11 11-1 INTRODUCTION When a body executes a to-and-fro motion about some fixed point, its motion is said to be oscillatory. In this chapter we consider a special type of oscillatory motion called harmonic motion. Motion of this sort is closely approximated by that of a body suspended froma spring, by a pendulum swinging with a small amplitude, and by the balance wheel of a watch. The vibrations of the strings and air columns of musical instruments either are harmonic or are a superposition of harmonic mo- tions. Modern atomic theory leads us to believe that the molecules of a solid body oscillate with nearly harmonic motion about their fixed lattice positions, although of course their motion cannot be directly observed. In every form of wave motion, the particles of the medium in which the wave is traveling oscillate with harmonic motion or with a superposition of such mo- tions. This is true even for light waves and radiowaves in empty space, except that instead of material particles the quantities that oscillate are the electric and mag- netic intensities associated with the wave. As a final example, the equations describing the behavior of an electrical circuit in which there is an alternating current have the same form as those for the harmonic motion of @ material body. It can be seen that a study of har- monic motion will lay the foundation for future work in many differeRt fields of physics. 11-2 ELASTIC RESTORING FORCES It has been shown in Chapter 10 that when a body is caused to change its shape, the distorting force is pro- portional to the amount of the change, provided the Proportional limit of elasticity is not exceeded. The 160 Harmonic Motion change may be in the nature of an increase in length, 3 of a rubber band or a coil spring, or a decrease in lengt| or a bending as of a flat spring, or a twisting of a roi about its axis, or of many other forms. The term “force' is to be interpreted liberally as the force, or torque, o| Pressure, or whatever may be producing the distortion, If we restrict the discussion to the case of a push or3| pull, where the distortion is simply the displacement the point of application of the force, the force and dis placement are related by Hooke's law, where k is a proportionality constant called the fora constant and x is the displacement from the equilibria position. In this equation, F stands for the force which mus! be exerted on an elastic body to produce the displace ment x. The force with which the elastic body pulls bad on an object to which it is attached is called the restoriy] force and is equal to —kx 11-3 DEFINITIONS. To fix our ideas, suppose that a flat strip of steel suchas a hacksaw blade is clamped vertically in a vise anda small body is attached to its upper end, as in Fig. 11+ Assume that the strip is sufficiently long and the ds placement sufficiently small so that the motion 4 essentially along a straight line. The mass of the stil itself is negligible. Let the top of the strip be pulled to the right a di tance A, as in Fig. 11-1, and released. The attach body is then acted on by a restoring force exerted by ty steel strip and directed toward the equilibrium positiand moves in toward the center with increasing speed. The rate of increase (i.e., the acceleration) is not con: stont, however, since the accelerating force becomes smaller as the body approaches the center. When the body reaches the center the restoring force has decreased to zero, but because of the velocity hich has been acquired, the body “‘overshoots” the ‘tquiibrium position and continues to move toward the let. As soon as the equilibrium position is passed, the ‘estoring force again comes into play, directed now {onard the right. The body therefore decelerates, and ata rate which increases with increasing distance from 0. Itwill therefore be brought to rest at some point to theleft of O, and repeat its motion in the opposite direc ton, Both experiment and theory show that the motion Will be confined to a range ::A on either side of the uilibrium position, each to-and-fro movement taking place in the same length of time. If there were no loss (f energy by friction, the motion would continue in- finitely once it had been started. This type of motion, Under the influence of an elastic restoring force and in he absenice of all friction, is called simple harmonic nation, often abbreviated SHM. Any sort of motion which repeats itself in equal intervals of time is called periodic, and if the motion is ‘Pick and forth over the same path it is also called icilatory, A complete vibration or complete cycle means one ound trip, say from a to b and back to a, or from O to b f0 0toaand back to O, 11-4 | Equations of simple harmonic motion 161 ‘The periodic time, or simply the period of the motion, represented by T, is the time required for one complete vibration. The frequency, f, is the number of complete vibra- tions per unit time. Evidently the frequency is the reciprocal of the period, or T= 1/f. The mks unit, one cycle per second, is called one hertz (1 Hz). The coordinate, x, at any instant, is the distance away from the equilibrium position or center of the path at that instant. The amplitude, A, is the maximum coordinate. The total range of the motion is therefore 2A 11-4 EQUATIONS OF SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION We now wish to find expressions for the coordinate, velocity, and acceleration of a body moving with simple harmonic motion, just as we found those for a body moving with constant acceleration. It must be empha- sized that the equations of motion with constant accel: eration cannot be applied, since the acceleration is continually changing, Equilibrium Fig. 11-2, Figure 11-2 represents the vibrating body of Fig. 11-1 at some instant when its coordinate is x. The resultant force on it is simply the elastic restoring force, —kx, and from Newton's second law, dv k= Ea ma=mv From the second and fourth terms, we have qv mv + kx = 0. e@t-1 mv, thx = 0, (ai-1)162 Harmonic motion | 11-4 Therefore frvart fredx= which integrates to dmv? + Hho? = C1. (1-2) The first term on the left is the kinetic energy E, of the body and the second is its elastic potential energy E,. Equation (11-2) therefore states that the total energy of the system is constant, and the integration constant Cy equals the total energy’E (this result is only to be expected, since the system is conservative Ex +E 11-3 Relation between total energy E, potential energy E>, and kinetic energy Ei, for a body oscillating with SHM - The significance of this relation can be brought out by the graph shown in Fig. 11-3, in which energy is plotted vertically and the coordinate x horizontally. First, the curve representing the potential energy, E, = Hix’, Is constructed. (This curve is a parabola.) Next, a horizontal line is drawn at a height equal to the total energy E. We see at once that the motion is re- stricted to values of x lying between the points at which the horizontal line intersects the parabola, since if x were outside this range the potential energy would exceed the total energy, which is impossible. The motion of the vibrating body is analogous to that of a particle released at a height E on a frictionless track shaped like the potential energy curve, and the motion is said to take place in a “potential energy well." If a vertical line is constructed at any value within the permitted range, the length of the seg between the xaxis and the parabola represents potential energy E, at that value of x, and the lengt the segment between the parabola and the horizw line at height £ represents the corresponding ki energy E.. At the endpoints, therefore, the energyis potential and at the midpoint itis all kinetic, The vel at the midpoint has its maximum (absolute) value, dmvine. = E, Vox = tV2E/m, a the sign of v being positive or negative depending on direction of motion. At the ends of the path the coordinate has its p mum (absolute) value Xnox, equal to the amplitude Merton = E, wen = kV 2E/K, V2E/k. a The velocity vat any coordinate x, from Eq. (11-2 ay Making use of Eq. (11-4), this can be written ay ‘The expression for the coordinate x as a functia time can now be obtained by replacing v with di/a Eq. (11-6), and integrating. This gives dx [k IE fa, [atsangf x k sin Fae tt a Let xo be the value of x when t constant C2 is then 0. The integ G=sin7 2. That is, C2 is the angle (in radians) whose sine ey %0/A. Let us represent this angle by do: sin 6 O=sin 2.Equation (11-7) can now be written sina Keg Ay Nm ro aain( Eten): The coordinate x is therefore a sinusoidal function the time t, The term in parentheses is an angle, in a9) ' oi the motion. The angle 6 is the initial phase angle, tndis also referred to as the epoch angle. The period Tis the time required for one complete illation. That is, the coordinate x has the same value tthe times tand t + T. In other words, the phase angle ‘ifm t+ (g) increases by 2m radians in the time T: Vijim (t+ 1) + 00 = (/kjm t + 60) + 2m, (11-10) The period T therefore depends only on the mass m id the force constant k, It does not depend on the implitude (or on the total energy). For given values of andk, the time of one complete oscillation is the same ether the amplitude is large or small. A motion that és this property is said to be isochronous (equal time). The frequency f, or the number of complete oscilla: per unit time, is the reciprocal of the period T: 11 fk = 77 2p vs . The angular frequency w is defined as w = 2nf and is essed in radians per second. It follows from the Wo preceding, equations that vkim, Eqs, (11-9) and (11-6) can be written more com: actly as qi-11) (11-12) 11-4 | Equations of simple harmonic motion 163 Expressions for the velocity and acceleration as functions of time can now be obtained by differentiation: So aAc0s (wt + 0), 11-13) at ¢ ) qi-14) Since Asin (wt + 6) =, the expression for the acceleration as a function of x is (1-15) It follows from Eq. (11-13) that if vo is the velocity when t= 0, then Yo 0s fo = (1-16) This equation, together with Eq. (11-8), sin xo/A, completely determines the initial phase angle 0. That is, the angle & depends both on the initial position x9 and the initial velocity vo. jen Pp 11-4 Relation between the initial phase angle 6o, initial position xo, and initial velocity vo. Figure 11-4 shows how the initial phase angle de- pends on the initial position and initial velocity. It follows from this triangle that A= Vxb+ (vol), a relation that can also be obtained tly setting the initial total energy, tkx3 + mv3, equal to the potential energy at maximum displacement. The motion is therefore completely determined, for given values of m and k, when the initial position and initial velocity are known. The equations of simple harmonic motion may be summarized by comparing them pith similar equations (1-17)164 Harmonic motion | 11-4 11-5 Graphs of coordinate x, velocity v, and acceleration a of a body oscillating with simple harmonic motion. for rectilinear motion with constant acceleration (Table 11-1). . Figure 11-5 shows corresponding graphs of the coordinate x, velocity v, and acceleration a of a body oscillating with simple harmonic motion, plotted as functions of the time t (or of the angle wt). The initial coordinate is xo and the initial velocity is vo. The angle TABLE 11-1 ‘Simple harmonic motion Gin terms of w and 60) Rectilinear motion with | constant acceleration 2 = constant wrx a= aA sin (at + 60) Vs) + 2atx — x0) swVar— at votat WA.COs (wt + 00) rot vot + Jat? A sin (wt + 60) w= 2n/T = ext = Vijm, A=V3 + (Wold, sin Oo =%0/A, 608 00 = vo/wA. > has been taken as x/4 rad. Each curve repeat ina time interval equal to the period T, during wh angle ut increases by 2 rad. Note that when the| at either end of its path, i.e., when the coordinat its maximum positive or negative value (1-A), th ity is zero and the acceleration has its maximum n or positive value (+Fa,o,). Note also that when th passes through its equilibrium position (x= velocity has its maximum positive or negative (4¥max) and the acceleration is zero The equations of motion take a simpler for set {= 0 when the body is at the midpoint, or is end of its path. For example, suppose we lett = the body has its maximum positive displacéinent Xo= +A, Sin Oo = 1, 6 = m/2, and , = Asin (wt + 1/2) = A cos wt, —wA sin ot, ( a = —w?A cos ut. This corresponds to moving the origin fr point O, in Fig. 11-5, to the point 0’. The gra versus t becomes a cosine curve, that of v ver negative sine curve, and that of aa negative cosinsIwe set t = 0 when the body is at the midpoint and ing toward the right, then %=0, sin ty=0, A q x=Asinot, v= 0A cos wt, (L-19) a= —wA sin at This corresponds to displacing the origin to the int 0" in Fig, 11-5, ple. Let the mass of the body in Fig. 11-2be25g, the force tant k be 400 dyn cm-!, and let the motion be started by acing the body 10.cm to the right of its equilibrium position imparting to it a velocity toward the right of 40 em s~! pute (a) the period T, (b) the frequency f, (c) the angular ency w, (d) the total energy E, (e) the amplitude A, (f) the fe, (g) the maximum velocity Yas, ¢h) the maximum, ration ange, (i) the coordinate, velocity, and acceleration ppiine 1/8 s after the start of the motion. eft Haz = 0.638 Hz, Te = 7s=1575, ‘Va00 ayn em? 2 v=2t=4rads = Jon3 + Jar3 = 40,000 eres. A= V2E|k = 102 em. Sinlp =19/A = 1/2, Oo = x/A rad Waor! = V2Ejm = 40\/2ems-* Themaximum velocity occurs at the midpoint, where x = 0. 11-4 | Equations of simple harmonic motion 165 Hence, from Eq. (11-12), wA = 40/2 em s~ h) The maximum acceleration occurs at the ends of the path where the force is a maximum. From Eq. (11-15), [amon] = knox = 160/2 em s x= 10V2 sin (ae+7). sovtan(a1+2) = 40/2 cos (at+7), Vi oos( 7) o=-tenion (+2) When 2/8 5, the phase angle is (a+ *) cota a) a x ='10V/2 sin (37/4) = 10cm, ¥ = A09/2 cos (34/4) a= —160,/2 sin (37/4) = —160 em s-?. =40 cm 5 The curves of Fig. 11-5 represent the motion of the body in this example, if the scales of x, v, a, and tare such that A=10V2em, — vnon = 40V2 em 5 Amor = 160/2ems-?, and T=2/2s. The equations of simple harmonic motion can be given a geometrical interpretation as follows. Let the line segment 09 in Fig. 11-6(a), of length equal to the amplitude A, rotate with an angular velocity w about the fixed point 0. The rotating line segment is often referred 11-6 Representation of simple harmonic motion by the projec: tion onto the vertical axis of the tip of rotor 0Q. *166 Harmonic motion | 11-5 to as a rotating vector, but strictly speaking it is not a vector quantity. That is, while it has a specified direction in a diagram, it has no specified direction in space. It is better described as a rotor. (The German term is “Zeiger,” meaning a pointer in the sense of a clock hand or the pointer on a pressure gauge.) Let the rotor 0Q make an angle with the horizontal axis, at time t =, equal to the initial phase angle 0. Point P is the projection of point Q onto the vertical axis, and as 0Q rotates, point P oscillates along this axis. We now show that the’equations of motion of P are the same as those of a body oscillating with simple hurmonic motion of amplitude A, angular frequency «, and initial phase angle @j. Let x represent the length of OP. Atany time t, the angle between the radius OQ and the horizontal axis equals the phase angle wt + # and x= Asin (ot + 60). The velocity of point Q (see Fig. 11-6b) is wA, and its vertical component, equal to the velocity of P, is WA CoS (wt + 00) The acceleration of Q is its radial acceleration w*A (see Fig. 11-6c) and its vertical component, equal to the acceleration of P, is a= «WA sin (wt + 60). The negative sign must be included because the acceleration is negative whenever the sine of the phase angle is positive, and vice versa. These equations are, of course, just the general equations of harmonic motion. In the special case corresponding to Eqs. (11-18), the initial phase angle is 90° and the reference point Q is at the top of the cit sle when t = 0. If the reference point is at the right-hand end of the horizontal diameter when t= 0, then @ = 0 and the motion is described by Eqs. (11-19). 11-5 MOTION OF A BODY ‘SUSPENDED FROM A COIL SPRING Figure 11-7(a) shows a coil spring of force constant k and no-load length ¢. When a body of mass mis attached to the spring as in part (b), it hangs in equilibrium with the spring extended by an amount A¢ such that the lg Is | = | = le |s 1s. i re | [ 11-7 The restoring force on a body suspended by a soi proportional to the coordinate measured from the equili position. upward force P exerted by the spring is equal t weight of the body, mg. But P=k Af, so kAC= mg. Now suppose the body is at a distance x abov equilibrium position, as in part (c). The extensic the spring is now A¢ — x, the upward force it exert the body is K(A¢—»), and the resultant force F on body is F = Kal —x) — mg = | The resultant force is therefore proportional t displacement of the body from its equilibrium pos! and if set in vertical motion the body oscillates wit angular frequency w = Vk/m Except in the idealized case of a spring of zero mass 2 ance must be made for the fact that the spring also oscil However, we cannot simply add the mass of the spring t of the suspended body because not all portions of the # oscillate with the same amplitude; the amplitude at the} end equals that of the suspended body, while that at the end is zero, The correction term can be computed as fall Let L represent the length of the spring when the bot its equilibrium position, and let m, be the mass of the s Let us calculate the kinetic energy of the spring at aniwhen the velocity of the lower end is v. Consider an element of ‘he spring of length dy, at a distance y below the fixed upper tnd, The mass of the element, dm,, is Aiportions of the spring will be assumed to oscillate in phase 2d the velocity of the element, v,, to be proportional to its Aislance from the fixed end: v= (y/L. The kinetic energy of the element is 1 a_im, fy)? dE, = dy v= ay-(Zv), 2 2 ( ) ind the total kinetic energy of the spring is remy? ft fi oe | va=2(im,)%. 2 bs fy ” ag ’ This equals the kinetic energy of a body of mass o: e-third the mass of the spring, moving with the same velocity as that of the suspended body. In other words, the equivalent mass of the vitvating system equals that of the suspended body plus tne third the mass of the spring, ample. A body of mass 1 kg is suspended from a coil spring hose mass is 0.09 kg and whose force constant is 66 N-m~, Fine the frequency and amplitude of the ensuing motion if the body is displaced 0.03 m below its equilibrium position and tiven a downward velocity of 0.4m s~'. The angular frequency [nae Ri 6 Nit m/3 The amplitude is expressed in terms of the initial coordinate 4nd velocity by means of Eq. (11-17), Thus, 8.00 rads! A= Vib + (ool)? = V(O.03 TA) CATE imyt = 0.0582 m. 11-6 THE SIMPLE PENDULUM Asimple pendulum (also called a mathematical pendulum) is defined as a particle suspended from a fixed point by “aWeightless, inextensible string. When the pendulum “8 displaced from the vertical by an angle 8, as in Fig. 11-8, the restoring force is mg sin 0, and the displace- “fhent sfrom the equilibrium position equals L@, where L _ isthe length of the string and @is in radians. The motion [I therefore not harmonic, since the restoring force is ftoportional to sin @ while-the displacement is propor- 6 | The simpie pendulum — 167 ig Sin 8 me 11-8 Forces on the bob of a simple pendulum, tional to @. However, if the angle @ is small we can approximate sin @ by 0, and the restoring force is then f= —igi= -(2)s. The effective force constant of the pendulum is therefore k = mg/L, and the period is T= 2nVm/k = 2nVU/g. (11-20) It can be shown that the exact equation for the period, when the maximum angular displacement is ¢, is given by the infinite series 12-3 Sy ). K(, 4 Bed sink T=? ( 22 hae. ge 2 fe g eee a et tl <2 Evie state tet al The period can be computed to any desired degree of precision by taking enough terms in the series. When = 15°, the true period differs from that given by the approximate equation (11-20) by less than 0.5%. The utility of the pendulum as a timekeeper is based on the fact that the period is practically independent of the amplitude. Thus, as a pefidulum clock runs down and as the amplitude of the swings becomes slightly ‘smaller, the clock will still keep very nearly correct time. (11-21)168 Harmonic motion | 11-7 11-9 A single swing of a simple pendulum, The simple pendulum is also a precise and con- venient method of measuring the acceleration of gravity, g, without actually resorting to free fall, since L and T may readily be measured. More complicated pendulums find considerable application in the field of geophysics. Local deposits of ore or oil, if their density differs from that of their surroundings, affect the local value of g, and precise meaturements of this quantity over an area which is being prospected often furnish valuable in- formation regarding the nature of underlying deposits. Figure 11-9 is a multiflash photograph of a single swing of a simple pendulum. 11-7 LISSAJOUS FIGURES The curves known as Lissajous figures are the paths traced out by @ particle which is oscillating: simulta. neously in two mutually perpendicular directions,” In general, the amplitude and frequency may be different in the two directions, and the two oscillations may have an arbitrary initial phase difference. The pendulum bob in Fig. 11-10, supported by three cords forming a Y, illustrates one means of producing this type of motion.. When vibrating in the x-direction, as in (a), the frequency is that of a simple pendulum of length L:. In the y-direction the frequency is that of a Pendulum of length L2. If displaced in both the x- and « () 11-10 Double pendulum for producing Lissajous figures. y-directions, and released, the bob executes vibratic of both frequencies simultaneously. The spot on the screen of a cathode-ray tube, p duced by the impact of a rapidly moving stre electrons, will also move in a Lissajous figure if sinus dal alternating voltages are applied simultaneously the horizontal and vertical deflecting plates, The general expressions for the x- and y-coordina of the oscillating particle are XSASIN wt +0), =A, SiN (ut + 62), where A, and 4, are the respective amplitustes, «. a «, the corresponding angular frequencies, and 4; a 6, the initial phase angles. These are the equations the path in parametric form. The equations above are represented graphics by the rotor diagrams of Fig. 11-11. The x-coordin: of the tip of the rotor in the lower diagram gives t xcoordinate of the oscillating particle, and the y: ordinate of the tip of the rotor in the upper diagram gi its y-coordinate. Hence by projecting up, and acro from the tips of these rotors, the position of the parti at any time can be determined. The diagram shows position at time t = 0 and at some arbitrary later tim: The curves in Fig. 11-12 are a few Lissajous figu for various frequency ratios and initial phase differen: (G2 — 0). The amplitudes A, and A, are equal in e11-12 Lissajous figures, tase. If the frequencies are commensurable, as in the ures shown, the particle retraces a closed path over tndover. Mthey are not, the path does not close on itsel, tnd the pattern may be extremely complicated. If the equencies are very nearly commensurable, the path hinges very slowly, and if the motion itself is rapid, as {toften is when the figures are formed on an oscilloscope, 7 Lissajous figures 169 the impression is that of a closed curve which gradually alters its form. Thus, if the frequencies are very nearly equal (w,/w,~ 1), the path changes slowly from a straight line at 45°, as in Fig. 11-12(a), to an ellipse as in (b), then to a circle as in (c), then to an ellipse as in (q), with its majoraxis at right angles to that in (b), then toa straight line as in (e), etc.170 Harmonic motion | 11-9 11-8 ANGULAR HARMONIC MOTION Angular harmonic motion is an exact mathematical analog of linear harmonic motion. Let a body be pivoted about a fixed axis and acted on by a restoring torque I proportional to the angular displacement ¢ from some reference position. Then r=-k’¢, where the factor k’, or the restoring torque per unit of angular displacement, is called the torque constant. If ional torques are negligible, the differential equa- tion of motion is Paka lan le®, or do fog t KO=0, (11-22) where I is the moment of inertia about the fixed axis This equation has exactly the same form as Eq. (11-1): angular displacement @ corresponds to linear displace ment x, moment of inertia corresponds to mass m, and the torque constant k’ corresponds to the force constant k, By analogy, the equation of motion is $= $a Sin (wt + 60), where w = Vk'/I, and $m is the maximum angular dis placement or the angular amplitude. The balance wheel of a watch is a common example of a body vibrating with angular harmonic motion. In the ideal case assumed, the motion in isochronous and the watch “keeps time" even though the amplitude decreases as the mainspring unwinds. 11-9 THE PHYSICAL PENDULUM. In Fig. 11-13, a body of arbitrary shape is pivoted about a fixed axis through 0, and the line joining O and the center of gravity is displaced by an angle ¢ from the vertical. Let h represent the distance from the pivot to the center of gravity. The weight mg gives rise to a restoring torque TP = —mgh sin ¢. When released, the body will oscillate about its equilibrium position but, as in the case of the simple by ) van ii —f 11-13-A physi mg pendulum, pendulum, the motion is not (angular) harmonic, sive the torque I’ is not proportional to ¢ but to sing. Ho ever, if is small, we can approximate sin ¢ by , andi motion is approximately harmonic. Making this aj proximation, we get P= —(mghe, and the effective torque constant is =1'/¢ = mgh. The angular frequency is w= VE] = Vmgh/I, and the period Tis l mgh , 1 20r { Tala = 2m) 11-23] to 7PV ‘ Such a pivoted body is called a physical pendulun as contrasted with the ideal simple pendulum, which a point mass attached to a weightless cord. Of cous every real pendulum is a physical pendulum, Example. Equation (11-23) may be solved for the moment Inertia J, giving T?mgh fe naah a The quantities on the right of the equation are all dire measurable, Hence the moment of inertia of a body of a complex shape may be found by suspending the body as a phy cal pendulum and measuring its period of vibration. The lo tion of the center of gravity can be found by balancing. Sin1-15 Center of oscillation. The length L equals that of the equivalent simple pen: dulum, T,m,g, and h are known, Jean be computed. For example, Fig. 11-14 illustrates a connecting rod pivoted about a hori zontal knife edge. The connecting rod weighs 4 Ib and its center of gravity has been found by balancing to be 8 in. below the knife edge. When set into oscillation, it is found to make 100 com- te vibrations in 120 s, so that T = 120/100 = 1.2 s, There- fore 2)? s? x 4 Ib x Hi p= 12S X AI EN 9.097 stug t, an? 11-10 CENTER OF OSCILLATION Itis always possible to find an equivalent simple pendu- lum whose period is equal to that of a given physical pendulum, If L is the length of thé equivalent simple pendulum, or (11-24) Thus, so far as its period of vibration is concerned, the mass of a physical pendulum may be considered to be concentrated at a point whose distance from the pivot isl = I/mh. This point is called the center of oscillation of the pendulum 11-10 | Center of oscillation 172 Example. A slender uniform rod of length a is pivoted at one end ‘and swings as a physical pendulum. Find the center of oscilla. tion of the pendulum, ‘The moment of inertia of the rod about an axis through one end is The distance from the pi 2. The length of the equivalent 1 _ jue? mh m(a/2) and the center of oscillation is at a distance 2a/3 from the pivot. Figure 11-15 shows a body pivoted about an axis through O and whose center of oscillation is at point C. The center of oscillation and the point of support have the following interesting property, namely, if the pen- dulum is pivoted about a new axis through point C, its period is unchanged and point 0 becomes the new center of oscillation. The point of support and the center of oscillation are said to be conjugate to each other. The center of oscillation has another important property. Figure 11-16 shows a baseball bat pivoted at O. Ifa ball strikes the bat at its center of oscillation, no impulsive force is exerted on the pivot and hence no “sting’" is felt if the bat is held at that point. Because of this property, the center of oscillation is called the center of percussion. Center of gravity | + ® + | Center of percussion U 11-16 The center of percussion coincides with the center of oscillation,172 Harmonic motion | 11-10 In Fig. 11-17, a series of multiflash photographs, the center of gravity is marked by a black band. In (a), the body is struck at its center of percussion relative to a pivot at the upper end of the cord, and it starts to swing smoothly about this pivot. In (b), the body is struck at 11-17 The motion of a body suspended by a cord when the body is struck a ho zontal blow. its center of gravity. Note that it does not start to rotate about the pivot, but that its initial motion is one of pure translation. That is, the center of percussion does not coincide with the center of gravity. In (c), the body is struck above, and in (d) below its center of percussion.Problems 11-1 The general equation of simple harmonic motion, Y= Asin (wt + 60), Je written in the equivalent form y= Bsin wt + Ccos wt. (2) Find the expressions for the amplitudes B and Cin terms of the amplitude A and the initial phase angle 4. (b) Interpret, these expressions in terms of a rotating vector diagram. 11-2 A body of mass 0.25 kg is acted on by an elastic restoring force of force constant k= 25 Nm-'. (a) Construct the graph of elastic potential energy F, as a function of displacement x, over a range of x from —0.3 m to +0.3 m, Let 1 in, = 0.25 J vertically, and 1 in. = 0.1 m horizontally. The body is set into oscillation with an initial potential energy of 0.6 J and an initial kinetic energy of 0.2.J. Answer the following questions by reference to the graph: (b) What is the amplitude of oscillation? () What is the potential energy when the displacement is one-half the amplitude? (d) At what dis placement are the kinetic and potential energies equal? (e) What is the speed of the body at the midpoint of its path? Find ( the period T, (@) the frequency f, and (h) the angular fre- quency «. (i) What is the initial phase angle @ if the amplitude A= 15cm, the initial displacement x = 7.8 cm, and the initial velocity vo is negative? 11-3 A body is vibrating with simple harmonic motion of amplitude 15 cm and frequency 4 Hz. Compute (a) the maxi ‘mum values of the acceleration and velocity, (b) the accelera: tion and velocity when the coordinate is 9 cm, (c) the time required to move from the equilibrium position to a point 12 ¢m distant from it 11-4 A body of mass 10 g moves with simple harmonic motion of amplitude 24 cm and period 4 s. The coordinate is +24 cm when {= 0, Compute (a) the position of the body when t = 0.5 s, (b) the magnitude and direction of the force acting on the body uahen t= 0.5 s, (c) the minimum time required for the body to move from its initial position to the point where x = —12 cm, (the velocity of the body when x = —12 em, 11-5 The motion of the piston of an automobile engine is approximately simple harmonic. (a) If the stroke of an engine ((wice the amplitude) is 4 in, and the angular velocity is 3600 revmin , compute the acceleration of the piston at the end of its stroke, (b) If the piston weighs 1 1b, what resultant force must be exerted on it at this point? (c) What is the velocity of the piston, in miles per hour, at the midpoint of its stroke? 11-6 A body whose weight is 4 Ib is suspended fom a spring of, negligible mass, and is found to stretch the spring 8 in. (a) What is the force constant of the spring? (b) What is the period of oscillation of the body, if pulled down and released? (c) What would be the period of a body weighing 8 Ib, hanging from the same spring? . 11-7 The scale of a spring balance reading from zero to 32 Ib is 6 in, long. A body suspended from the balance is observed to oscillate vertically at 1.5 Hz. What is the weight of the body? Neglect the mass of the spring. 11-8 A body weighing 8 Ib is attached to a coil spring and oscillates vertically in simple harmonic motion. The amplitude is 2 ft, and at the highest point of the,motion the spring has its natural unstretched length. Calculate the elastic potential energy of the spring, the kinetic energy of the body, its gravita tional potential energy relative to the lowest point of the motion, and the sum of these three energies, when the body is (a) at its t, (b) at its equilibrium position, and (c) atts highest 11-9 A load of 320 Ib suspended from a wire whose unstretched length fo is 10 tt is found to stretch the wire by 0.12 in. The cross-sectional area of the wire, which can be assumed con. stant, is 0.016 in?. (a) If the load is pulled donn a small addi tional distange and released, find the frequency at which it will vibrate. (b) Compute Young's modulus for the wire. 11-10 A small block is executing simple harmonic motion in a horizontal plane with an amplitude of 10. cm. At a point 6 cm away from equilibrium the velocity is +24 cm s~!. (a) What is the period? (b) What is the displacement when the velocity is #12cm 5-!? (c)Ifa small object placed on the oscillating block is just on the verge of slipping at the endpoint of the path, what 11-11 A force of 6 Ib stretches a vertical spring 9 in. (2) What weight must be suspended from the spring so that the system will oscillate with a period of x/4 s? (b) If the amplitude of the motion is 3 in., where is the body and in what direction is it moving 1/12 s after it has passed the equilibrium position, moving downward? (c) What force does the spring exert on the body when it is 1.8 in. below the equilibrium position, moving upward? 11-12 A body of mass m is suspended from a coil spring and the time for 100 complete oscillations is measured for the following values of m me) 7 100 200 400 1000 Time of 100 oscillations (5) 23.4 30.6 41.8 64.7 173174 Harmonic motion Plot graphs of the measured values of (a) T vs. m, and (b) T? vs. m. (c) Are the experimental results in agreement with theory? (4) Is either graph a straight line? (e) Does the straight line pass through the origin? (f) What is the force constant of the spring? (g) What is the mass of the spring? 11-13 A body of mass 100 g hangs from a long spiral spring. When pulled down ‘10 cm below its equilibrium position and released, it vibrates with a period of 2 s. (a) What is its velocity as it passes through the equilibrium position? (b) What is its acceleration when it is 5 cm above the equilibrium position? , (©) When itis moving upward, how long a time is required for it to move from a point 5 cm below its equilibrium position to a point 5 cm above it? (4) How much will the spring shorten if the body is removed? 11-14 A body whose mass is 4.9 kg hangs from a spring and oscillates with a period of 0.5 s. How much will the spring shorten when the body is removed? 11-15 Four passengers whose combined weight is 600'Ib are observed to compress the springs of an automobile by 2 in. when they enter the automobile. If the total logd supported by the springs is 1800 Ib, find the period of vibration of the loaded automobile, 11-16 (a) A block suspended froma spring vibrates with simple harmonic motion. At an instant when the displacement of the block is equal to one-half the amplitude, what fraction of the total energy of the system is kinetic and what fraction is poten. tial? (b) When the block is in equilibrium, the length of the spring is an amount s greater than in the unstretched state. Prove that T= 2xv/s/9. 11-17 (a) With what additional force must a vértical spring carrying an 8-Ib body in equilibrium be stretched so that, when released, it will perform 48 complete oscillations in 32 s with an amplitude of 3 in.? (b) What force is exerted by the spring on the body when it is at the lowest point, the middle, and the highest point of the path? (c) What is the kinetic energy of the system when the body is 1 in, below the middle of the path? its potential energy? 11-18 A force of 12 |b stretches a certain spring 9 in. A body weighing 8 Ib is hung from this spring and allowed to come to st. It is then pulled down 4 in. and released. (a) What is the period of the motion? (b) What is the magnitude and direction of the acceleration of the body when it is 2 in. above the equi- librium position, moving upward? (c) What is the tension in the ‘spring when the body is 2 in. above the equilibrium position? (qd) What is the shortest time required to go from the equi- librium position to the point 2 in. above? (e) If a small object were placed on the oscillating body would it remain or leave? (Ifa small object were placed on the oscillating body and its amplitude doubled, where would the object and the oscillating body begin to separate? 11-19 Two springs with different force constants ki and kr21| attached to a biock of mass m on a level frictionless surtae| Calculate the effective force constant in each of the three cass] (@), (b), and (c) depicted in Fig. 11-18. (a) A body of mass suspended from a spring with a force constant k, vibrates wis frequency fy. When the spring is cut in half and the same boy is suspended from one of the halves, the frequency is f,: Wha is the ratio of fifi? 11-20 Two springs, each of unstretched fength 20 cm but har ing different force constants ky and kz, are attached to opposit ends of a block of mass m on a level frictionless surface. Th outer ends of the springs are now attached to two pins Py a Pz, 10 em from the original positions of the springs. Let = 1000 dyn em-!, ky = 3000 dyn em~!, m = 100 g. (See Fy 11-19} (a) Find the length of each spring when the block isi its new equilibrium position, after the springs have been 2 tached to the pins, (b) Find the period of vibration ofthe biel if itis stightly displaced from its new equilibrium position ai released. Wem mas11-21 The block in Problem 11-20 and Fig. 11-191 oscillating with an amplitude of 5 cm. At the instant it passes ‘hrough its equilibriuin position, a lump of putty of mass 100 ¢ is dropped vetically onto the block and sticks to it, (a) Find the new period ‘nd amplitude, (b) Was there a loss of energy and, if so, where «id it go? (c) Would the answers be the same if the putty had heen dropped on the block when it was at one end of its path? 11-22 A simple pendulum 8 ft long swings with an amplitude of 11. (a) Compute the velocity of the pendulum at its lowest point, (b) Compute its acceleration at the ends of its path. 11-23 Find the length of a simple pendulum whose period is euactly 1's at a point where g = 32.2 ft's-2. 11-24 (a) What is the change dT in the period of a simple pendulum when the acceleration due to gravity changes by dg? (0) What is the fractional change in period, dT/T, in terms of the fractional change dg/g? (c) A pendulum clock which keeps Correct time at a point where g = 980.0 cm sec~? is found to lose 10s day? at a higher altitude, Use the result of part (b) ahove to find the value of g at the new location, approximating, thedifferentiats dT and dg by the small finite changes in T and g. (This problem illustrates a useful technique when it is desired to find the new value of a quantity, given a small change in another quantity on which the first depends, It enables one tocompute the change in the quantity instead of computing the new value directly. To compute the new value of g directly to within 0.1 cm s ?, computations must be carried out to four significant tigures, which Is beyond the precision of an ordinary slide rule and requires the use of four-place logarithms, or lonehiand multiplication and division. The change in g, on the other hand, is readily computed to within 0.1 em s~? ona small slide rule.) 11-25 Asimple pendulum with a supporting steel wire of cross- sectional area 0.01 cm? is observed to have a period of 2s when 210 kg lead bob is used. The lead bob is replaced by an alu rum bob of the same dimensions having a mass of 2 kg, and the Period is remeasured. (a) What was the length of the pendulum ‘th the load bob? (b) By what fraction is the period changed when the aluminum bob is used? Is it an increase or decrease? tint, Use differentials.) 11-26 The balance wheel of a watch vibrates with an angular amplitude of 3 radians and with a period of 0.5 s. (a) Find its ‘maximum angular velocity. (b) Find its angular velocity when itsdisplacement is one-half its amplitude, (c) Find its angular ‘cceleration when its displacement is 45°. 11-27 A monkey wrench is pivoted at one end and allowed to ‘Sing as a physical pendulum. The period is 0.9 s and the pivot Jin. from the center of gravity. (a) What is the radius of ion of the wrench about an axis through the pivot? (b) If the Problems 175 wrench was initially displaced 0.1 rad from its equilibrium position, what is the angular velocity of the wrench as it passes through the equilibrium position? Fig. 11-20 11-28 It is shown in textbooks on mechanics that the moment of inertia / of a body about any axis through any point is given by = le + mh, where ig is the moment of inertia about a parallel axis through the center of gravity, mis the mass, and h is the perpendicular distance between the two parallel axes. A solid disk of radius R = 12 cm oscillates as a physical pendulum about an axis per- pendicular to the plane of the disk at a distance r from its center. (See Fig. 11-20.) (a) Calculate the period of oscillation (for ‘small amplitudes) for the following values of r: 0, R/4, R/2, 3R/4, R. (b) Let To represent the period when r= R, and T the period at any other value of r. Construct a graph of the dimen- sionless ratio T/To as a function of the dimensionless ratio r/R. (Note that the graph then describes the behavior of any solid disk, whatever its radius.) (c) Prove by the methods of calculus that the period is a minimum when r = R/x/2. Does this result ere with your graph? 11-29 Itis desired to construct a pendulum of period 10s. (a) What is the length of a simple pendulum having this period? (b) Suppose the pendulum must be mounted in a case not over 2 {thigh. Can you devise a pendulum, having a period of 10s, that will satisfy this requirement? 11-30 A meter stick hangs from a horizontal axis at one end and oscillates as a physical pendulum. A body of small dimensions, and of mass equal to that of the meter stick, can be clamped to the stick at a distance h below the axis. Let T represent the period of the system with the body attached, and To the period of the meter stick alone. Find the ratio T/To, (2) when h = 50 com, (b) when h = 100 cm. (c) Is there any value of h for which T= To? Iso, find it and explain why the period is unchanged when h has this value. 11-31 A meter stick is pivoted at one end, At what distance below the pivot should it be struck in order that it start swinging smoothly about the pivot?