Theory of Machine Governor

1.1. Introduction

Internal combustion engines have long been used for stationary applications such as driving
air compressors, pumps, electric generators and so on. The speed of the engine needs to be
constant and so a governor is needed to adjust the controls according to the output speed. The
same applies to external combustion engines such as gas turbines and steam turbines. The control
action basically is that of adjusting a throttle of some kind that varies the flow of fuel, air or
steam.
The function of a governor is to regulate the mean speed of an engine, when there are
variations in the load e.g. when the load on an engine increases, its speed decreases, therefore it
becomes necessary to increase the supply of working fluid. On the other hand, when the load on
the engine decreases, its speed increases and thus less working fluid is required. The governor
automatically controls the supply of working fluid to the engine with the varying load conditions
and keeps the mean speed within certain limits.
The function of a flywheel in an engine is entirely different from that of a governor. It
controls the speed variation caused by the fluctuations of the engine turning moment during each
cycle of operation. It does not control the speed variations caused by a varying load.
Types of Gover nor s: The governors may, broadly, be classified as
1. Centrifugal governors, and 2. Inertia governors.
The centrifugal governors are based on the balancing of centrifugal force on the rotating balls
by an equal and opposite radial force, known as the controlling force. (Centrifugal governors are
classified as shown Fig.1.)
Inertia governor is more sensitive than the centrifugal, but it becomes difficult to completely
balance the revolving parts. For this reason, centrifugal governors are more frequently used.

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Theory of Machine Governor

Centrifugal governor

Pendulum type Loaded type

Watt governor
Dead weight governor Spring controlled governor

Porter governor Proell governor

Hartnell governor Hartung governor Wilson-Hartnell governor Pickering governor

Fig.1: Classification of Centrifugal governor

Wor king
Load on Engine Increase

Speed Decrease

Centrifugal Force Decrease

Sleeves moves down

That causes throttle valve open

Fuel supply Increase

Speed will Increases

Fig.2: Centrifugal governors

The centrifugal governors are based on the balancing of centrifugal force on the rotating
balls by an equal and opposite radial force, known as the controlling force. It consists of two
balls of equal mass, which are attached to the arms (Fig.2). These balls are known as governor
balls or fly balls. The balls revolve with a spindle, which is driven by the engine through bevel
gears. The upper ends of the arms are pivoted to the spindle, so that the balls may rise up or fall
down as they revolve about the vertical axis. The arms are connected by the links to a sleeve,

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Theory of Machine Governor

which is keyed to the spindle. This sleeve revolves with the spindle; but can slide up and down.
The balls and the sleeve rises when the spindle speed increases, and falls when the speed
decreases. In order to limit the travel of the sleeve in upward and downward directions, two stops
S, S are provided on the spindle. The sleeve is connected by a bell crank lever to a throttle valve.
The supply of the working fluid decreases when the sleeve rises and increases when it falls.
When the load on the engine increases, the engine and the governor speed decreases. This results
in the decrease of centrifugal force on the balls. Hence the balls move inwards and the sleeve
moves downwards. The downward movement of the sleeve operates a throttle valve at the other
end of the bell crank lever to increase the supply of working fluid and thus the engine speed is
increased. In this case, the extra power output is provided to balance the increased load.

When the load on the engine decreases, the engine and the governor speed increases,
which results in the increase of centrifugal force on the balls. Thus, the balls move outwards and
the sleeve rises upwards. This upward movement of the sleeve reduces the supply of the working
fluid and hence the speed is decreased. In this case, the power output is reduced.

1.2. Ter ms Used in Gover nor s

1. Height of a governor. It is the vertical distance from the centre of the ball to a point where the
axes of the arms (or arms produced) intersect on the spindle axis. It is usually denoted by h.
2. Equilibrium speed. It is the speed at which the governor balls, arms etc., are in complete
equilibrium and the sleeve does not tend to move upwards or downwards.
3. Mean equilibrium speed. It is the speed at the mean position of the balls or the sleeve.
4. Maximum and minimum equilibrium speeds. The speeds at the maximum and minimum
radius of rotation of the balls, without tending to move either way is known as maximum and
minimum equilibrium speeds respectively.
Note: There can be many equilibrium speeds between the mean and the maximum and the mean
and the minimum equilibrium speeds.
5. Sleeve lift. It is the vertical distance which the sleeve travels due to change in equilibrium
speed.

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Theory of Machine Governor

1.3. Watt Gover nor

The simplest form of a centrifugal governor is a Watt governor, as shown in Fig.3. It is

basically, a conical pendulum with links attached to a sleeve of negligible mass. The is governor
may be connected to the spindle in the following three ways:
1. The pivot P. may be on the spindle axis as shown in Fig. 3(a).
2. The pivot P, may be offset from the spindle axis and the arms when produced intersect at, O,
as shown in Fig.3 (b).
3. The pivot P, may be offset, but the arms cross the axis at , O, as shown in Fig.3(c).

Fig.3: Watt Governor

Let m = Mass of the ball in kg,
w = Weight of the ball in newtons = m.g,
T = Tension in the arm in newtons,
ω = Angular velocity of the arm and ball about the spindle axis in rad/s,
r = Radius of the path of rotation of the ball i.e. horizontal distance from the centre of the ball to
the spindle axis in metres,
F C = Centrifugal force acting on the ball in newtons = m.ω2.r, and
h = Height of the governor in metres.
Assumed that the weight of the arms, links and the sleeve are negligible as compared to the
weight of the balls. Now, the ball is in equilibrium under the action of

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Theory of Machine Governor

(a) The centrifugal force (F C) acting on the ball.

(b) The tension (T) in the arm,
(c) The weight (w) of the ball.
Taking moments about point O, we have

where g is expressed in m/s2 and ω in rad/s, then h is in metres. If N is the speed in r.p.m., then

where,

1.4. Por ter Gover nor

The Porter governor is a modification of a Watt’s governor, with central load attached to
the sleeve as shown in Fig.4(a ). The load moves up and down the central spindle. This additional
downward force increases the speed of revolution required to enable the balls to rise to any
predetermined level.

Consider the forces acting on one-half of the governor as shown in Fig. 4(b).

Let m = Mass of each ball in kg w = Weight of each ball in newtons = m.g,

M = Mass of the central load in kg W = Weight of the central load in newtons = M.g,

r = Radius of rotation in metres, h = Height of governor in metres ,

N = Speed of the balls in r.p.m ω = Angular speed of the balls in rad/s = 2 πN/60 rad/s,

F C = Centrifugal force acting on the ball in newtons = m.ω2.r,

T1 = Force in the arm in newtons T2 = Force in the link in newtons,

α = Angle of inclination of the arm (or upper link) to the vertical, and

β = Angle of inclination of the link (or lower link) to the vertical.

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Theory of Machine Governor

Fig.4: Porter governor.

Considering the equilibrium of the forces acting at D, we get

…eq(1)

Again, considering the equilibrium of the forces acting on B. The point B is in equilibrium under
the action of the following forces, as shown in Fig. 4(b).

(i) The weight of ball (w = m.g) (ii) The centrifugal force (F C),

(iii) The tension in the arm (T1) (iv) The tension in the link (T2).

Resolving the forces vertically; …eq(2)

Resolving the forces horizontally; …eq(3)

…eq(4)

Dividing eq (4) by eq (2);

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Theory of Machine Governor

…eq (5)

Substituting, and ;we get

…eq(6)

Notes: 1. When the length of arms are equal to the length of links and the points P and D lie on

the same vertical line, then; and eq(6) is written as; …eq(7)

1.5. Proell Gover nor

Fig. 5: Proell governor

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Theory of Machine Governor

The Proell governor has the balls fixed at B and C to the extension of the links DF and
EG, as shown in Fig.5 (a ). The arms FP and GQ are pivoted at P and Q respectively. Consider
the equilibrium of the forces on one-half of the governor as shown in Fig. 5(b). The
instantaneous centre (I) lies on the intersection of the line PF produced and the line from D
drawn perpendicular to the spindle axis. The perpendicular BM is drawn on ID.

Taking moments about I, we get; …eq (1)

Multiplying and dividing above equation by FM, we get;

We know that;

Finally, we get; …eq (2)

When α = β, then q = 1. Therefore eq. (2) may be written as;

1.6. Har tnell Gover nor

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Theory of Machine Governor

A Hartnell governor is a spring-loaded governor as shown in Fig.6. It consists of two bell

crank levers pivoted at the points O, O to the frame. The frame is attached to the governor
spindle and therefore rotates with it. Each lever carries a ball at the end of the vertical arm OB
and a roller at the end of the horizontal arm OR. A helical spring in compression provides equal
downward forces on the two rollers through a collar on the sleeve. The spring force may be
adjusted by screwing a nut up or down on the sleeve.

Fig.6: Hartnell governor.

Let m = Mass of each ball in kg,

M = Mass of sleeve in kg,
r 1 = Minimum radius of rotation in metres,
r 2 = Maximum radius of rotation in metres,
ω1 = Angular speed of the governor at minimum radius in rad/s,
ω2 = Angular speed of the governor at maximum radius in rad/s,
S1 = Spring force exerted on the sleeve at ω1 in newtons,
S2 = Spring force exerted on the sleeve at ω2 in newtons,
F C1 = Centrifugal force at ω1 in newtons = m (ω1)2 r 1,
F C2 = Centrifugal force at ω2 in newtons = m (ω2)2 r 2,
s = Stiffness of the spring or the force required to compress the spring by one mm,
x = Length of the vertical or ball arm of the lever in metres,

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Theory of Machine Governor

y = Length of the horizontal or sleeve arm of the lever in metres, and

r = Distance of fulcrum O from the governor axis or the radius of rotation when the governor is
in mid-position, in metres.

Fig.7

Consider the forces acting at one bell crank lever. The minimum and maximum position
is shown in Fig.7. Let h be the compression of the spring when the radius of rotation changes
from r 1 to r 2. For the minimum position i.e. when the radius of rotation changes from r to r 1, as
shown in Fig. 7 (a ), the compression of the spring or the lift of sleeve h1 is given by;

…eq (1)

Similarly, for the maximum position i.e. when the radius of rotation changes from r to r 2, as

shown in Fig.7(b), the compression of the spring or lift of sleeve h2 is given by;
…eq (2)

; Adding. eq (1) and eq (2), we get; …eq (3)

Now for minimum position, taking moments about point O, we get

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Theory of Machine Governor

…eq (4)

Again, for maximum position, taking moments about point O, we get

…eq (5)

Subtracting eq (4) from eq (5), we get

1.7. Sensitiveness of Gover nor s

Consider two governors A and B running at the same speed. When this speed increases or
decreases by a certain amount, the lift of the sleeve of governor A is greater than the lift of the
sleeve of governor B. It is then said that the governor is more sensitive than the governor B.

In general, the greater the lift of the sleeve corresponding to a given fractional change in
speed, the greater is the sensitiveness of the governor. It may also be stated in another way that
for a given lift of the sleeve, the sensitiveness of the governor increases as the speed range
decreases.

This definition of sensitiveness may be quite satisfactory when the governor is considered
as an independent mechanism. But when the governor is fitted to an engine, the practical
requirement is simply that the change of equilibrium speed from the full load to the no load,
position of the sleeve should be as small a fraction as possible of the mean equilibrium speed.

The actual displacement of the sleeve is immaterial, provided that it is sufficient to

change the energy supplied to the engine by the required amount. For this reason, the
sensitiveness is defined as the ratio of the difference between the maximum and minimum
equilibrium speeds to the mean equilibrium speed.

Let N1 = mini. Equilibrium speed

N2 = max. Equilibrium speed

N = Mean Equilibrium speed

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Theory of Machine Governor

Sensitiveness of governor = (N2 - N1) / N ; where N = (N1 + N2) / 2

1.3. Stability of Gover nor s

A governor is said to be stable when for every speed with in the working range there is a
definite configuration i.e. there is only one radius of rotation of the fly balls. For a stable
governor, if the equilibrium speed increases, the radius of governor balls must also increase.

1.4. Isochronous Gover nor s

a governor is said to be Isochronous when equilibrium speed with in the working range is
constant for all radii of rotation of the fly balls by neglecting friction. The isochronous governor
is not of practical use because the sleeve will move to one of its extreme positions immediately
the speed deviates from the isochronous speed.

1.5. Hunting

A governor is said to be hunt if speed of the engine fluctuates continuously above and below
mean speed. This is caused by too sensitive governor which changes the fuel supply by large
amount when a small change in speed of rotation.

1.6. Effor t and Power of a Gover nor

Effor t of a gover nor

It is a mean force extended at the sleeve for given percentage change of speed.

Power of a gover nor

It is the work done at sleeve for given percentage change of speed = mean effort x distance
moved by sleeve.

The effort and power of a Porter governor is determined as;

Let N = Equilibrium speed corresponding to the configuration as shown in Fig. 8 (a ), and c =

Percentage increase in speed.

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Theory of Machine Governor

l Increase in speed = c.N and increased speed = N + c.N = N (1 + c)

The equilibrium position of the governor at the increased speed is shown in Fig. 8. (b).

(a) (b)

Fig 8: (a) Position at equilibrium speed (b)Position ai increased speed

When the speed is N r.p.m., the sleeve load is M.g. Assuming that the angles α and β are

equal, so that q = 1, then the height of the governor;

…eq(1)
When the increase of speed takes place, a downward force P will have to be exerted on the
sleeve in order to prevent the sleeve from rising. If the speed increases to (1 + c) N r.p.m. and the
height of the governor remains the same, the load on the sleeve increases to M1.g. Therefore;

…eq(2)
Equating equations (1) and (2), we have;

…eq(3)
(M1 – M).g is the downward force applied to prevent the sleeve from rising as the increases of
the speed. It is the same force acting on the governor sleeve immediately after the increase of
speed and before the sleeve begins to move. When the sleeve takes the new position as shown in
Fig. 8 (b), this force gradually diminishes to zero.

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Theory of Machine Governor

Let P = Mean force exerted on the sleeve during the increase in speed or the effort of the
governor.

…eq(4)

If F is the frictional force (in newtons) at the sleeve, then;

The power of a governor is the product of the governor effort and the lift of the sleeve. Now,
Let x = Lift of the sleeve. Therefore, Governor power = P × x …eq(5)
If h=height of the governor at speed N and h1= height of the governor at speed at an increased
speed (1 + c) N. Then, x = 2 (h – h1).
As there is no resultant force at the sleeve in the two equilibrium positions, therefore

and

We know that, x = 2 (h – h1) = …eq (6)

Putting the values of P and x in equation (5), we get;

1.7. Controlling of the Gover nor

When a body rotates in a circular path, there is an inward radial force or centripetal force
acting on it. In case of a governor running at a steady speed, the inward force acting on the
rotating balls is known as controlling force. It is equal and opposite to the centrifugal reaction.

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Theory of Machine Governor

When the graph between the controlling force (F C) as ordinate and radius of rotation of the
balls (r ) as abscissa is drawn, then the graph obtained is known as controlling force diagram
(Fig.9). This diagram enables the stability and sensitiveness of the governor to be examined and
also shows clearly the effect of friction.

Y
N1
Controlling Force (Fc)

N
Controlling force curve

N2

X
O
φ
Radius of rotation (r)

Fig. 9. Controlling force diagram

(A) Stable gover nor :

(Fig.10(a)): For stable governor as radius of rotation increase the controlling force must
increase. Means as F/r increases - must increase. Therefore, controlling force curve DE must
intersect the controlling force axis below origin. The equation of curve DE becomes Fc = Ar – B
(Fig.10(d)). Stable governor: As 'r' increase ‘angle ' must increase.

(B) Isochronous gover nor :

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Theory of Machine Governor

(Fig.10(b)): Its b = 0 controlling force curve OC passes through origin. Hence Fc / r will
remain constant for radius of rotation. Thus, governor becomes isochronous. Equation of line OC
is Fc = Ar ((Fig.10(d)). Isochronous governor: ‘angle’ is constant and is independent of radius.
(C) Unstable gover nor :
(Fig.10(c)): If B is positive, then Fc / r decrease as r increases. It means that as the radius
increases controlling force decreases. Thus, governor becomes unstable Equation of line AB is Fc
= Ar+ B (Fig.10(d)).

Controlling
Force (Fc)
(a) Stable governor
Controlling
Force (Fc)

B (b) Isochronous governor

Φ2 Φ
A

O
O Radius of rotation (r)
Φ1 Radius of rotation (r)

(d) Controlling force diagram for

spring loaded governors
Controlling
Controlling

Force (Fc)
Force (Fc)

e
ta bl
B uns
us
no
A hro
c e
iso bl
Φ2 sta
(c) Unstable governor
Φ1

O O
Radius of rotation (r) Radius of rotation (r)

Fig.10

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issues, legal or otherwise, arising out of use of this document (Anup Kumar, Asst. Professor Department of Mechanical Engineering, MITM,
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