to be checked. The design loading combina-
tions are obtained by multiplying the characteristic loads by appropriate partial fac-
tors of safety. If a structure is subjected to dead load (DL) and live load (LL) only,
the design will need only one loading combination, namely 1.35 DL + 1.5 LL.

Design Load Combinations 117

SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

A c
Area of concrete, mm2
A cv
Area of section for shear resistance, mm2
A g
Gross cross-sectional area of a frame member, mm2
A s
Area of tension reinforcement, mm2
A′ s
Area of compression reinforcement, mm2
A sw
Total cross-sectional area of links at the neutral axis, mm2
a Depth of compression block, mm
b Width or effective width of the section in the compression zone, mm
b f
Width or effective width of flange, mm
b w
Average web width of a flanged beam, mm
d Effective depth of tension reinforcement, mm
d′ Effective depth of compression reinforcement, mm
E c
Modulus of elasticity of concrete, MPa
E s
Modulus of elasticity of reinforcement, assumed as 200 000 MPa
e Eccentricity of axial load in a column, mm
e min
Minimum or nominal eccentricity, mm
e tot
Total eccentricity for a braced column, mm
f cd
Design concrete compressive strength = f γ , MPa
ck c
′
f , fck c
Characteristic compressive cylinder strength of concrete at 28 days, MPa
f cwd
Design concrete compressive strength for shear design = f γ , Mpa
cwk c
′
f cwk
, f cs
Characteristic compressive cylinder strength for shear design, MPa
f yd
Design tensile yield strength of reinforcing steel = f γ , MPa
yk s

f , fyk y
Characteristic tensile yield strength of reinforcement, MPa
f′ s
Stress in a beam compression steel, MPa
f ywd
Design tensile strength of shear reinforcing steel = f
ywk
γ , MPa
s

f ywk
,f ys
Characteristic tensile strength of shear reinforcement, MPa
h Overall depth of a section in the plane of bending, mm
h f
Flange thickness, mm
l0
Effective height of a column, mm
lcol
Clear height between end restraints, mm

Table VII-1
List of Symbols Used in the Eurocode 2

118 Design Load Combinations

 Chapter VII Design for Eurocode 2

M Design moment at a section, N-mm

M ,M 1 2
Smaller and larger end moments in a slender column, N-mm
M ,M x y
Applied moments about the major and minor axes of a column, N-mm
M Rd
Design moment of resistance of a section N-mm
M Sd
Moment at a section obtained from analysis, N-mm
m Normalized design moment, M bd αf 2
cd

N Ultimate axial load, N

sv
Spacing of links, mm
VRd 1
Design shear resistance from concrete alone, N
VRd 2
Design limiting shear resistane of a cross-section, N
VSd
Shear force at ultimate design load, N
V ,V
x y
Shear force at ultimate design load in two directions, N
Vwd
Shear force from reinforcement, N
α Concrete strength reduction factor for sustained loading
β Effective length factor,
Enhancement factor of shear resistance for concentrated load
γ f
Partial safety factor for load
γc
Partial safety factor for concrete strength, 1.5 by default
γm
Partial safety factor for material strength
γs
Partial safety factor for steel strength, 1.15 by default
δ Redistribution factor
εc
Concrete strain
εs
Strain in tension steel
ε ′
s
Strain in compression steel
ν Effectiveness factor for shear resistance without concrete crushing,
Out of plumbness factor
ρ Tension reinforcement ratio, A bd
s

σcp
Effective average compressive stress in concrete column, MPa
ω Normalized tensile steel ratio, A f αf bd
s yd cd

ω′ Normalized compression steel ratio, A ′ f αf bd s yd cd

ω lim
Normalized limiting tensile steel ratio

Table VII-1
List of Symbols Used in the Eurocode 2 (continued)

Design Load Combinations 119

SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

However, in addition to the dead load and live load, if the structure is subjected to
wind (WL) and earthquake (EL) forces, and considering that wind and earthquake
forces are subject to reversals, the following load combinations might have to be
considered (EC2 2.3.3):

1.35 DL
1.35 DL + 1.50 LL (EC2 2.3.3)

1.35 DL ± 1.50 WL
1.00 DL ± 1.50 WL
1.35 DL + 1.35 LL ± 1.35 WL (EC2 2.3.3)

1.00 DL ± 1.00 EL
1.00 DL + 1.5*0.3 LL ± 1.0 EL (EC2 2.3.3)

These are the default load combinations. These default loading combinations are
produced for persistent and transient design situations (EC2 2.2.1.2) by combining
load due to dead, live, wind, and earthquake loads according to the simplified for-
mula (EC2 2.3.3.1) for ultimate limit states.

In addition to the above load combinations, the code requires that all buildings
should be capable of resisting a notional design ultimate horizontal load applied at
each floor or roof level (EC2 2.5.1.3). It is recommended that the user define addi-
tional load cases for considering the notional load in SAP2000.

Live load reduction factors, as allowed by some design codes, can be applied to the
member forces of the live load condition on a member-by-member basis to reduce
the contribution of the live load to the factored loading.

Design Strength
The design strength for concrete and steel are obtained by dividing the characteris-
tic strength of the materials by a corresponding partial factor of safety as shown be-
low.

f cd
=f ck
γ , c
(EC2 2.3.3.2)

f cwd
=f cwk
γ , c
(EC2 2.3.3.2)

f yd
=f yk
γ , s
(EC2 2.3.3.2)

f ywd
=f ywk
γ , where
s
(EC2 2.3.3.2)

120 Design Strength

 Chapter VII Design for Eurocode 2

γ = Partial safety factor for steel = 1.15, and

s
(EC2 2.3.3.2)

γ = Partial safety factor for concrete = 1.5.

c
(EC2 2.3.3.2)

Column Design
The user may define the geometry of the reinforcing bar configuration of each con-
crete column section. If the area of reinforcing is provided by the user, the program
checks the column capacity. However, if the area of reinforcing is not provided by
the user, the program calculates the amount of reinforcing required for the column.
The design procedure for the reinforced concrete columns of the structure involves
the following steps:

• Generate axial force-biaxial moment interaction surfaces for all of the different
concrete sections types of the model (EC2 4.3.1.2). A typical biaxial interaction
surface is shown in Figure II-1. When the steel is undefined, the program gen-
erates the interaction surfaces for the range of allowable reinforcement. The
minimum reinforcement is taken to be
 N
 0.15 Sd

As , min
= max fyd
(EC2 5.4.1.2.1)
 0.003A
c

and the maximum reinforcement is taken to be 8 percent (EC2 5.4.1.2.1).

• Calculate the capacity ratio or the required reinforcing area for the factored ax-
ial force and biaxial (or uniaxial) bending moments obtained from each loading
combination at each station of the column. The target capacity ratio is taken as
one when calculating the required reinforcing area.
• Design the column shear reinforcing.

The following three sections describe in detail the algorithms associated with the
above-mentioned steps.

Generation of Biaxial Interaction Surfaces

The column capacity interaction volume is numerically described by a series of dis-
crete points that are generated on the three-dimensional interaction failure surface.
In addition to axial compression and biaxial bending, the formulation allows for ax-
ial tension and biaxial bending considerations as shown in Figure II-1. The coordi-

Column Design 121

SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

nates of these points are determined by rotating a plane of linear strain in three di-
mensions on the section of the column. See Figure II-2.

The formulation is based consistently upon the basic principles of ultimate strength
design and allows for any doubly symmetric rectangular, square, or circular column
section. The linear strain diagram limits the maximum concrete strain, ε , at the ex- c

3
tremity of the section to 0.0035 and at a depth of d from the most compressed face
7
to 0.0020 (EC2 4.3.1.2). See Figure VII-1.

fcd = αfck/γc
εc = 0.0035
d' 1
εs1 Cs
C
a=0.8x
3h/7 x
ε
2
s2 Cs

εs3 3
Ts

εs4 4
Ts

(i) CONCRETE (ii) STRAIN (iii) STRESS

SECTION DIAGRAM DIAGRAM

Figure VII-1
Idealized Stress and Strain Distribution in a Column Section

The stress in the steel is given by the product of the steel strain and the steel modu-
lus of elasticity, ε E , and is limited to the design yield strength the steel, f (EC2
s s yd

4.2.3.3.3). The area associated with each reinforcing bar is placed at the actual loca-
tion of the center of the bar and the algorithm does not assume any simplifications
in the manner in which the area of steel is distributed over the cross section of the
column (such as an equivalent steel tube or cylinder).

The concrete compression stress block is assumed to be rectangular, with a stress

value of αf , where f is the design value of concrete cylinder compressive
cd cd

strength and αis the reduction factor to account for sustained compression. αis gen-
erally assumed to be 0.80 (EC2 4.2.1.3). See Figure VII-1. The interaction algo-

122 Column Design

 Chapter VII Design for Eurocode 2

rithm provides corrections to account for the concrete area that is displaced by the
reinforcement in the compression zone.

Check Column Capacity

The column capacity is checked for each loading combination of each column. In
checking a particular column for a particular loading combination at a particular lo-
cation, the following steps are involved:

• Determine the factored moments and forces from the analysis load cases and
the specified load combination factors to give N ,V ,V , M , and M .
x y x y

• Determine the code total moments due to slender column effect. Compute mo-
ments due to minimum eccentricity.
• Check the column capacity ratio or compute the reinforcement for the column
for resisting the factored moments, the code total moments, and the moments
from minimum eccentricity.

The following three subsections describe in detail the algorithms associated with
the above-mentioned steps.

Determine Factored Moments and Forces

Each load combination is defined with a set of load factors corresponding to the
load cases. The factored loads for a particular load combination are obtained by ap-
plying the corresponding load factors to the load cases, giving N ,V ,V , M , and
x y x

M .
y

Determine Code Total Moments

The determination of code total moments depends on whether the frame is “braced”
or “unbraced” against side-sway.

Braced Column

Eurocode specifies that for braced columns the total moment should be computed
from a set of eccentricities, such that

e = e + e + e , where
tot 0 a 2
(EC2 4.3.5.6.2)
M M M
e = 0.4 1
+ 0.6 2
≥ 0.4 2
, where M ≤ M , (EC2 4.3.5.6.2)
N N N
0 1 2

Column Design 123

SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

νl
e =
a
0
, (EC2 4.3.5.4)
2

ν is taken as 1/100, however the user can override this value (EC2 2.5.1.3),
l is the effective length of a column in a given plane and is obtained from
0

l = βl
0 col
, (EC2 4.3.5.3.5)

where β is the effective length factor depending on the end conditions and
resistance against side-sway, β is conservatively taken as 1 for braced
frames, and l is the unsupported length corresponding to instability in
col

the major or minor direction of the element, l and l in Figure II-4. x y

kk l f 2

e =
1 2 0 yd
, (EC2 4.3.5.6.3)
4.5 E d
2
s

0 for λ ≤ 15,
λ
k =  − 0.75, for 15 < λ ≤ 35,
1

 20
1 for λ > 35,

λ = βl r ,
0 G

r = the radius of gyration about the axis of bending, and

G

N −N
k = ud sd
≤ 1 , k is taken as 1.0.
N −N
2 2
ud bal

However, the minimum eccentricity requirement is satisfied such that

M Rd
> N Sd
e min
, where (EC2 4.3.5.5.3)

M Rd
= Design moment resistance of the section,
N Sd
= The axial force obtained from analysis, and
e is the minimum eccentricity which is taken as 0.05 times the overall di-
min

mension of the column in the plane of bending and is given by

e min
= h 20 . (EC2 4.3.5.5.3)

Finally the design moments are computed from the maximum of the three,

M Rd
= max( N e Rd tot ,
N e
Rd min ,
M factored
). (EC2 4.3.5.6)

124 Column Design

 Chapter VII Design for Eurocode 2

In biaxial bending, the program calculates the design moments at any station about
two axes.

Unbraced Column

In the case of the unbraced column, it is assumed that the SAP2000 analysis in-
cludes P-∆ effects so that the analysis results include the effects of the additional
moments. Therefore, any additional computation is not required. That means, the
moment magnification factors for moments causing sidesway are taken as unity.
However, it is recommended that a factor be used to obtain a axial force P equiva-
lent to 1.35 DL + 1.35 LL for P-∆ analysis (White and Hajjar 1991).

In addition, the minimum eccentricity requirement needs to be satisfied so that the

design moment should at least be

M Rd
≥ Ne min
, (EC2 4.3.5.5.3)

where, e is the minimum eccentricity which is described in the previous section.

min

In biaxial bending the algorithm ensures that the eccentricity exceeds the minimum
about both the axes simultaneously.

Determine Capacity Ratio

As a measure of the stress condition of the column, a capacity ratio is calculated.
The capacity ratio is basically a factor that gives an indication of the stress condi-
tion of the column with respect to the capacity of the column.

Before entering the interaction diagram to check the column capacity, the design
forces N , M and M are obtained according to the previous subsections. The
x, y

point (N , M M ) is then placed in the interaction space shown as point L in Figure

x, y

II-3. If the point lies within the interaction volume, the column capacity is ade-
quate; however, if the point lies outside the interaction volume, the column is over-
stressed.

This capacity ratio is achieved by plotting the point L and determining the location
of point C. The point C is defined as the point where the line OL (if extended out-
wards) will intersect the failure surface. This point is determined by three-
dimensional linear interpolation between the points that define the failure surface.
OL
See Figure II-3. The capacity ratio, CR, is given by the ratio .
OC

• If OL = OC (or CR=1) the point lies on the interaction surface and the column is
stressed to capacity.

Column Design 125

SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

• If OL < OC (or CR<1) the point lies within the interaction volume and the col-
umn capacity is adequate.
• If OL > OC (or CR>1) the point lies outside the interaction volume and the col-
umn is overstressed.

The maximum of all the values of CR calculated from each load combination is re-
ported for each check station of the column along with the controlling
N , M , and M set and associated load combination number.
x y

If the reinforcing area is not defined, SAP2000 computes the reinforcement that
will give an interaction ratio of unity.

Design Column Shear Reinforcement

The shear reinforcement is designed for each loading combination in the major and
minor directions of the column. The assumptions in designing the shear reinforce-
ment are as follows:

• The column sections are assumed to be prismatic. The effect of any variation of
width in the column section on the concrete shear capacity is neglected.
• The effect on the concrete shear capacity of any concentrated or distributed
load in the span of the column between two beams is ignored. Also, the effect of
the direct support on the columns provided by the beams is ignored.
• All shear reinforcement is provided through shear reinforcement which are per-
pendicular to the longitudinal reinforcement.
• The effect of any torsion is neglected for the design of shear reinforcement.

In designing the shear reinforcement for a particular column for a particular loading
combination due to shear forces in a particular direction, the following steps of the
standard method are involved (EC2 4.3.2.1):

• Obtain the design value of the applied shear forceV from the SAP2000 analy-
Sd

sis results.

V =VSd 2
or V 3

• Calculate the design shear resistance of the member without shear reinforce-
ment.

V Rd 1
= β [τ k (1.2 + 40 ρ ) + 0.15 σ
Rd 1 cp ](b d) ,
w
where (EC2 4.3.2.3)

126 Column Design

 Chapter VII Design for Eurocode 2

β = enhancement factor for shear resistance for members with concen-

trated loads located near the face of the support. β is taken as 1.
0.25 f
τ = basic design shear strength of concrete = ctk 0.05
,
γ
Rd
c

f ctk 0. 05
= 0.7 f ctm
, (EC2 3.1.2.3)
2
f ctm
= 0.3 f cwk
3
, (EC2 3.1.2.3)

k = strength magnification factor for curtailment of longitudinal reinforce-

ment and is considered to be 1,
A
ρ = tension reinforcement ratio = ≤ 0.02 ,
s1

b d
1
w

A = area of tension reinforcement,

s1

N
σ = average stress in concrete due to axial force = Sd
,
A
cp
c

N Sd
is the design value of the applied axial force in section, and
A is the total area of concrete cross-section.
c

• Calculate the maximum design shear force that can be carried without crushing
of the notional concrete compressive struts,V . Rd 2

1
V Rd 2
= νf cwd
( 0.9 b d ) , where
w
(EC2 4.3.2.3)
2
f
ν is the effectiveness factor = 0.7 − ≥ 0.5 .
ck
(EC2 4.3.2.3)
200
f
If the effective average stress in concrete σ is more than 0.4 ck
, V
γ
cp , eff Rd 2
c

should be reduced as follows:

 σ 
V = 1.67 V 1 −  ≤V
cp , eff
, where (EC2 4.3.2.2)
 f 
Rd 2 , red Rd 2 Rd 2
cd

N −f A
σ =
Sd yd s2
,
A
cp , eff
g

Column Design 127

SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

N Sd
is the design axial force,

f yd
is the design yield stress of compression steel, f yd
≤ 400 MPa,

A is the area of reinforcement in the compression zone, A is

s2 s2

conservatively taken as zero for a conservative design, and

A is the gross total area of concrete cross-section.

g

• If V ≥ V
Sd
, the notional concrete-struts will be crushed. The section is not
Rd 2. red

adequate to carry the shear force.

• If V < V
Sd
, either the minimum shear reinforcement or the design shear re-
Rd 2. red

inforcement is required.
– If V ≤ V , the concrete shear capacity is adequate to carry the shear
Sd Rd 1

force. Only minimum shear reinforcement is required.

– If V > V , the concrete alone is not enough to carry the shear force. De-
Sd Rd 1

signed shear reinforcement is required. The required shear resistance from

reinforcement,V is given by wd

V wd
= V −VSd Rd 1
. (EC2 4.3.2.4.3)

The required shear reinforcement per unit length of the column is given by
A V
= sw wd
, (EC2 4.3.2.4.3)
s 0.9 d f
v ywd

where, f ywd
is the design yield strength of the shear reinforcement.

Beam Design
In the design of concrete beams, SAP2000 calculates and reports the required areas
of steel for flexure and shear based upon the beam moments, shears, load combina-
tion factors, and other criteria described below. The reinforcement requirements
are calculated at a user defined number of check stations along the beam span.

All the beams are only designed for major direction flexure and shear. Effects due
to any axial forces, minor direction bending, and torsion that may exist in the beams
must be investigated independently by the user.

128 Beam Design

 Chapter VII Design for Eurocode 2

The beam design procedure involves the following steps:

• Design beam flexural reinforcement

• Design beam shear reinforcement

Design Beam Flexural Reinforcement

The beam top and bottom flexural steel is designed at the design stations along the
beam span. In designing the flexural reinforcement for a particular beam for a par-
ticular section, for the beam major moment, the following steps are involved:

• Determine the maximum factored moments

• Determine the reinforcing steel

Determine Factored Moments

In the design of flexural reinforcement, the factored moments for each load combi-
nation at a particular beam station are obtained by factoring the corresponding mo-
ments for different load cases with the corresponding load factors. The beam sec-
tion is then designed for the maximum positive M and maximum negative M
+
u u
-

factored moments obtained from all of the load combinations.

Negative beam moments produce top steel. In such cases the beam is always de-
signed as a rectangular section. Positive beam moments produce bottom steel. In
such cases, the beam may be designed as a rectangular section, or T-Beam effects
may be included.

Determine Required Flexural Reinforcement

In the flexural reinforcement design process, the program calculates both the ten-
sion and compression reinforcement. Compression reinforcement is added when
the applied design moment exceeds the maximum moment capacity of a singly re-
inforced section. The user has the option of avoiding the compression reinforce-
ment by increasing the effective depth, the width, or the grade of concrete.

The design procedure is based on the simplified rectangular stress block as shown
in Figure VII-2 (EC2 4.3.1.2). Furthermore, it is assumed that moment redistribu-
tion in the member does not exceed the code specified limiting value. The code also
places a limitation on the neutral axis depth, to safeguard against non-ductile fail-
ures (EC2 2.5.3.4.2). When the applied moment exceeds M , the area of compres-
u

sion reinforcement is calculated on the assumption that the neutral axis depth re-
mains at the maximum permitted value.

Beam Design 129

SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

The design procedure used by SAP2000, for both rectangular and flanged sections
(L- and T-beams) is summarized below. It is assumed that the design ultimate axial
force does not exceed 0.08 f A (EC2 4.3.1.2), hence all the beams are designed
ck g

for major direction flexure and shear only.

Design as a Rectangular Beam

For rectangular beams, the normalized moment, m, and the normalized section ca-
pacity as a singly reinforce beam, m , are obtained first. The reinforcing steel area
lim

is determined based on whether m is greater than, less than, or equal to m . lim

• Calculate the normalized design moment, m.

M
m= , where
bd αf2
cd

α is the reduction factor to account for sustained compression. α is generally as-

sumed to be 0.80 for assumed rectangular stress block, (EC2 4.2.1.3). See also
page 122 for α . The concrete compression stress block is assumed to be rectan-
gular, with a stress value of αf , where f is the design concrete strength and
cd cd

f ck
is equal to . See Figure VII-2.
γ c

• Calculate the normalized concrete moment capacity as a singly reinforced

beam, m . lim

 x   x 
m =  1 − 0.4  d   ,
lim
d lim lim

x
where the limiting value of the ratio, , of the neutral axis depth at the ultimate
d
limit state after redistribution to the effective depth, is expressed as a function
of the ratio of the redistributed moment to the moment before redistribution, δ,
as follows:
 x δ − 0.44
  = , if f ≤ 35 , (EC2 2.5.3.4.1)
d lim
1.25
ck

 x δ − 0.56
  = , if f > 35 , (EC2 2.5.3.4.1)
d lim
1.25
ck

δ is assumed to be 1.

130 Beam Design

 Chapter VII Design for Eurocode 2

ε = 0.0035 αfck/γc
b

fs' Cs
A's d' x a=0.8x

d h

Ts Tc
As εs

(i) BEAM (ii) STRAIN (iii) STRESS

SECTION DIAGRAM DIAGRAM

Figure VII-2
Design of a Rectangular Beam

• If m ≤ m , a singly reinforced beam will suffice. Calculate the normalized

lim

steel ratio,

ω= 1 − 1 − 2m .

Calculate the area of tension reinforcement, A , from s

 αf bd 
A = ω .
cd

 f
s
 yd

This is the top steel if the section is under negative moment and the bottom
steel if the section is under positive moment.

• If m > m , the beam will not suffice as a singly reinforced beam. Both top and
lim

bottom steel are required.

– Calculate the normalized steel ratios ω′, ω , and ω . lim

 x
ω = 0.807   ,
lim
d lim

Beam Design 131

SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

m− m
ω′= , and lim

1 − d′/ d

ω= ω lim
+ ω′ .
– Calculate the area of compression and tension reinforcement, A′ and A , as
s s

follows:
 αf bd 
A ′ = ω′ 
s ′
cd
 , and
 f  s

 αf bd 
A = ω cd
 where
 f
s
 yd

 2d′  f
f′= Eε − ≤
y

 1 .
d  γ
s s c , max
s

Design as a T-Beam

(i) Flanged beam under negative moment

The contribution of the flange to the strength of the beam is ignored if the flange is
in the tension side. See Figure VII-3. The design procedure is therefore identical to
the one used for rectangular beams. However, the width of the web, , b is taken as
w

the width of the beam.

(ii) Flanged beam under positive moment

With the flange in compression, the program analyzes the section by considering
alternative locations of the neutral axis. Initially the neutral axis is assumed to be lo-
cated within the flange. Based on this assumption, the program calculates the depth
of the neutral axis. If the stress block does not extend beyond the flange thickness
the section is designed as a rectangular beam of width b . If the stress block extends
f

beyond the flange, additional calculation is required. See Figure VII-3.

• Calculate the normalized design moment, m.

M
m= , where
b d αf
f
2
cd

α is the reduction factor to account for sustained compression. α is generally as-

sumed to be 0.80 for assumed rectangular stress block, (EC2 4.2.1.3). See also

132 Beam Design

 Chapter VII Design for Eurocode 2

page 122 for α. The concrete compression stress block is assumed to be rectan-
gular, with a stress value of αf . cd

ε = 0.0035 α fck/γc α fck/γc

bf hf

d' fs' Cs
As' a = 0.8x Cf
x

d
Cw

As εs Ts Tw Tf
bw

(i) BEAM (ii) STRAIN (iii) STRESS

SECTION DIAGRAM DIAGRAM

Figure VII-3
Design of a T-Beam Section

 x
• Calculate the limiting value of the ratio,   , of the neutral axis depth at the
d lim

ultimate limit state after redistribution to the effective depth,which is expressed

as a function of the ratio of the redistributed moment to the moment before re-
distribution, δ, as follows:
 x δ − 0.44
  = , if f ≤ 35 , (EC2 2.5.3.4.1)
d lim
1.25
ck

 x δ − 0.56
  = , if f > 35 , (EC2 2.5.3.4.1)
d lim
1.25
ck

δ is assumed to be 1.
• Calculate the normalized steel ratio,

ω= 1 − 1 − 2m .

Beam Design 133

SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

x
• Calculate the ratio, , as follows:
d
x ω
= .
d 0.807

 x h 
• If   ≤   , the neutral axis lies within the flange. Calculate the area of ten-
f

d  d 
sion reinforcement, A , as follows: s

 αf b d 
A = ω
cd f

.
 f
s
 yd

 x h 
• If   >   , the neutral axis lies below the flange.
f

d  d 

Calculate steel area required for equilibrating the flange compression, A . s2

( b − b ) h αf
A =
f w f cd
,
f
s2
yd

and the corresponding resistive moment is given by

 h 
M = A f d −  .
f

 2
2 s2 yd

Calculate steel area required for rectangular section of width b to resist r

moment, M = M − M , as follows:
1 2

M
m = 1
, and
b d αf
1 2
w cd

 x   x 
m =  1 − 0.4  d   ,
lim
d lim lim

– If m ≤ m , 1 lim

ω = 1 − 1 − 2m , and
1 1

 αf b d 
A =ω  .
cd w

 f
s1 1
 yd

134 Beam Design

 Chapter VII Design for Eurocode 2

– If m > m 1 lim
,
m −m
ω′= 1
, lim

1 − d′/ d
 x
ω = 0.807   ,
lim
d lim

ω1 = ω lim
+ ω′ ,
 αf bd 
A ′ = ω′ 
s ′  , and
cd

 f  s

 αf b d 
A = ω   where
cd w

 f
s1 1
 yd

 2d′  f
f′= Eε − ≤
y
1 .
s s c , max
 d  γ
s

– Calculate total steel area required for the tension side.

A = A +A
s s1 s2

Design Beam Shear Reinforcement

The shear reinforcement is designed for each loading combination at various check
stations along the beam span. The assumptions in designing the shear reinforce-
ments are as follows:

• The beam sections are assumed to be prismatic. The effect of any variation of
width in the beam section on the concrete shear capacity is neglected.
• The effect on the concrete shear capacity of any concentrated or distributed
load in the span of the beam between two columns is ignored. Also, the effect of
the direct support on the beams provided by the columns is ignored.
• All shear reinforcements are assumed to be perpendicular to the longitudinal
reinforcement.
• The effect of any torsion is neglected for the design of shear reinforcement.

In designing the shear reinforcement for a particular column for a particular loading
combination due to shear forces in a particular direction, the following steps of the
standard method are involved.

Beam Design 135

SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

• Obtain the design value of the applied shear force V from the SAP2000 analy- Sd

sis results.

V =VSd 2

• Calculate the design shear resistance of the member without shear reinforce-
ment.

V Rd 1
= β [τ k (1.2 + 40 ρ ) + 0.15 σ
Rd 1 cp ](b d) w
(EC2 4.3.2.3)

• Calculate the maximum design shear force that can be carried without crushing
of the notional concrete compressive struts,V . Rd 2

1
V Rd 2
= νf cwd
( 0.9 b d ) w
(EC2 4.3.2.4.3)
2

• If the effective average stress in concrete σ , as defined earlier on page 127, cp , eff

f
is more than 0.4 , V is reduced as follows:
ck

γ
Rd 2
c

 σ 
V = 1.67 V 1 −  ≤V
cp , eff
. (EC2 4.3.2.2)
 f 
Rd 2 , red Rd 2 Rd 2
cd

• If V ≥ V
Sd
, the notional concrete-struts will be crushed. The section is not
Rd 2. red

adequate to carry the shear force.

• If V < V
Sd
, either the minimum shear reinforcement or the design shear
Rd 2. red

reinforcement is required.
– If V ≤ V , the concrete shear capacity is enough to carry the shear force.
Sd Rd 1

Only minimum shear reinforcement is required.

– If V > V , the concrete alone is not enough to carry the shear force. De-
Sd Rd 1

signed shear reinforcement is required. The required shear resistance from

reinforcement,V , is given by wd

V wd
=V −V Sd Rd 1
. (EC2 4.3.2.4.3)

The required shear reinforcement per unit length of the beam is given by
A V
= sw wd
. (EC2 4.3.2.4.3)
s 0.9 d f
v ywd

136 Beam Design

 C h a p t e r VIII

Design for NZS 3101-95

This chapter describes in detail the various aspects of the concrete design procedure
that is used by SAP2000 when the user selects the New Zealand code, NZS 3101-
95 (NZS 1995). Various notations used in this chapter are listed in Table VIII-1.

The design is based on user-specified loading combinations. But the program pro-
vides a set of default load combinations that should satisfy requirements for the de-
sign of most building type structures.

SAP2000 provides options to design or check all types of moment resisting frames
as required for regular and seismic design. For regular design, the frame should be
identified as Ordinary. For Seismic design, the frame has to be identified as either
Ductile, Limited, or Elastic to represent Ductile moment resisting frames, frames
with Limited ductility, and Elastically responding frames, respectively. The details
of the design criteria used for the different framing systems are described in the fol-
lowing sections.

English as well as SI and MKS metric units can be used for input. But the code is
based on Newton-Millimeter-Second units. For simplicity, all equations and de-
scriptions presented in this chapter correspond to Newton-Millimeter-Second
units unless otherwise noted.

137
SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

A cv
Area of concrete used to determine shear stress, sq-mm
A g
Gross area of concrete, sq-mm
A s
Area of tension reinforcement, sq-mm
A′ s
Area of compression reinforcement, sq-mm
A s ( required )
Area of steel required for tension reinforcement, sq-mm
A st
Total area of column longitudinal reinforcement, sq-mm
A v
Area of shear reinforcement, sq-mm
a Depth of compression block, mm
ab
Depth of compression block at balanced condition, mm
amax
Maximum depth of compression block, mm
b Width of member, mm
b f
Effective width of flange (T-Beam section), mm
bw
Width of web (T-Beam section), mm
C m
Coefficient, dependent upon column curvature, used to
calculate moment magnification factor
c Depth to neutral axis, mm
c
b
Depth to neutral axis at balanced conditions, mm
d Distance from compression face to tension reinforcement, mm
d′ Concrete cover to center of reinforcing, mm
d s
Thickness of slab (T-Beam section), mm
E c
Modulus of elasticity of concrete, MPa
E s
Modulus of elasticity of reinforcement, assumed as 200 000 MPa
f′ c
Specified compressive strength of concrete, MPa
f y
Specified yield strength of flexural reinforcement, MPa
f yt
Specified yield strength of shear reinforcement, MPa
h Dimension of beam or column, mm
Ig
Moment of inertia of gross concrete section about centroidal axis,
neglecting reinforcement, mm4
k Effective length factor
L Clear unsupported length, mm

Table VIII-1
List of Symbols Used in the New Zealand code

138
 Chapter VIII Design for NZS 3101-95

M 1
Smaller factored end moment in a column, N-mm
M 2
Larger factored end moment in a column, N-mm
M c
Factored moment to be used in design, N-mm
M ns
Nonsway component of factored end moment, N-mm
M s
Sway component of factored end moment, N-mm
M *
Factored moment at section, N-mm
M *
x
Factored moment at section about X-axis, N-mm
M *
y
Factored moment at section about Y-axis, N-mm
N b
Axial load capacity at balanced strain conditions, N
N c
Critical buckling strength of column, N
N max
Maximum axial load strength allowed, N
N 0
Axial load capacity at zero eccentricity, N
N *
Factored axial load at section, N
vb
Basic shear stress resisted by concrete, MPa
vc
Shear stress resisted by concrete, MPa
Vc
Shear force resisted by concrete, N
V +
D L
Shear force from span loading, N
Vp
Shear force computed from probable moment capacity, N
V *
Factored shear force at a section, N
Vs
Shear force at a section resisted by steel, N
α Reinforcing steel overstrength factor
α 1
Average stress factor in equivalent stress block
β 1
Factor for obtaining depth of compression block in concrete
β d
Absolute value of the ratio of the maximum factored axial
dead load moment to the maximum factored total load moment
δb
Moment magnification factor for nonsway moments
δs
Moment magnification factor for sway moments
εc
Strain in concrete
εs
Strain in reinforcing steel
ϕ b
Strength reduction factor for bending
ϕ c
Strength reduction factor for compression

Table VIII-1
List of Symbols Used in the New Zealand code (continued)

139
SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

Design Load Combinations

The design load combinations are the various combinations of the prescribed load
cases for which the structure needs to be checked. For this code, if a structure is sub-
jected to dead load (DL), live load (LL), wind (WL), and earthquake (EL) loads,
and considering that wind and earthquake forces are reversible, then the following
load combinations may have to be considered for design of concrete frames (NZS
4203-92 2.4.3):

1.4 DL
1.2 DL + 1.6 LL (NZS 4203-92 2.4.3.3)

1.2 DL ± 1.0 WL
0.9 DL ± 1.0 WL
1.2 DL + 0.4 LL ± 1.0 WL (NZS 4203-92 2.4.3.3)

1.0 DL ± 1.0 EL
1.0 DL + 0.4 LL ± 1.0 EL (NZS 4203-92 2.4.3.3)

These are also the default design load combinations in SAP2000 whenever the NZS
3101-95 code is used. The user should use other appropriate loading combinations
if roof live load is separately treated, other types of loads are present, or pattern live
loads are to be considered.

Live load reduction factors can be applied to the member forces of the live load
case on an element-by-element basis to reduce the contribution of the live load to
the factored loading.

Strength Reduction Factors

The default strength reduction factor, ϕ, is taken as

ϕ = 0.85 for bending and

b
(NZS 3.4.2.2)

ϕ = 0.85 for compression and

c
(NZS 3.4.2.2)

ϕ = 0.75 for shear.

s
(NZS 3.4.2.2)

The user can, however, overwrite them.

140 Design Load Combinations

 Chapter VIII Design for NZS 3101-95

Column Design
The user may define the geometry of the reinforcing bar configuration of each con-
crete column section. If the area of reinforcing is provided by the user, the program
checks the column capacity. However, if the area of reinforcing is not provided by
the user, the program calculates the amount of reinforcing required for the column.
The design procedure for the reinforced concrete columns of the structure involves
the following steps:

• Generate axial force-biaxial moment interaction surfaces for all of the different
concrete section types of the model. A typical biaxial interaction surface is
shown in Figure II-1. When the steel is undefined, the program generates the
interaction surfaces for the range of allowable reinforcement ratios  0.008 to
0.08 for Ordinary moment resisting frames (NZS 8.4.6.1) and 0.008 to 18 f y

for Seismic (Ductile, Limited, and Elastic) moment resisting frames (NZS
8.5.4.2).
• Calculate the capacity ratio or the required reinforcing area for the factored ax-
ial force and biaxial (or uniaxial) bending moments obtained from each loading
combination at each station of the column. The target capacity ratio is taken as
one when calculating the required reinforcing area.
• Design the column shear reinforcement.

The following three subsections describe in detail the algorithms associated with
the above-mentioned steps.

Generation of Biaxial Interaction Surfaces

The column capacity interaction volume is numerically described by a series of dis-
crete points that are generated on the three-dimensional interaction failure surface.
In addition to axial compression and biaxial bending, the formulation allows for ax-
ial tension and biaxial bending considerations. A typical interaction diagram is
shown in Figure II-1.

The coordinates of these points of the interaction diagram are determined by rotat-
ing a plane of linear strain in three dimensions on the section of the column. See
Figure II-2. The linear strain diagram limits the maximum concrete strain, ε , at the
c

extremity of the section, to 0.003 (NZS 8.3.1.3).

The formulation is based consistently upon the general principles of ultimate

strength design (NZS 8.3), and allows for any doubly symmetric rectangular,
square, or circular column section.

Column Design 141

SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

α1 f'c
εc = 0.003
d' 1
εs1 Cs
C a= 1c
c
2
εs2 Cs

εs3 Ts3

εs4 Ts4

(i) Concrete Section (ii) Strain Diagram (iii) Stress Diagram

Figure VIII-1
Idealization of Stress and Strain Distribution in a Column Section

The stress in the steel is given by the product of the steel strain, ε , and the steel s

modulus of elasticity, E , and is limited to the yield stress of the steel, f (NZS
s y

8.3.1.4). The area associated with each reinforcing bar is assumed to be placed at
the actual location of the center of the bar and the algorithm does not assume any
further simplifications in the manner in which the area of steel is distributed over
the cross section of the column (such as an equivalent steel tube or cylinder). See
Figure VIII-1.

The concrete compression stress block is assumed to be rectangular, with a stress

value of α f ′ (NZS 8.3.1.7) and a depth of the stress block of β c, where
1 c 1

α = 0.85 − 0.004 ( f ′ − 55),

1 c
(NZS 8.3.1.7)

β = 0.85 − 0.008 ( f ′ − 30),

1 c
(NZS 8.3.1.7)

0.75 ≤ α ≤ 0.85, and

1
(NZS 8.3.1.7)

0.65 ≤ β ≤ 0.85, and

1
(NZS 8.3.1.7)

142 Column Design

 Chapter VIII Design for NZS 3101-95

The limit of f ′ is taken to be 100 MPa for Ordinary and Elastically responding mo-
c

ment resisting frames, and 70 MPa for Ductile frames and frames with Limited duc-
tility:

f ′ ≤ 100 MPa.
c
(NZS 3.8.1.1)

f ′ ≤ 70 MPa.
c
(NZS 3.8.4.4)

The limit of f is taken to be 500 MPa for all frames:

y

f ≤ 500 MPa.
y
(NZS 3.8.2.1)

The interaction algorithm provides correction to account for the concrete area that
is displaced by the reinforcement in the compression zone.

The effects of the strength reduction factor, ϕ, are included in the generation of the
interaction surfaces. The maximum compressive axial load is limited to N , max

where the maximum factored axial load resistance is given by:

N max
= 0.85 ϕ [ α f ′ ( A − A ) + f A ] (Ordinary, Elastic), (NZS 8.4.1.5)
c 1 c g st y st

N max
= 0.70 ϕ [ α f ′ ( A − A ) + f A ] (Ductile, Limited). (NZS 8.5.1.4)
c 1 c g st y st

Check Column Capacity

The column capacity is checked for each loading combination at each check station
of each column. In checking a particular column for a particular loading combina-
tion at a particular station, the following steps are involved:

• Determine the factored moments and forces from the analysis load cases and
the specified load combination factors to give N , M , and M .
*
x
* *
y

• Determine the moment magnification factors for stability.

• Determine the dynamic moment magnification effect.
• Apply the moment magnification factors to the factored loads obtained in the
first step. Determine whether the point, defined by the resulting axial load and
biaxial moment set, lies within the interaction volume.

The following three sections describe in detail the algorithms associated with the
above-mentioned steps.

Column Design 143

SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

Determine Factored Moments and Forces

The factored loads for a particular load combination are obtained by applying the
corresponding load factors to all the load conditions, giving N , M , and M . The
*
x
* *
y

factored moments are further increased, if required, to obtain minimum eccentrici-

ties of (15+ 0.03h) mm, where h is the dimension of the column in the correspond-
ing direction (NZS 8.4.11.5). The computed moments are further amplified by us-
ing “Moment Magnification Factors” to allow for “Lateral Drift Effect” and “Mem-
ber Stability Effect”.

Determine Moment Magnification Factors

The moment magnification factors are applied in two different stages. First the mo-
ments are separated into their “sway” and “non-sway” components. The non-sway
components are amplified for lateral drift effect. Although this amplification may
be avoided for “braced” frames according to the code, SAP2000 treats all frames
uniformly to amplify non-sway components of moments. These amplified mo-
ments are further amplified for individual member stability effect.

Lateral Drift Effect

For all frames, the moment magnification factor for lateral drift effect is applied
only to the “sway” moment in SAP2000.

M = M +δ M
ns s s

The moment magnification factors for moments causing sidesway in the major and
minor directions, δ and δ , can be different. The moment magnification factors,
sx sy

δ and δ , can be taken as 1.0 if a P-∆ analysis is carried out. The program as-
sx sy

sumes that the SAP2000 analysis models P-∆ effects, therefore, δ sx and δ sy are
taken as 1.0.

It is suggested that the P-∆ analysis be done at the factored load level (White and
Hajjar 1991). The necessary factors for a P-∆ analysis for the NZS 3101-95 code
should be (1.0 DL + 0.4 LL)/ϕ with the loading standard NZS 4203, where ϕ is
c c

the strength reduction factor for compression and is equal to 0.85.

The user is reminded of the special analysis requirements, especially those related
to the value of EI used in analysis (NZS 8.4.11.5). In SAP2000, the EI values are
computed based on gross cross-section areas. The user has the option to reduce the
EI values for analysis purposes using a scale factor on a section-by-section basis. If

144 Column Design

 Chapter VIII Design for NZS 3101-95

the program assumptions are not satisfactory for a particular member, the user can
explicitly specify values of δ and δ . sx sy

Member Stability Effects

All compression members are designed using the factored axial load, N , obtained *

from the analysis and a magnified factored moment, M . The magnified moment is c

computed as,

M =δ M ,
c b 2
(NZS 8.4.11.5)

where M is the column maximum end moment obtained from elastic analysis af-
2

ter considering minimum eccentricity and lateral drift effect, and M is the maxi- c

mum moment associated with the major or minor direction of the column occurring
either at the end or at an interior point within the span of the column. The moment
magnification factor, δ , for moments not causing sidesway is given by
b

C
δ = m
≥ 1.0 , where (NZS 8.4.11.5)
N
b *

1−
ϕ N c c

π EI 2

N = ,
( kL)
c 2

k is conservatively taken as 1, however the user can override the value,

EI is associated with a particular column direction given by
0.40 E I
EI =
c g
, and (NZS 8.4.11.5)
1+β d

Maximum factored axial dead load

β =
d
, (NZS 8.1)
Maximum factored total axial load

M
C = 0.6 + 0.4 ≥ 0.4 ,
a
(NZS 8.4.11.5)
M
m
b

M and M are the moments at the ends of the column, and M is numeri-
a b b

cally larger than M . M M is positive for single curvature bending and

a a b

negative for double curvature bending. The above expression ofC is valid m

if there is no transverse load applied between the supports. If transverse

load is present on the span, or the length is overwritten, or for any other

Column Design 145

SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

case, C = 1 (NZS 8.4.11.5). C can be overwritten by the user on an ele-

m m

ment by element basis.

The magnification factor, δ , must be a positive number and greater than one.
b

Therefore N must be less than ϕ N . If N is found to be greater than or equal to

*
c c
*

ϕ N , a failure condition is declared.

c c

The above calculations use the unsupported lengths of the column. The two unsup-
ported lengths are l and l corresponding to instability in the minor and major di-
22 33

rections of the element, respectively. See Figure II-4. These are the lengths between
the support points of the element in the corresponding directions.

Dynamic Moment Magnification

For seismic design of Ductile frames and frames with Limited ductility, the mo-
ment is further amplified for dynamic effects of higher modes as follows (NZS
8.5.1.2, NZS 8.5.1.3):

M =R *
m [ϕ 0
ωM col, joint,elastic
− 0.3 h Vb col
*
] (NZS A7.2)

where,

M = the design moment for column,

*

M = the column moment at the center of the joint obtained from linear
col, joint,elastic

elastic analysis,

V *
col
= the design shear for column,

R = the moment reduction factor which is taken as a function of axial force and
m

the dynamic magnification factor, ω, for Ductile moment resisting

frames (NZS Table A3). It is taken as 1 for frames with Limited ductility.
The user can overwrite this,

ϕ = an overstrength factor, and is taken as 1.25 ϕ (NZS A4.1.6), and the user
0 b

can overwrite this,

ω = the dynamic magnification factor. It is taken as 1, and the user can over-
write this, and

h = the overall dimension of the beam at the beam-column joint.

b

However, in the current implementation, the reduction due to the design shear force
is taken as zero, which is based on a conservative assumption that h is equal to b

146 Column Design

 Chapter VIII Design for NZS 3101-95

zero. The user can model this using end-offsets in SAP2000. In the current imple-
mentation of SAP2000, the three parameters R , ϕ , and ω can be overwritten.
m 0

Determine Capacity Ratio

As a measure of the stress condition of the column, a capacity ratio is calculated.
The capacity ratio is basically a factor that gives an indication of the stress condi-
tion of the column with respect to the capacity of the column.

Before entering the interaction diagram to check the column capacity, the moment
magnification factors are applied to the factored loads to obtain N , M , and M .
* *
x
*
y

The point (N , M , M ) is then placed in the interaction space, shown as point L in

*
x
* *
y

Figure II-3. If the point lies within the interaction volume, the column capacity is
adequate; however, if the point lies outside the interaction volume, the column is
overstressed.

This capacity ratio is achieved by plotting the point L and determining the location
of point C. The point C is defined as the point where the line OL (if extended out-
wards) will intersect the failure surface. This point is determined by three-
dimensional linear interpolation between the points that define the failure surface.
OL
See Figure II-3. The capacity ratio, CR, is given by the ratio .
OC

• If OL = OC (or CR=1) the point lies on the interaction surface and the column is
stressed to capacity.
• If OL < OC (or CR<1) the point lies within the interaction volume and the col-
umn capacity is adequate.
• If OL > OC (or CR>1) the point lies outside the interaction volume and the col-
umn is overstressed.

The maximum of all the values of CR calculated from each load combination is re-
ported for each check station of the column along with the controlling N , M , and
* *
x

M set and associated load combination number.

*
y

If the reinforcing area is not defined, SAP2000 computes the reinforcement that
will give an interaction ratio of unity.

Design Column Shear Reinforcement

The shear reinforcement is designed for each loading combination in the major and
minor directions of the column. In designing the shear reinforcing for a particular

Column Design 147

SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

column for a particular loading combination due to shear forces in a particular di-
rection, the following steps are involved:

• Determine the factored forces acting on the section, N and V . Note that N
* * *

is needed for the calculation of v . c

• Determine the shear stress, v , that can be resisted by concrete alone.

c

• Determine the reinforcing steel required to carry the balance.

For Seismic moment resisting Ductile frames and frames with Limited ductility,
the shear design of the columns is based on the overstrength moment capacities of
the column (NZS 4.4, 17.3.7.1).

The following three sections describe in detail the algorithms associated with the
above-mentioned steps.

Determine Section Forces

• In the design of the column shear reinforcement of an Ordinary moment re-
sisting concrete frame, the forces for a particular load combination, namely,
the column axial force, N , and the column shear force, V , in a particular di-
* *

rection are obtained by factoring the SAP2000 analysis load cases with the cor-
responding load combination factors.
• In the shear design of Seismic moment resisting Ductile frames and frames
of Limited ductility (NOT Elastically responding frames) the following are
checked in addition to the requirement for the Ordinary moment resisting
frames (NZS 4.4.1.1). The design shear force, V , in a particular direction is
*

also calculated from the overstrength moment capacities of the column associ-
ated with the factored axial force acting on the column (NZS 8.5.1.3).
For each load combination, the factored axial load, N , is calculated. Then, the
*

positive and negative moment capacities, M + and M − , of the column in a par-

u u

ticular direction under the influence of the axial force N is calculated using
*

the uniaxial interaction diagram in the corresponding direction. The design

*
shear force,V , is then given by (NZS 4.4, NZS 17.3.7.1)

V = V +V
*
p D+ L
(NZS 4.4.5.7, NZS 17.3.7.1)

whereV is the shear force obtained by applying the calculated overstrength ul-
p

timate moment capacities at the two ends of the column acting in two opposite
directions. Therefore,V is the maximum of V 1 and V 2 , where
p P P

M +M- +

V1 = I J
, and
L
P

148 Column Design

 Chapter VIII Design for NZS 3101-95

M +M + -

V2 = I
, J

L
P

where

M+, M−
I I
= Positive and negative moment capacities at end I of the
column using a steel yield stress value of αf and no
y

ϕ factors,

M+, M−
J J
= Positive and negative moment capacities at end J of the
column using a steel yield stress value of αf and no
y

ϕ factors, and

L = Clear span of column.

For Seismic moment resisting frames, α is taken as 1.25 for both Ductile mo-
ment resisting frames and frames with Limited ductility (NZS A4.1.6). ϕ is
taken as 1 (NZS 4.4.3.3). V + is the contribution of shear force from the in-
D L

span distribution of gravity loads. For most of the columns, it is zero. See also
Table VIII-2 for more details.
• For Ductile moment resisting frames, the shear capacity of the column is also
checked for additional factored loads, in addition to the checks required for ca-
pacity design and factored loads. The factored shear force is based on the speci-
fied load factors except the earthquake load factor is taken to be 1.7 (NZS
4.4.5.8).

Determine Concrete Shear Capacity

The shear capacity provided by the concrete alone, v , is calculated as follows:
c

• The basic shear strength for a rectangular section is computed as,

 A  ′
v =  0.07 + 10 f st
(NZS 9.3.2.1)
 b d 
b c
w

where,

f ′ ≤ 70 , and
c
(NZS 9.3.2.1)

′
0.08 f c
≤ v ≤ 0.2 f ′ .
b c
(NZS 9.3.2.1)

Column Design 149

SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

For other types of sections b d is replaced by A , the effective shear area,

w cv

which is shown in Figure VIII-2.

• For Ordinary and Elastically responding moment resisting frames, the concrete
shear capacity for columns is taken as follows:
 N * 
 1 + 12 ′  v N < 0,
*
b
if under axial tension,
 f A c g 
v =
c
v b
if under flexure only, N = 0,
*
(NZS 9.3.2.1)
  N * 
  1 + 3 ′  v N > 0.
*
if under compression,
 
b
f A c g 

N is negative for tension. In any case, v is not taken less than zero.
*
c

• For Seismic moment resisting Ductile frames, the shear strength of a column
section is taken as zero if the axial force is tensile or compression is very small.
This is given as

v = 0 if N ≤ 0.10 f ′ A .
c
*
c g
(NZS 9.4.2.2)

If the axial compression is higher than the above limit, the concrete shear ca-
pacity for columns is taken as follows:

N *

v = 4v − 0.1 if N > 0.10 f ′ A . *

(NZS 9.4.2.2)
A f′
c b c g

g c

In any case, v is not taken less than zero.

c

• For Seismic moment resisting frames with Limited ductility, the concrete shear
capacity for columns is taken as follows (NZS 17.3.7.3 and NZS 17.3.7.4):
 N  *

  0.5 + 6 ′ v N < 0,
*
b
if under axial tension,
  f A  c g

v =
c
0.5 v b
if under flexure only, N = 0, (NZS 17.3.7)
*

 N  *

 0.5 + 1.5 ′ v N > 0.

*
if under compression,

b
f A  c g

N is negative for tension. The concrete shear strength for frames with Limited
*

ductility is not taken less than that for Ductile frames (NZS 17.3.7.4). In any
case, v is not taken less than zero (NZS 17.3.7.4).
c

150 Column Design

 Chapter VIII Design for NZS 3101-95

Determine Required Shear Reinforcement

• The average shear stress is computed for a rectangular section as,
V *

v = *
. (NZS 9.3.1.1)
b d w

For other types of sections b d is replaced by A , the effective shear area w cv

which is shown in .

• The average shear stress, v , is limited to a maximum limit, v , which is given

*
max

for Ordinary frames and Elastically responding seismic frames as,

v max {
= min 1.1 f ′ , 0.2 f ′ , 9 MPa ϕ c c } s
(NZS 9.3.1.8)

and for Ductile frames and frames with Limited ductility as,

v max {
= min 0.85 f ′ , 0.16 f ′ , 9 MPa ϕ . c c } s
(NZS 9.4.4.2)

• The shear reinforcement per unit spacing is computed as follows:

If v ≤ ϕ ( v 2) ,
*
s c

A
=0,v
(NZS 9.3.4.1)
s

else if ϕ ( v 2) < v ≤ ϕ ( v + 0.35) ,

s c
*
s c

A 0.35b
= v
, w
f ≤ 500 MPa , (NZS 9.3.4.3)
s f
yt
yt

else if ϕ ( v + 0.35) < v ≤ ϕ v

s c
*
s max
,
A (v − ϕ v ) b *

= v
, f s c w
≤ 500 MPa , (NZS 9.3.6.3)
s ϕ f
yt
s yt

else if v > v *
max
,

a failure condition is declared. (NZS 9.3.1.8)

In calculating the design shear reinforcement, a limit is imposed on the f yt

as

f yt
≤ 500 Mpa. (NZS 3.8.2.1 and NZS 9.3.6.1)

Column Design 151

SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

The maximum of all the calculated A s values, obtained from each load combina-
v

tion, is reported for the major and minor directions of the column along with the
controlling shear force and associated load combination number.

For all columns and at any station, the minimum area of transverse stirrup and cir-
cular hoop reinforcement is imposed as follows:

A 1− ρ m A f ′
N * 
≥ − h
v t g c
0.0065 (Stirrups) (NZS 8.4.7.2)
s  3.3 A f ϕ f ′A
core
c yt c c  g

A 1− ρ m A f ′
N *h
≥ − 0.0084
v t g c core

′
(Hoops) (NZS 8.4.7.1)
s  2.4 A f c yt ϕ f Ac c  4 g

In potential plastic hinge locations, as described later, of Seismic moment resisting

Ductile frames and frames with Limited ductility, the minimum area of transverse
stirrup and circular hoops is imposed as follows:

A  1.3 − ρ m A f ′
N 
*

≥ − h
v t g c
0.0060 (Stirrups) (NZS 8.5.4.3)
s  3.3 A f ϕ f ′A
core
c yt c c  g

A  1.3 − ρ m A f ′
N h
*

≥ − 
v t g c core
0.0084 (Hoops) (NZS 8.5.4.3)
s  2.4 A f c yt ϕ f ′A
c c  4 g

In the above four equations for calculating minimum shear reinforcement, the fol-
lowing limits are imposed:
A
≥ 1.2
g
(NZS 8.4.7 and NZS 8.5.4.3)
A c

ρ m≤ 0.4
t
(NZS 8.4.7 and NZS 8.5.4.3)

f yt
≤ 800 MPa (NZS 8.4.7 and NZS 8.5.4.3)

For the definition of the potential plastic hinge, it is assumed in the current version
of the program that any beam and column segment near the joint is a potential plas-
tic hinge. The length of the plastic hinge, L , in a column depends on the level of
hinge

axial compression in it and it is taken as follows:

152 Column Design

 Chapter VIII Design for NZS 3101-95

 N *

 h if < 0.25
 ϕ f ′A
c c g

 N *

L =  2h if 0.25 ≤ < 0.50 (NZS 8.5.4.1)

ϕ f ′A
hinge

 c c g

 N *

3h if ≥ 0.50
 ϕ f ′A
 c c g

The column shear reinforcement requirements reported by the program are based
purely upon the above considerations. Any other minimum stirrup requirements to
satisfy spacing and/or volumetric requirements must be investigated independently
of the program by the user.
d' d

DIRECTION
OF SHEAR
FORCE
Acv b

RECTANGULAR

d' d

DIRECTION
OF SHEAR
FORCE
A cv b

SQUARE WITH CIRCULAR REBAR

d' d

DIRECTION
OF SHEAR
FORCE
Acv

CIRCULAR

Figure VIII-2
Shear Stress Area, A cv

Column Design 153

SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

Beam Design
In the design of concrete beams, SAP2000 calculates and reports the required areas
of steel for flexure and shear based upon the beam moments, shears, load combina-
tion factors and other criteria described below. The reinforcement requirements are
calculated at a user defined number of check stations along the beam span.

All the beams are only designed for major direction flexure and shear. Effects due
to any axial forces, minor direction bending, and torsion that may exist in the beams
must be investigated independently by the user.

The beam design procedure involves the following steps:

• Design beam flexural reinforcement

• Design beam shear reinforcement

Design Beam Flexural Reinforcement

The beam top and bottom flexural steel is designed at a user defined number of de-
sign stations along the beam span. In designing the flexural reinforcement for the
major moment of a particular beam for a particular section, the following steps are
involved:

• Determine the maximum factored moments

• Determine the reinforcing steel

Determine Factored Moments

In the design of flexural reinforcement of Ordinary and Seismic (Ductile, Limited,
and Elastic) moment resisting frame concrete beams, the factored moments for
each load combination at a particular beam station are obtained by factoring the
corresponding moments for different load cases with the corresponding load fac-
tors. The beam section is then designed for the maximum positive and maximum
negative factored moments obtained from all of the load combinations.

Positive beam moments produce bottom steel. In such cases the beam may be de-
signed as a Rectangular- or T-beam. Negative beam moments produce top steel. In
such cases the beam is always designed as a rectangular section.

154 Beam Design

 Chapter VIII Design for NZS 3101-95

Determine Required Flexural Reinforcement

In the flexural reinforcement design process, the program calculates both the ten-
sion and compression reinforcement. Compression reinforcement is added when
the applied design moment exceeds the maximum moment capacity of a singly re-
inforced section. The user has the option of avoiding the compression reinforce-
ment by increasing the effective depth, the width, or the grade of concrete.

The design procedure is based on the simplified rectangular stress block as shown
in (NZS 8.3.1.6). Furthermore it is assumed that the compression carried by con-
crete is 0.75 times that which can be carried at the balanced condition (NZS 8.4.2).
When the applied moment exceeds the moment capacity at the balanced condition,
the area of compression reinforcement is calculated on the assumption that the ad-
ditional moment will be carried by compression and additional tension reinforce-
ment.

In designing the beam flexural reinforcement, the following limits are imposed on
the steel tensile strength and the concrete compressive strength:

f ≤ 500 MPa
y
(NZS 3.8.2.1)

f ′ ≤ 100 MPa (Ordinary and Elastic)

c
(NZS 3.8.1.1)

f ′ ≤ 70 MPa (Ductile and Limited)

c
(NZS 3.8.4.4)

The design procedure used by SAP2000, for both rectangular and flanged sections
(L- and T-beams) is summarized below. All the beams are designed only for major
direction flexure and shear.

Design for Flexure of a Rectangular Beam

In designing for a factored negative or positive moment, M , (i.e. designing top or

*

bottom steel) the depth of the compression block, a (See Figure VIII-3), is com-
puted as,

2 M *

a= d− d −
2
, (NZS 8.3.1)
α f′ϕ b
1 c b

where the default value of ϕ is 0.85 (NZS 3.4.2.2) in the above and the following
b

equations. Also α is calculated as follows:

1

α = 0.85 − 0.004( f ′ − 55) , 0.75 ≤ α ≤ 0.85 .

1 c 1
(NZS 8.3.1.7)

Beam Design 155

SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

Also β and c are calculated as follows:

1 b

β = 0.85 − 0.008( f ′ − 30) , 0.65 ≤ β ≤ 0.85 , and

1 c 1
(NZS 8.3.1.7)

600
c = d. (NZS 8.4.1.2)
600 + f
b
y

The maximum allowed depth of the compression block is given by

a max
= 0.75β c . 1 b
(NZS 8.4.2 and NZS 8.3.1.7)

• If a ≤ a max
(NZS 8.4.2), the area of tensile steel reinforcement is then given by
M *

A = .
 a
s

ϕ f d − 
b
 2
y

This steel is to be placed at the bottom if M is positive, or at the top if M is

* *

negative.

ε = 0.003 α1 f'c
b

Cs
d' c a= 1c
A's

εs Ts Tc
As

Beam Section Strain Diagram Stress Diagram

Figure VIII-3
Design of a Rectangular Beam Section

156 Beam Design

 Chapter VIII Design for NZS 3101-95

• If a > a (NZS 8.4.2), compression reinforcement is required (NZS 8.4.1.3)

max

and is calculated as follows:

– The compressive force developed in the concrete alone is given by

C = α f ′ ba
1 c max
, and (NZS 8.3.1.7)

the moment resisted by the concrete and bottom steel is

 a 
M = C d −
*
ϕ . max

 2 
c b

– The moment resisted by compression steel and tensile steel is

M =M −M .
*
s
* *
c

– So the required compression steel is given by

M *

A′ = s
, where
( f ′ − α f ′ )( d − d′ ) ϕ
s

s 1 c b

 c − d′ 
f ′ = 0.003 E  ≤f . (NZS 8.3.1.2 and NZS 8.3.1.3)
s
 c  s y

– The required tensile steel for balancing the compression in concrete is

M *

A = c
, and
s1
a
f (d −
y
max
)ϕ b
2

the tensile steel for balancing the compression in steel is

M *

A = . s

f ( d − d′ ) ϕ
s2
y b

– Therefore, the total tensile reinforcement, A = A + A , and total com- s s1 s2

pression reinforcement is A ′ . A is to be placed at the bottom and A ′ is to be

s s s

placed at the top if M is positive, and vice versa. *

Beam Design 157

SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

Design for Flexure of a T-Beam

(i) Flanged Beam Under Negative Moment

In designing for a factored negative moment, M ≤ 0, (i.e. designing top steel), the *

calculation of the steel area is exactly the same as above, i.e., no T-Beam data is to
be used.

(ii) Flanged Beam Under Positive Moment

If M > 0, the depth of the compression block is given by (see ).

*

2 M *

a= d− d − 2
, (NZS 8.3.1)
α f′ϕ b
1 c b f

The maximum allowed depth of the compression block is given by

a max
= 0.75 β c . 1 b
(NZS 8.4.2 and NZS 8.3.1.7)

• If a ≤ d (NZS 8.4.2), the subsequent calculations for A are exactly the same as
s s

previously done for the rectangular section design. However, in this case the
width of the beam is taken as b . Whether compression reinforcement is re- f

quired depends on whether a > a . max

• If a > d (NZS 8.4.2), calculation for A is done in two parts. The first part is for
s s

balancing the compressive force from the flange, C , and the second part is for f

balancing the compressive force from the web,C . As shown in Figure VIII-4, w

C = α f ′ ( b − b )d .
f 1 c f w s
(NZS 8.3.1.7)

C
Therefore, A = and the portion of M that is resisted by the flange is
f *

f
s1
y

given by
 d 
M = C d−
*
ϕ . s

 2
f f b

Therefore, the balance of the moment, M to be carried by the web is given by *

M = M −M .
*
w
* *
f

The web is a rectangular section of dimensions b and d, for which the depth of w

the compression block is recalculated as

158 Beam Design

 Chapter VIII Design for NZS 3101-95

2M *

a = d− d −
2 w
. (NZS 8.3.1)
α f′ϕ b
1

1 c b w

• If a ≤ a 1 max
(NZS 8.4.2), the area of tensile steel reinforcement is then
given by
M *

A = , and w

 a 
s2

ϕ f d −  1

b
2 
y

A = A +A .
s s1 s2

This steel is to be placed at the bottom of the T-beam.

ε = 0.003 α1 f'c α1 f'c

bf ds

d' fs' Cs
As' Cf
a= 1c
c

d
Cw

As εs Ts Tw Tf
bw

Beam Section Strain Diagram Stress Diagram

Figure VIII-4
Design of a T-Beam Section

• If a > a (NZS 8.4.2), compression reinforcement is required and is cal-

1 max

culated as follows:
– The compressive force in the concrete web alone is given by

C = α f ′ ba
w 1 c max
, and (NZS 8.3.1.7)

Beam Design 159

SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

the moment resisted by the concrete web and tensile steel is

 a 
M = C d −
*
ϕ . max

 2 
c w b

– The moment resisted by compression steel and tensile steel is

M =M −M .
*
s w
* *
c

– Therefore, the compression steel is computed as

M *

A′ = s
, where
( f ′ − α f ′ )( d − d′ ) ϕ
s

s 1 c b

 c − d′ 
f ′ = 0.003 E  ≤f . (NZS 8.3.1.2 and NZS 8.3.1.3)
s
 c  s y

– The tensile steel for balancing compression in web concrete is

M *

A = , and c

 a 
s2

f d − ϕ max

 y
2 
b

the tensile steel for balancing compression in steel is

M *

A = . s

f ( d − d′) ϕ
s3
y b

– Total tensile reinforcement, A = A + A + A , and total compres- s s1 s2 s3

sion reinforcement is A ′ . A is to be placed at the bottom and A ′ is to be

s s s

placed at the top.

Minimum and Maximum Tensile Reinforcement

The minimum flexural tensile steel provided in a rectangular section in an Ordinary

and Elastic moment resisting frame is given by the minimum of the two limits:
′
f
A ≥ b d, or
c
(NZS 8.4.3.1)
4f
s w
y

4
A ≥
s
A s ( required )
. (NZS 8.4.3.3)
3

160 Beam Design

 Chapter VIII Design for NZS 3101-95

An upper limit of 0.04 times the gross web area on both the tension reinforcement
and the compression reinforcement is imposed upon request as follows:
 0.04 b d Rectangular beam
A ≤
 0.04 b d T -beam
s
w

 0.04 b d Rectangular beam

A′ ≤ 
 0.04 b d T -beam
s
w

Additional Consideration for Seismic Design

For Seismic moment resisting concrete Ductile frames and frames with Limited
ductility (not Elastically responding structures), the following additional condi-
tions are enforced for beam design (NZS 8.5.3.2 and NZS 17.3.5.4). See for com-
prehensive listing.

• The minimum tensile longitudinal reinforcement shall be provided at both at

the top and bottom for both Ductile frames and frames with Limited ductility.
Any of the top and bottom reinforcement shall not be less than A if tensile
s ( min )

reinforcement is required.
′
f
A ≥ b d.
c
(NZS 8.5.3.2)
4f
s(min) w
y

• The beam flexural tensile steel is limited to a maximum given by

A ≤ 0.025 b d and
s w
(NZS 8.5.3.2, NZS 17.3.5.4)

f ′ + 10
A ≤ c
b d. (NZS 8.5.3.2, NZS 17.3.5.4)
6f
s w
y

• At any section of a beam within a potential plastic hinge region for Ductile mo-
ment resisting frames, as defined later on page 165, the compression reinforce-
ment area, A ′ , shall not be less than 1 2 of the tension reinforcement area, A , at
s s

the same section (NZS 8.5.3.2). At any section of a beam within a potential
plastic hinge region for moment resisting frames with Limited ductility, the
compression reinforcement area shall not be less than 3 8 of the tension rein-
forcement area at the same section (NZS 17.3.5.4).
• At least 1 4 of the larger of the top flexural reinforcement required at either end
of the beam in a Ductile frame or in a frame with Limited ductility shall be con-
tinued throughout its length (NZS 8.5.3.2, 17.3.5.4).

Beam Design 161

SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

Design Beam Shear Reinforcement

The shear reinforcement is designed for each load combination at a user defined
number of stations along the beam span. In designing the shear reinforcement for a
particular beam for a particular loading combination at a particular station due to
the beam major shear, the following steps are involved:
*
• Determine the factored shear force,V .
• Determine the shear stress, v , that can be resisted by the concrete.
c

• Determine the reinforcing steel required to carry the balance.

For Seismic moment resisting frames, the shear design of the beams is also based
on the overstrength moment capacities of the members.

The following three sections describe in detail the algorithms associated with the
above-mentioned steps.

Determine Shear Force and Moment

• In the design of the beam shear reinforcement of an Ordinary moment resist-
ing concrete frame, the shear forces and moments for a particular load combi-
nation at a particular beam section are obtained by factoring the associated
shear forces and moments with the corresponding load combination factors.
• In the shear design of Seismic moment resisting Ductile frames and frames
of Limited ductility (NOT Elastically responding frames), however, the shear
*
force,V , is calculated from the overstrength moment capacities of each end of
the beam, and the gravity shear forces (NZS 4.4.1.1). The procedure for calcu-
lating the design shear force in a beam from overstrength moment capacity is
the same as that described for a column in section “Column Design” on page
148 (NZS 8.5.1.3). See also Table VIII-2 for more details.
*
The design shear force,V , is then given by (NZS 4.4, NZS 17.3.7.1)

V = V +V
*
p D+ L
(NZS 4.4, NZS 17.3.7.1)

where, V is the shear force obtained by applying the calculated overstrength

p

moment capacities at the two ends of the beams acting in two opposite direc-
tions. Therefore,V is the maximum ofV 1 andV 2 , where
p P P

M +M- +

V1 = I J
, and
L
P

162 Beam Design

 Chapter VIII Design for NZS 3101-95

M +M
+ -

V2 = I
, J

L
P

where

M − = Moment capacity at end I, with top steel in tension, using a steel yield
I

stress value of αf and no ϕ factors, y

M + = Moment capacity at end J, with bottom steel in tension, using a steel

J

yield stress value of αf and no ϕ factors, y

M + = Moment capacity at end I, with bottom steel in tension, using a steel

I

yield stress value of αf and no ϕ factors, y

−
M = Moment capacity at end J, with top steel in tension, using a steel yield
J

stress value of αf and no ϕ factors, andy

L = Clear span of beam.

For Seismic moment resisting frames, α is taken as 1.25 for both Ductile mo-
ment resisting frames and frames with Limited ductility (NZS A4.1.6). ϕ is
taken as 1 (NZS 4.4.3.3). V + is the contribution of shear force from the load
D L

in-span distribution of gravity loads.

Determine Concrete Shear Capacity

The shear capacity provided by the concrete alone, v , is calculated as follows:
c

• The basic shear strength for a rectangular section is computed as,

 A  ′
v =  0.07 + 10 f s
(NZS 9.3.2.1)
 b d 
b c
w

where,

f ′ ≤ 70 , and
c
(NZS 9.3.2.1)

′
0.08 f c
≤ v ≤ 0.2 f ′ .
b c
(NZS 9.3.2.1)

• For Ordinary and Elastically responding moment resisting frames, the concrete
shear capacity for beams is taken as follows:

v = v .
c b
(NZS 9.3.2.1)

Beam Design 163

SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

• For Seismic moment resisting Ductile frames, the shear strength of a beam sec-
tion is taken as zero since the axial force is considered to be very small or ten-
sile. This is given as

v =0 .
c
(NZS 9.4.2.1)

• For Seismic moment resisting frames with Limited ductility, the concrete shear
capacity for beam is taken as follows:

v = 0.5 v .
c b
(NZS 17.3.7.3)

Determine Required Shear Reinforcement

• The average shear stress is computed for a rectangular beam section as,
V *

v = *
. (NZS 9.3.1.1)
b d w

For other types of sections b d is replaced by A , the effective shear area

w cv

which is shown in Figure VIII-2.

• The average shear stress, v , is limited to a maximum limit, v , which is given

*
max

for Ordinary frames and Elastically responding seismic frames as,

v max {
= min 1.1 f ′ , 0.2 f ′ , 9 MPa ϕ
c c } s
(NZS 9.3.1.8)

and for Ductile frames and frames with Limited ductility as,

v max {
= min 0.85 f ′ , 0.16 f ′ , 9 MPa ϕ .
c c } s
(NZS 9.4.4.2)

• The shear reinforcement per unit spacing is computed as follows:

If v ≤ ϕ ( v 2) ,
*
s c

A
=0,
v
(NZS 9.3.4.1)
s

else if ϕ ( v 2) < v ≤ ϕ ( v + 0.35) ,

s c
*
s c

A 0.35b
= v
, w
f ≤ 500 MPa (NZS 9.3.4.3)
s f
yt
yt

164 Beam Design

 Chapter VIII Design for NZS 3101-95

else if ϕ ( v + 0.35) < v ≤ ϕ v

s c
*
s max
,
A (v − ϕ v ) b
*

=
v
, s c w
f ≤ 500 MPa (NZS 9.3.6.3)
s ϕ f
yt
s yt

else if v > v *
max
,

a failure condition is declared. (NZS 9.3.1.8)

In calculating the design shear reinforcement, a limit is imposed on the f yt

as

f yt
≤ 500 Mpa. (NZS 3.8.2.1 and NZS 9.3.6.1)

The maximum of all the calculated A s values, obtained from each load combina- v

tion, is reported for the beam along with the controlling shear force and associated
load combination number.

For all beams and at any station, the minimum area of transverse stirrup reinforce-
ment is imposed as follows:

A 1− ρ m A f ′
N * 
≥ − h
v t g c
0.0065 (NZS 8.4.7.2)
s  3.3 A f ϕ f ′A
core
c yt c c  g

In potential plastic hinge locations, as described later, of Seismic moment resisting

Ductile frames and frames with Limited ductility, the minimum area of transverse
stirrup is imposed as follows:

A  1.3 − ρ m A f ′
N  *

≥ − 0.0060 h
v t g c

′
(NZS 8.5.4.3)
s  3.3 A f ϕ f A
core
c yt c c  g

In the above two equations for calculating the minimum shear reinforcement, the
following limits are imposed:
A
≥ 1.2
g
(NZS 8.4.7 and NZS 8.5.4.3)
A c

ρ m≤ 0.4
t
(NZS 8.4.7 and NZS 8.5.4.3)

f yt
≤ 800 MPa (NZS 8.4.7 and NZS 8.5.4.3)

For the definition of the potential plastic hinge, it is assumed in the current version
of the program that any beam and column segment near the joint is a potential plas-
tic hinge. The length of the plastic hinge, L , in a beam is taken as follows: hinge

Beam Design 165

SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

L hinge
= 2h (NZS 8.5.3.1)

The column shear reinforcement requirements reported by the program are based
purely upon the above considerations. Any other minimum stirrup requirements to
satisfy spacing and/or volumetric requirements must be investigated independently
of the program by the user.

166 Beam Design

 Chapter VIII Design for NZS 3101-95

Ordinary (non-Seismic) Moment Resisting Frames Ductile Moment

Type of
or Elastically with Limited ductility or Resisting Frames
Check/
Responding Elastically responding
Design
(Seismic) (Seismic) (Seismic)

NLDH Combinations NLDH Combinations

Column
Check NLDH Combinations Rm = 1 Rm is from NZS Table A3
(interaction)

NLDH Combinations NLDH Combinations NLDH Combinations

Column 0.008 < ρ < 0.08 α = 1.0 α = 1.0
Design 0.008 < ρ < 18 f y 0.008< ρ < 18 f y
(Interaction) 0.008 < ρ < 18 f y
(Elastic only) Rm = 1 Rm is from NZS Table A3

Modified NLDH Combos NLDH Combinations and

Column Column Capacity Shear (V p ) Column Capacity Shear (V p )
NLDH Combinations
Shears Extra Combo with 1.7 VE
ϕ = 1.0 and α = 1.25 j = 1.0 and α = 1.25

NLDH Combinations NLDH Combinations

ρ ≤ 0.025
ρ ≤ 0.025
f ′ + 10
Beam f ′ + 10 ρ≤ c
Design NLDH Combinations ρ≤ c 6f y
6f y
Flexure
f c′ f c′
ρ≥ ρ≥
4f y 4f y

Beam Min. + 3 - + 1 -
AsEND ≥ AsEND AsEND ≥ AsEND
Moment 8 2
No Requirement
Override
Check
+
AsSPAN
1
4
{ −
≥ max AsEND } +
AsSPAN
1
4
{ −
≥ max AsEND }
NLDH Combinations NLDH Combinations NLDH Combinations
Beam Capacity Shear (V p ) Beam Capacity Shear (V p )
Beam Design
with α = 1.25 and ϕ = 1.0 with α = 1.25 and ϕ = 1.0
Shear
plus VD + L plus VD+L
vc = vb vc = vb / 2 vc = 0

H
Number of specified loading
Table VIII-2
Comparison of Ordinary and Seismic Moment Resisting Frame Design

Beam Design 167

.
 C h a p t e r IX

Design Output

Overview
SAP2000 creates design output in three major different formats  graphical dis-
play, tabular output, and member specific detailed design information.

The graphical display of design output includes input and output design informa-
tion. Input design information includes design section label, K-factors, live load re-
duction factor, and other design parameters. The output design information in-
cludes longitudinal reinforcing, shear reinforcing, and column capacity ratio. All
graphical output can be printed.

The tabular output can be saved in a file or printed. The tabular output includes
most of the information which can be displayed. This is generated for added con-
venience to the designer.

The member specific detailed design information shows the details of the calcula-
tion from the designer’s point of view. It shows the design forces, design section di-
mensions, reinforcement, and some intermediate results for all the load combina-
tions at all the design sections of a specific frame member. For a column member, it
can also show the position of the current state of design forces on the column inter-
action diagram.

Overview 169
SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

In the following sections, some of the typical graphical display, tabular output, and
member specific detailed design information are described. Some of the design in-
formation is specific to the chosen concrete design codes which are available in the
program and are only described where required. The ACI 318-95 design code is de-
scribed in the later part of this chapter. For all other codes, the design outputs are
similar.

Graphical Display of Design Output

The graphical output can be produced either as color screen display or in gray-
scaled printed form. Moreover, the active screen display can be sent directly to the
printer. The graphical display of design output includes input and output design in-
formation.

Input design information, for the ACI 318-95 code, includes

• Design section labels,

• K-factors for major and minor direction of buckling,
• Unbraced Length Ratios,
• C -factors,
m

• Live Load Reduction Factors,

• δ -factors, and
s

• δ -factors.
b

The output design information which can be displayed is

• Longitudinal Reinforcing,
• Shear Reinforcing, and
• Column Capacity Ratios.

The graphical displays can be accessed from the Design menu. For example, the
longitudinal reinforcement can be displayed by selecting Display Design Info...
from the Design menu. This will pop up a dialog box called Display Design Re-
sults. Then the user should switch ON the Design Output option button (default)
and select Longitudinal Reinforcing in the drop-down box. Then clicking the OK
button will show the longitudinal reinforcing in the active window.

The graphics can be displayed in either 3D or 2D mode. The SAP2000 standard

view transformations are available for all concrete design output displays. For
switching between 3D or 2D view of graphical displays, there are several buttons

170 Graphical Display of Design Output

 Chapter IX Design Output

on the main toolbar. Alternatively, the view can be set by choosing Set 3D View...
from the View menu.

The graphical display in an active window can be printed in gray scaled black and
white from the SAP2000 program. To send the graphical output directly to the
printer, click on the Print Graphics button in the File menu. A screen capture of
the active window can also be made by following the standard procedure provided
by the Windows operating system.

Tabular Display of Design Output

The tabular design output can be sent directly either to a printer or to a file. The
printed form of tabular output is the same as that produced for the file output with
the exception that for the printed output font size is adjusted.

The tabular design output includes input and output design information which de-
pends on the design code of choice. For the ACI 318-95 code, the tabular output in-
cludes the following. All tables have formal headings and are self-explanatory, so
further description of these tables is not given.

Input design information includes the following:

• Concrete Column Property Data

– Material label,
– Column dimensions,
– Reinforcement pattern,
– Concrete cover, and
– Bar area.
• Concrete Beam Property Data
– Material label,
– Beam dimensions,
– Top and bottom concrete cover, and
– Top and bottom reinforcement areas.
• Load Combination Multipliers
– Combination name,
– Load types, and
– Load factors.

Tabular Display of Design Output 171

SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

• Concrete Design Element Information (code dependent)

– Design Section ID,
– K-factors for major and minor direction of buckling,
– Unbraced Length Ratios,
– C -factors,
m

– Live Load Reduction Factors.

• Concrete Moment Magnification Factors (code dependent)
– Section ID,
– Element Type,
– Framing Type,
– δ -factors, and
s

– δ -factors.
b

The output design information includes the following:

• Column Design Information

– Section ID,
– Station location,
– Total longitudinal reinforcement and the governing load combination,
– Major shear reinforcement and the governing load combination, and
– Minor shear reinforcement and the governing load combination.
• Beam Design Information
– Section ID,
– Station location,
– Top longitudinal reinforcement and the governing load combination,
– Bottom reinforcement and the governing load combination, and
– Major shear reinforcement and the governing load combination.

The tabular output can be accessed by selecting Print Design Tables... from the
File menu. This will pop up a dialog box. Then the user can specify the design
quantities for which the results are to be tabulated. By default, the output will be
sent to the printer. If the user wants the output stream to be redirected to a file,
he/she can check the Print to File box. This will provide a default filename. The
default filename can be edited. Alternatively, a file list can be obtained by clicking

172 Tabular Display of Design Output

 Chapter IX Design Output

the File Name button to chose a file from. Then clicking the OK button will direct
the tabular output to the requested stream C the file or the printer.

Member Specific Information

The member specific design information shows the details of the calculation from
the designer’s point of view. It provides an access to the geometry and material
data, other input data, design forces, design section dimensions, reinforcement de-
tails, and some of the intermediate results for a member. The design detail informa-
tion can be displayed for a specific load combination and for a specific station of a
frame member. For a column member, it can also show the position of the current
state of design forces on the column interaction diagram.

The detailed design information can be accessed by right clicking on the desired
frame member. This will pop up a dialog box called Concrete Design Information
which includes the following tabulated information for the specific member. If the
selected member is a column, the dialog box includes

– Load combination ID,

– Station location,
– Longitudinal reinforcement area,
– Major shear reinforcement area, and
– Minor shear reinforcement area.

If the selected member is a beam, the dialog box includes

– Load combination ID,

– Station location,
– Top reinforcement area,
– Bottom reinforcement area, and
– Shear reinforcement area.

Additional information can be accessed for column members by clicking on the Re-
Design, Details, and Interaction buttons in the dialog box. For beams additional
information can be accessed by clicking on the ReDesign and Details buttons in the
dialog box.

Additional information that is available by clicking on the ReDesign button is as

follows:

Member Specific Information 173

SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

• Design Factors (code dependent)

– Effective length factors, K, for major and minor direction of buckling,
– Unbraced Length Ratios,
– C -factors,
m

– Live Load Reduction Factors,

– δ -factors, and
s

– δ -factors.
b

• Element Section ID
• Element Framing Type

Additional information that is available by clicking on the Details button is given

below. The details of this information depends on whether the selected member is a
beam or a column. If the member is a column, the information includes:

• Frame, Section, Station, and Load Combination IDs,

• Section geometric information and graphical representation,
• Material properties of steel and concrete,
• Design axial force and biaxial moments,
• Minimum design moments,
• Moment factors,
• Design shear forces, and
• Shear capacities of concrete and steel.

If the member is a beam, the information includes:

• Frame, Section, Station, and Load Combination IDs,
• Section geometric information and graphical representation,
• Material properties of steel and concrete,
• Design moments and shear forces,
• Minimum design moments,
• Top and bottom reinforcing areas,
• Shear capacities of concrete and steel, and
• Shear reinforcing area.

174 Member Specific Information

 Chapter IX Design Output

Clicking on the Interaction button displays the interaction diagram in a three di-
mensional space for the column section. The design axial force and the biaxial mo-
ments are plotted on the interaction diagram to show the state of stress in the col-
umn. The interaction diagram can be viewed in any orientation and the view can be
manipulated from the interaction dialog box. The interaction diagram can be
printed for hard-copy output.

Member Specific Information 175

.
 References

AASHTO, 1997

AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications — U.S. Units, 1997 Interim Edi-
tion, American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials,
1997.

ACI, 1995

Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete (ACI 318-95) and Com-
mentary (ACI 318R-95), American Concrete Institute, Detroit, Michigan,
1995.

BSI, 1989

BS 8110 : Part 1, Structural Use of Concrete, Part 1, Code of Practice for De-
sign and Construction, British Standards Institution, London, UK, 1985, Issue
2 1989.

CEN, 1992

ENV 1992-1-1, Eurocode 2: Design of Concrete Structures, Part 1, General

Rules and Rules for Buildings, European Committee for Standardization, Brus-
sels, Belgium, 1992.

CEN, 1994

ENV 1991-1, Eurocode 1: Basis of Design and Action on Structures ¾ Part 1,

Basis of Design, European Committee for Standardization, Brussels, Belgium,
1994.

177
SAP2000 Concrete Design Manual

CSA, 1994

A23.3-94, Design of Concrete Structures, Canadian Standards Association,

Rexdale, Ontario, Canada, 1994.

CSI, 1998a

SAP2000 Getting Started, Computers and Structures, Inc., Berkeley, Califor-

nia, 1998.

CSI, 1998b

SAP2000 Quick Tutorial, Computers and Structures, Inc., Berkeley, Califor-

nia, 1998.

CSI, 1997

SAP2000 Analysis Reference, Vols. I and II, Computers and Structures, Inc.,
Berkeley, California, 1997.

ICBO, 1997

Uniform Building Code, International Conference of Building Officials, Whit-

tier, California, 1997.

NZS, 1995

New Zealand Standard NZS 3101, Concrete Structures Standard, Part 1 — The
Design of Concrete Structures, Standards New Zealand, Wellington, New Zea-
land, 1995.

NZS, 1992

New Zealand Standard NZS 4203, Code of practice for General Structural De-
sign and Design Loadings for Buildings, Standards New Zealand, Wellington,
New Zealand, 1992.

PCA, 1996

Notes on ACI 318-95, Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete,

with Design Applications, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, Illinois,
1996.

178
 Chapter X

D. W. White and J. F. Hajjar, 1991

“Application of Second-Order Elastic Analysis in LRFD: Research to Prac-

tice,” Engineering Journal, American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc., Vol.
28, No. 4, 1991.

179
.
 Index

Additional moment British, 105

British, 105 Canadian, 75
Balanced condition Eurocode, 123
AASHTO, 59, 61 New Zealand, 144
ACI, 31, 33 Check station, 7
BS, 111, 114 Code total moment
Canadian, 88 - 89 Eurocode, 123
Eurocode, 131, 134
New Zealand, 156, 159 Column capacity ratio, 11
AASHTO, 48, 50
Beam flexural design, 2, 8 ACI, 21, 23
AASHTO, 57 British, 104, 107
ACI, 28 Canadian, 75, 78
British, 109 Eurocode, 123, 125
Canadian, 85 New Zealand, 143, 147
Eurocode, 128
New Zealand, 154 Column flexural design, 9
AASHTO, 45
Beam shear design, 8 ACI, 19
AASHTO, 64 British, 103
ACI, 36 Canadian, 73
British, 115 Eurocode, 121
Canadian, 93 New Zealand, 141
Eurocode, 135
New Zealand, 162 Column shear design, 11
AASHTO, 51
Braced frames ACI, 24
AASHTO, 49 British, 108
ACI, 22

181
SAP2000 Concretel Design Manual

Canadian, 79 elastic, 137

Eurocode, 126 intermediate, 15, 35, 37
New Zealand, 147 limited, 137
Compression reinforcement nominal, 69, 93, 95
AASHTO, 59, 61 ordinary, 15
ACI, 31, 33 shear in intermediate frames, 26, 37
British, 112, 115 shear in special frames, 25, 52, 64
Canadian, 88, 90 special, 15, 35 - 36
Eurocode, 131, 134 Element unsupported length, 12
New Zealand, 157, 159 Factored moments and forces
Concrete shear capacity AASHTO, 48, 57
AASHTO, 53, 65 ACI, 21, 29
ACI, 26, 38 British, 105, 110
British, 108, 116 Canadian, 75, 85
Canadian, 81, 95 Eurocode, 123, 129
Eurocode, 126, 136 New Zealand, 144, 154
New Zealand, 149, 163 Flexural reinforcement
Design load combinations, 1, 6 AASHTO, 57
AASHTO, 44 ACI, 29
ACI, 15 British, 110
British, 99 Canadian, 85
Canadian, 72 Eurocode, 129
Eurocode, 117 New Zealand, 154
New Zealand, 140 Generation of biaxial interaction surfaces,
Design of T-beams 10
AASHTO, 60 AASHTO, 46
ACI, 32 ACI, 19
British, 112 British, 103
Canadian, 89 Canadian, 73
Eurocode, 132 Eurocode, 121
New Zealand, 158 New Zealand, 141
Detailed output, 174 Graphical output, 170
Ductile detailing Identification of beams, 8
ACI, 35 Identification of columns, 8
Canadian, 93
New Zealand, 161 Interaction diagram, 9
AASHTO, 46
Earthquake resisting frames ACI, 19
ductile, 24, 51, 64, 79 - 80, 92, 94, 137, British, 103
148 - 149, 161 - 162

182
 Index

Canadian, 73 British (additional moment), 105

Eurocode, 121 Canadian, 75
New Zealand, 141 Eurocode (total moment), 123
Interactive environment, 1 New Zealand, 144

Lateral drift effect, 12, 76 Nominal moment capacity, 80

See also P-Delta analysis Nonsway frames
Live load reduction factor, 7, 18, 44, 72, AASHTO, 49
102, 120, 140 ACI, 22
British, 105
Maximum column reinforcement Canadian, 75
AASHTO, 45 Eurocode, 123
ACI, 19 New Zealand, 144
British, 103
Canadian, 73 Output, 1
Eurocode, 121 details, 174
New Zealand, 141 graphical, 169 - 170
interaction diagram, 175
Member specific output, 173 member specific, 169, 173
Minimum column reinforcement tabular, 169, 171
AASHTO, 45 Overstrength factor, 95
ACI, 19
British, 103 Overstrength moment capacity, 148, 162
Canadian, 73 P-Delta analysis, 12
Eurocode, 121 AASHTO, 49
New Zealand, 141 ACI, 22
Minimum eccentricity British, 107
AASHTO, 48 Canadian, 76
ACI, 21 Eurocode, 125
British, 106 New Zealand, 144
Canadian, 75 Probable moment capacity, 24, 80
Eurocode, 124 - 125 Rectangular beam design
New Zealand, 144 AASHTO, 58
Minimum tensile reinforcement ACI, 30
AASHTO, 63 British, 111
ACI, 34 Canadian, 86
Canadian, 92 Eurocode, 130
New Zealand, 160 New Zealand, 155
Moment magnification
AASHTO, 49
ACI, 21

183
SAP2000 Concretel Design Manual

Redesign, 173 British, 112

Shear reinforcement Canadian, 89
AASHTO, 54, 66 Eurocode, 132
ACI, 28, 38 New Zealand, 158
British, 108, 116 Unbraced frames
Canadian, 82, 96 AASHTO, 49
Eurocode, 128, 136 ACI, 22
New Zealand, 151, 164 British, 107
Special considerations for seismic loads, Canadian, 75
8, 13 Eurocode, 125
AASHTO, 41, 52, 64 New Zealand, 144
ACI, 15, 25, 35 - 36 Units, 2, 14
Canadian, 69, 80, 94 AASHTO, 41
New Zealand, 137, 148, 162 ACI, 15
Strength reduction factors British, 99
AASHTO, 45 Canadian, 69
ACI, 18 Eurocode, 117
British, 102 New Zealand, 137
Canadian, 72 Unsupported length, 23, 50
Eurocode, 120
New Zealand, 140
Supported design codes, 1
AASHTO, 5, 41
ACI, 5, 15
British, 5, 99
Canadian, 5, 69
Eurocode, 5, 117
New Zealand, 5, 137
Sway frames
AASHTO, 49
ACI, 22
British, 105
Canadian, 75
Eurocode, 123
New Zealand, 144
Tabular output, 171
T-Beam design
AASHTO, 60
ACI, 32

184