CRITICAL BOOK REPORT

ACADEMIC READING
ACADEMIC WRITTEN LANGUAGE SKILLS

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By :

- AGNES ROSALYN SIAHAAN (2191121013)

- AJENG DILLA MAISAROH (2193321032)
- ANISA ANGGREINI (2193321031)
- AZZAHRA WAFIQ AZIZA (2193321016)
- HERMINA SITINJAK (2191121014)
- IRANDA LESTARI (21931211015)
- MITHA NURHAP SARI (2191121026)

ENGLISH EDUCATION B 2019

ENGLISH AND LITERATURE DEPARTMEN

FACULTY OF LANGUAGES AND ART
MEDAN STATE UNIVERSITY
2020

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 PREFACE
First at all ,We give thanks for God’s love and grace for us, Thanks to God for helping us and give
us chance to finish this assignment CBR about “Academic Reading”

And we would to say thank you to Ma’am Safrida Lubis as the lecture of State University of
Medan. That always teach us, and give knowledge about the Academic written Language Skills study.

We realize this critical book is not perfect, but We hope can be useful for us. Critic and Suggestion is
needed here to make this CBR be better

. Hopefully this paper can help the readers to understand about Academic Written Language Skills
study.Thank you.

Medan,19 October 2020

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 TABLE OF CONTENT

PREFACE......................................................................................................2

TABLE OF CONTENT.................................................................................3

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ..................................................................4

1.1. Background .............................................................................................4

1.2. Purpose ....................................................................................................4
1.3. The Benefit of CBR .................................................................................4
1.4. Identity of The Book................................................................................5

CHAPTER II SUMMARY OF THE BOOK...............................................6

2.1. Chapter I : Guided Reading ..................................................................6

2.2. Chapter II : Skills ...................................................................................9
2.3. Chapter III : Additional Texts ...............................................................13
2.4. Chapter IV : Appendix ...........................................................................25

CHAPTER III DISCUSSION ......................................................................26

3.1. The Strengthen of The Book..................................................................26

3.2. The Weaknesses of The Book ...............................................................26

CHAPTER IV CLOSING.............................................................................27

4.1. Conclussion.............................................................................................27
4.2. Discussion ...............................................................................................27

REFERENCE ...............................................................................................28

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 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background

Writing is the most difficult skill for second or foreign language learners to master. The
difficulties are not only in generating and organizing ideas, but also in translating these ideas into a
readable text. The difficulty becomes more noticeable if their language proficiency is weak.

Teaching writing for students who learn English is one of the important things that has to be done
well because it will influence the students’ ability in developing their writing ability. It is commonly
believed that an appropriate teaching technique will have a contribution to the success of students’ writing
ability. Furthermore, it will be true that teaching writing will be influenced by the teaching technique
which is used by the teacher.

Writing is a major part of good communication from an organization or individual. Having good
writing skills can help listeners communicate messages clearly and easily compared to face to face or
over the phone. According to experts it is estimated of working time is spent with writing as a basis for
communication. By writing you can communicate your ideas through blogs and can also minimize errors
when writing CV or resume examples, there are no errors in spelling or grammar.

In the context of the scope of writing has 2 objectives, namely to channel information and clarify
the intentions of thoughts between the writer and the reader. Writing is used by students to take notes or
record, convince, report or inform, and influence. The purpose and objectives of writing can be achieved
well by someone who can formulate ideas, thoughts, arguments, and express them clearly. This clarity
depends on the reasoning, organization, language, spelling, and punctuationused.

In this era of globalization, when a person writes, he makes a paper or book or journal, there are
many mistakes in the ways of writing on paper or on a web. Poor writing skills can make the author's first
impression unsatisfactory and have a negative response if he finds an error in spelling or in grammar. In
writing a paper, it is first necessary to determine an idea to influence or play with the minds of the reader,
after that do research on the suggested ideas then pouring out the data and information found into a paper
in such a way can force us to remain focus and hone the things we don't understand also help to
communicate with others (criticism and collaboration).

1.2. Purpose

The objectives of this paper are as follows:

 Make the readers can understand the techniques or writing techniques that are good and correct
based on the sources collected, such as when the reader is doing research on a problem by
matching the theories concerned and taking the essence from one source to another. So that the
author can draw the conclusions discussed
 Make the reader think and reason and make the reader know about what is being reported, also
allows the reader to have an opinion.

1.3. The Benefits of CBR

The benefits of this critical book review are:

- Increase knowledge About Reading Academic English of the book

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 - Increase the ability to find the essence of a book, the ability to compare books with other
books well.
- Train yourself to think critically in finding the information provided by each chapter of
the book

1.4. Identity of The Book

Title of the Book : Reading Academic English

Name of Authors : Judy Rapoport ; Ronit Broder ; Sarah Feingold
Publisher : Tirosh PublishersLtd.
ISBN : 978 – 965 – 530 – 013 - 0
City : Israel
Year Published : 2019
Edition :-
Pages : 213 pages

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 CHAPTER II
SUMMARY OF THE BOOK

2.1. CHAPTER I : GUIDED READING

 General Guidelines For The Student
 What to look for in a text
The topic is Ask yourself: What is the text about?
 The main idea
Ask yourself: What does the writer say/claim/argue1 /believe about the topic? What
statement does the writer make about the topic? What is the writer's opinion/point of
view about the topic?
 How the text is organized
Ask yourself: What are the main sections of the text? What does the writer present/give
us in each section?
 How the writer supports the main idea
Ask yourself: What does the writer give us in the text to support the main
idea/argument/point of view? What does the text offer to persuade us to believe the
writer's claim/argument/ point of view? What does the writer use to convince us? Does
the text contain explanations, examples, factual information or research reports to
strengthen the argument?
 Writer's purpose
Ask yourself: Why has the writer written this article? What message does the writer want
to bring across? Writers have reasons for writing. Very often writers have more than one
reason.
A. Tips on how to read a text

Before you actually read it do this tips:

o Look at the title

o Explore information outside the text (photos, captions, subheadings)
o Think about the subject
o Skim the article more than once
• The first time, pass your eyes over it very quickly.
• The second time, look at the first sentence of paragraphs and at discourse markers.

The purpose as follow:

o to try to predict the general topic

o to find the source (where it appeared)
o to predict the specific aspect of the topic
o to find out what you already know about it
o to get a general impression of the contents and organization
o to check if you predicted the topic
o to see what some of the subtopics are
o to get a global picture of the organization of the article
o to find out the topics of paragraphs
o to see which paragraphs go together to form blocks
o to find main ideas

While you read it:

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 1. If you have trouble with the meaning of words or phrases:
• Read 'around' the word – the whole sentence and the sentences before and after it.
• Try to guess the general meaning of the word/phrase, from its context and its form.
• Use a dictionary only if these steps don't work. (Remember to keep the context in
mind when you choose the correct meaning from the dictionary.)
• Explain the ideas to yourself, using other words.
2. If you have trouble with the meaning of sentences:
• Read the sentences around it.
• Pay attention to discourse signals that help you understand how parts of a sentence
are connected (for example: "and, but, or, so, although, because, in order to")
• Try to analyze the sentence.
- Find the main clause and its subject and verb.
- Look at the additions to the main clause. What questions do they answer?
3. If you have trouble understanding what a substitute word ("it, this, that" etc.) refers to:
• Read the whole sentence and the sentences around it.
• Decide if the substitute word refers to a specific word or phrase OR to an idea.
• Draw an arrow from the substitute word to what it refers to.

Here the text with worksheet

TEXT 1: WHAT KIND OF MORNING PERSON ARE YOU?

1. BEFORE YOU READ

a. Look at the title.
1) What do you think this text is about?
2) What kind of morning person are you? How do you feel in the morning?
3) Is it easy or difficult for you to get up in the morning?
4) How do you react if someone tries to wake you up?
b. Skim the text very quickly, to get a general impression.
Is this a story or a description of types?
c. Vocabulary – These words and phrases will help you understand the text: alarm clock,
annoying, awake, ball of energy, behave, complain, (to) hate, lazy, (to) need, often, punishment,
sleepyhead, sleep through, snooze, (to) stretch, suffer, tasks, type, unless
2. WHILE YOU READ
Think about:
1) How many types of morning people does the article describe?
2) What signals help you find the types?
3) Can you divide the text into sections?
3. AFTER YOU READ
a. How much did you understand?
1) How many kinds of morning people does the writer describe?
2) What name is given to people who hate mornings?
3) Explain in your own words the sentence: "It's a good idea to stay as far away from a
morning grump
4) as possible, unless you like punishment." (lines 10-12)
5) What does the second type usually do when you wake her up?

b. Text Analysis Questions

1. List and briefly describe the 3 types of morning people.

2. What is the writer's definition of "grumps"?
3. What is the writer's aim in writing this text?

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 4. Why does the writer call the last kind of morning person "the most annoying"?
5. What is the writer's attitude to this kind of morning person?

TEXT 2 : TEACHING FOR CHARACTER AND COMMUNITY

1. BEFORE YOU READ

a. Look at the title and the abstract.
- Who is the article aimed at?
- What does the author suggest that teachers include in their teaching?
- What results will the teachers get, according to the author?
- What is the writer's argument?
b. Skim the whole article. Pay attention to the quotations, to the subtitles, and to the
chart (Figure 1).
c. Think about the following questions;
d. Vocabulary – These words and phrases will help you understand the text.

2. WHILE YOU READ

Think about the following questions:
1. What problem does the writer present in the first half of the article?
2. How bad is the problem? How does the author prove this to us?
3. What solutions does he offer?

For more example of structures, see

Structure
Circle the Sage
Students from each team gather around a different “sage,” an expert on a topic. They return to their
teams to compare notes and tutor one another. The virtues Fostered are Leadership and Helpfulness.
Pass-N-Praise
While sitting around a table, each student validates the work of the peer passing the paper. The
Virtues Fostered is kindness.
Estimate and Prediction Line-Ups
Students line up by the size of their estimates and then fold the line, so those with high estimates hear
the reasoning of those with low estimates and vice versa. The virtues Fostered is Good Judgment.
Expert Group Jigsaw
Students leave their teams to work with like-topic students of other teams and become experts on a
topic. They return to their teams so each can teach the topic to their classmates. The virtues Fostered
are Cooperation ,Helpfulness and Leadership.
Gambit Chips
Students have gambits chips (cards with phrases) that they use to practice the gambits. Different
gambit chips foster different virtues, including Appreciation Gambits ("Thank you," "What I
appreciate is..."); Request Gambits ("May I...," "If you are willing"); and Empathy Gambits ("I
understand how you felt because . . ."). The virtues Fostered are Courtesy and Understanding.
Talking Chips
Students put their chip in the center of the table each time they speak. They cannot speak again until
all students have put in their chip, and the chips are retrieved to begin another round. The virtues
Fostered is Impulse Control.
Team Pair Solo

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 Students work on a difficult problem, first as a team. When they are ready, they do a similar problem,
working as a pair. Finally, when they are ready, they do that type of problem on their own. The
virtues Fostered are Cooperation , Helpfulness , Leadership and Self-Motivation.

Three-Step Interview
Students work first in pairs to interview each other and then do a RoundRobin, each sharing what he
or she learned in the interview. The virtues Fostered are Understanding and Responsibility.

3. AFTER YOU READ

- How much did you understand , like what are some of the positive effects of making
character education part of instruction?
- Text Analysis Questions for example like what is the aim of the airticle, more explain
about that and etc.

2.2. CHAPTER II : SKILLS

The Skills Section provides explanations and practice in the following areas:

1. Sentence Structure: learning about how sentence structure communicates meaning

2. The Verb Phrase: learning about how the verb phrase signals time, attitude and focus

3. Discourse Markers: learning to recognize these and to identify what ideas they signal

4. Substitute words: learning to identify what substitute words refer to

1. Sentence structure as a key to meaning

A. THE BASIC SENTENCE

B. COMPOUNDING – PUTTING EQUAL PARTS TOGETHER

C. NOUN GROUPS

D. ADDITIONS TO THE VERB

E. SPECIAL SENTENCE STRUCTURES

A. THE BASIC SENTENCE

When we speak or write, we group the words in a sentence together so that they will have meaning. If you
understand how we construct sentences in English, you will be a better reader. The English sentence has
the following parts:

 THE SUBJECT

This tells us who or what the sentence is about. It usually comes before the verb. It can be one word or
many words.

Examples: Crying is a mystery. Why crying is good for us is still not clear.

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  THE VERB

This tells us what the subject does. It gives us the action or the situation. It can be one word or a few
words.

Examples: Crying is a mystery.

Food affects your health

 THE REST OF THE SENTENCE

The rest of the basic sentence, after the verb, can be:

• Something that answers the question "what?" or "who?" after the verb.

• Something that refers to or describes the subject

• Something that answers questions such as "when?", "where?", "how?", "why?" about the verb.

• A combination of any of the above

• Not all words ending in -ing are verbs.

Examples: Crying is useful. (Crying is not a verb in this sentence. It is a noun and functions as the subject
of the sentence. The verb in this sentence is "is".)

Not all words ending in -ed are verbs.

Example: The finished product is sent to the customer. (Finished is not a verb in this sentence. It is an
adjective and it describes product. The verb in this sentence is is sent.)

B. COMPOUNDING – PUTTING EQUAL PARTS TOGETHER PUTTING TWO SENTENCES

TOGETHER Sometimes we put two sentences together, one after the other. Between the sentences we
put connecting words such as and, or, but, yet, while, whereas or so.

Examples: - The experiment was successful and he became famous

PUTTING TOGETHER ANY PARELLEL ELEMENTS

We can put together any elements that are parallel in structure.

Examples: The experiment proved his theory and the theories of his colleagues

When we put together parallel elements, we sometimes leave out parts that are repeated. Sometimes we
use a substitute word instead of the original word

Examples: He found out that the child was ill but that he didn't need to go to hospital. He found

out that the child was ill but X X didn't need to go to hospital. (that he is left out)

When we string together more than two elements, we use connecting words only between the last two.
The rest are separated by commas.

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Examples: They discussed the causes, the effects and the implications of the new approach. You can
study alone, with your friends or with a teacher.

C. NOUN GROUPS

•A noun group is anything that functions as a noun. It can be:

- Subject of a sentence

- Direct object of a verb

- Indirect object of a verb

- Object of a preposition

THE CORE NOUN AND ADDITIONS

•Additions to a core noun add information about it. They function as adjectives.

Additions to the core noun can be:

- Single Words that come before the core noun. (one or more)

- A Phrase (a group of words beginning with a preposition) that comes after the core noun.

- An Adjective Clause

 ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

• When the addition to a noun is a clause (a group of words with a verb of its own), it comes after the
noun and begins with a connective such as who, whom, which, that or whose.

These clauses function as adjectives. (They are sometimes called Relative Clauses.)

Examples: The researchers [who were chosen for the project] were the best in their field.

 REDUCED ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

An adjective clause the connective (that, who, which, whose).

Example: The book [they read] was a classic. = The book [that they read] was a classic. Here are some
tips to help you recognize an adjective clause when it has no connective:

• When you see a noun followed by another noun (or pronoun) and a verb , it could

mean that the connective has been left out.

Examples: - He read only books [the teacher gave him]. = He read only books [that the

teacher gave him.]

•When you see a noun followed by an –ed (Verb 3) or –ing word, or followed by an ordinary adjective,
this means that the connective and the verb BE have been left out.

Examples: - They chose students [affected by violence]. = They chose students [who had

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been affected by violence].

D. ADDITIONS TO THE VERB

Additions to the verb add information about the verb. They tell us more about the action or the
situation, answering questions such as:

when? where? how? why? for what purpose? despite what? under what condition?

•Additions to the verb can be:

- A Single Word

- A Phrase

- A Clause

•The researchers arrived [after the project had begun].

(answers the question "when?")

• They studied [as if this was their last chance].

(answers the question "how?")

•They met during lunch, [since no one had time for long meetings].

(answers the question "why?")

•The students didn't take part in the debate [even though they wanted to].

(answers the question "in spite of what?")

• It will not work [unless all the participants are there].

(answers the question "under what condition?")

 FINDING THE MAIN CLAUSE

The additional clauses are attached to the main clause by connectives. (Note: In the following examples,
the main clause is underlined, the additional information is in brackets and the connective is in bold).
These connectives act like signals, helping you recognize the additional clauses. Once you recognize the
additional clauses, you will be able to focus on the main clause – the most important part of the sentence.

Examples: - The students watched TV [after they had finished their homework].

(main clause) (additional information clause)

E. SPECIAL SENTENCE STRUCTURES

PREPARATORY IT

Sometimes a sentence begins with the word "it" but the "it" does not refer to a noun in a previous
sentence. Instead it refers to a phrase or a clause that appears later on in the same sentence. In this kind of
sentence, "it" acts as a 'dummy subject', preparing us for the real subject that follows. In the following
examples, "it" refers to the underlined words.

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Examples: - It is difficult to prove this theory.

- It is a coincidence that so many have done the same research.

 NOUN CLAUSES

These are clauses (groups of words with their own subject and verb) that function as nouns, answering the
question "what" or "who". Just like a noun group, a noun clause can function as subject of a sentence,
object of a verb, or object of a preposition. Noun clauses are attached to the sentence by a connective. The
connective can be that, one of the wh-question words (such as what, why, how, which, when, where, who,
which) or combinations with certain wh-words (such as whoever, whatever, whichever).

2.3. CHAPTER III : ADDITIONAL TEXTS

 Texts 1 : Learning a Language
1. Most of us think that learning a new language is a very difficult task. We take language learning
very seriously – we enroll in courses, buy grammar books and dictionaries, listen to cassettes and
do endless language exercises. Have you ever wondered, though, how a new baby learns
language? How does a baby do it? How is it that babies learn their first language without the help
of all these accessories? How do they manage without a dictionary, without being able to read,
without grammar rules, and without a teacher?
2. Psycholinguists have tried to analyze how children learn a language. Although they have not
found answers to all their questions, they do now know that languages have systems that make it
easier for us to learn them and that language learning is a process with many stages.
3. All languages are systematic. In every language there are a limited number of sounds, a limited
number of ways of combining these sounds to form words and a limited number of ways of
combining these words to form sentences. Every language has systems like these to make speech
comprehensible to those who speak that language. The speakers of a language learn the systems
and conform to them in order to understand and be understood. Without these systems we would
not be able to communicate.
4. One of the marvels of language is how we use a limited number of sounds to create an unlimited
number of words and sentences. In English, there are only about 45 sounds and 30 patterns for
combining these sounds. Yet we can communicate whatever we want simply by combining this
limited number of sounds and patterns. For example, we can recombine the sounds in the word
"string" to form "ring, sing, sin, grin". We can rearrange the words in a sentence to mean entirely
different things, as in "John saw Sally" and "Sally saw John". This is what makes languages so
marvelous. 5 When we learn our first language we go through a series of stages. When we are
only a few months old we begin to babble
5. making all kinds of sounds. Some of these vaguely express things such as hunger or contentment,
but most sounds at this stage do not have specific meaning. Babies simply enjoy making sounds
and experimenting with them. Gradually, as they hear more of their own language, they learn to
produce the sounds of that language and drop sounds that they don't need. In the next stage babies
learn to combine the sounds into the words of their language. Later they learn to combine the
words into sentences, first oneword sentences such as "Milk" and later two-word sentences such
as "Want milk." Even at this early stage children are aware of word order patterns, and can
understand which patterns belong to their language and which don't. For instance, a child learning
English will understand and say "Want milk" but will be confused if someone says "Milk want".
This shows that the child is discovering the system of the language.
6. How do children do this? How do they discover the system of their language? One theory claims
that they do so by imitation. They imitate what they hear, their parents correct them and then they
imitate the corrected sentences. But there are problems with this theory. It doesn't explain how

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 children can produce sentences that they have never heard before – something which they often
do.
7. Psycholinguists are still studying how we learn language. They have found out many interesting
facts about language and about the stages we go through in learning language. However, we still
have a lot to learn about what makes communication possible.
8.
 Texts 2 : Got The Message
1. How can you understand what someone is saying ? Obviously by listening to the words and
sentences that person is using. If that is the case, however, how do you explain the fact that you
can often guess what someone is saying just by looking at the expression on his or her face? How
do you explain the fact that the same sentence can mean two different things when said in
different ways? Or how do you explain the fact that you can often guess a person's intentions just
from the way he or she is standing?
2. Language may be essential for human communication, but it is not the whole story of
communication. We do a lot of our "talking" without words. In fact some experts claim that
actual words contribute only seven to ten percent to our understanding of a message. The rest of
our understanding comes from a long list of non-verbal signals. Among these are sound signals,
such as grunts, laughter, tone, intonation and speed. Another group of signals is body language,
such as facial expression, eye movement, gestures and distance.
3. Non-word sounds contribute approximately 20 percent to our comprehension. Our tone of voice
can express a wide range of emotions, from anger to amusement to enthusiasm to sadness. We
use intonation patterns to question, to express sarcasm and to contrast ("That's a dog"? "That's
YOUR problem".) In addition, there are sounds such as laughter and grunts and fillers ("well…,
Umm") that tell people we are thinking.
4. Body language is a vital form of communication. In fact, it is believed that the various forms of
body language contribute about 70% to our comprehension. It is important to note, however, that
body language differs in different cultures. Take for example, eye movement. In the U.S.A. a
child is expected to look directly at a parent or teacher who is reprimanding him/her. ("Look at
me when I am talking to you!") In other cultures the opposite is true – a child is expected to look
down when being reprimanded. Looking directly at a teacher or parent in such a situation is
considered a sign of disrespect.
5. Another form of body language that is used differently, depending on the culture, is distance. Did
you know that in North America people don't generally stand as close to each other as in South
America? Two North Americans who don't know each other well will keep a distance of 4 feet
between them, whereas South Americans in the same situation will stand 2 to 3 feet apart. North
Americans will stand closer than two feet apart only if they are having a confidential conversation
or if there is intimacy between them.
6. Gestures are often used to communicate. We point a finger, raise an eyebrow, wave an arm – or
move any other part of the body – to show what we want to say. However, this does not mean
that people all over the world use the same gestures to express the the same meanings. Very often
we find that the same gestures can communicate different meanings, depending on the country.
Take, for example, the gesture where you hold up a hand, palm away from the face, and move
your fingers up and down. To most Europeans this means "Goodbye", but to many speakers of
Arabic it means "Come here". Another example of a gesture that could be misinterpreted is
sticking out the tongue. In many cultures it is a sign of making a mistake, but in some places it
communicates ridicule.
7. Another way in which we communicate is the way we use clothing and body ornamentation.
Every culture has its accepted ways of dressing, arranging one's hair, painting one's face and
wearing jewelry. By adopting the conventions for dressing within a certain society, a person
communicates that he or she is willing to accept the standards of that society. By rejecting those
conventions a person communicates rejection of the culture and values of that society. Imagine a

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 rock star wearing a suit and tie or a stockbroker in tights, with a tattoo and body piercing jewelry.
Dress and ornamentation, like all languages, differ in different cultures and also change with
time.
8. The dangers of misunderstanding one another are great. Obviously it is not enough to learn the
language of another culture. You must also learn its non-verbal signals if you want to
communicate successfully.

 Text 3 : Does Sleep Help You Study?

1. Sleep helps us remember, assuming that it follows study. If sleep precedes study, it can turn out
to be worse than no sleep at all.
2. The beneficial effects of sleep on memory were first studied by J.G. Jenkins and Karl M.
Dallenbach in 1924. They found that individuals who slept after memorizing material recalled
more than those who stayed awake. Recent experiments have confirmed this sleep effect.
3. It doesn't seem to make much difference whether a person sleeps immediately after learning or
waits a few hours. What is important is the sleep. In a study by psychologist Bruce Ekstrand and
others at the University of Colorado, three groups of people learned a word task. One group
immediately went to bed for seven hours. Another stayed awake for seven hours, then slept for
seven hours. The third group stayed awake the full 14 hours, after which all individuals were
tested for their recall. Recall was about the same for the two sleep groups, but both had better
recall than the group that stayed awake. Dreams and Sleepwalking
4. The procrastinator's approach – sleep before you learn – won't help your memory at all. In fact, a
short period of sleep just before new learning can seriously increase forgetting, what Ekstrand
calls the "prior-sleep effect". Everyday examples of this are common: a person is awakened by
the telephone in the middle of the night, talks for a while, goes back to sleep, and remembers
nothing of the call the next morning. The prior-sleep effect may also explain why a person forgets
dreams he had early in the night, or when he sleepwalks.
5. It doesn't take much prior sleep to disrupt memory. In another Ekstrand experiment, subjects slept
for a specified period of time, were awakened, and given a list of material to memorize. The
researchers made sure the subjects were wide awake before they put them through their
memorizing paces. Subjects were tested four hours later for recall.
6. Ekstrand found that prior sleep of 30 minutes, one hour, two hours, and four hours significantly
impaired memory. If the students were awakened two to four hours before learning, however,
their memory was no longer affected by the sleep. Also, sleeping for six hours produced less
forgetting than four hours or less of prior sleep. The Stages of Sleep
7. Researchers have attempted to find out if the various stages of sleep affect memory. The Rapid
Eye Movement [REM] phase is characterized by an active central nervous system, with increased
heart rate and brain temperature. In the four stages of nonREM sleep the body is relaxed, with
slow and regular respiratory and circulatory functions. The stages of sleep didn't seem to matter.
Usually when researchers woke up subjects in various sleep phases, they didn't find any memory
difference.
8. Hormones may be one cause of the priorsleep effect. Researchers Elliot Weitzman, Jon Sassin,
and Izmet Karacan, among others, found that sleep increases release of a hormone called
samatotrophin. Hormone levels rise quickly within 30 minutes after a person falls asleep and
remain high during the first half of the night. The levels subside in the latter part of the night.
9. For the last year and a half I have studied how samatotrophin affects laboratory mice that learned
to discriminate between black and white alleyways in a maze. They were injected with the
hormone at various times before and after training. I then measured memory loss four weeks
later. When samatotrophin was injected five minutes before training, memory was severely
disrupted, but if the hormone was injected 90 minutes before training, there was no significant
difference in recall.

15
10. If samatotrophin operates the same way in humans, people who were awakened early in sleep
may have had poor recall because of the high hormone in their system. These levels gradually
return to normal after awakening, which may account for the disappearance of the prior-sleep
effect after the subject is awake for a while.
11. If you don't plan to go over and relearn material you study, it is best to sleep a while (four hours
or longer, if possible) between the time you study and the time you have to recall the information.
Don't sleep before you study unless you allow yourself a period of time of being awake before
you start studying seriously. And allow for an undisturbed period of sleep.

 Text 4 : The Nature and Uses of Dreaming

1. A 20-year-old college student had a narrow escape from a fire that killed several members of his
family. A few nights after the fire, he had a vivid dream: "I was on a beach when a huge tidal
wave came along and engulfed me. I was flipped over and over; there was nothing I could do. I
was just about to drown when I woke up." On another night he dreamt: "I was swept away in a
whirlwind. I was helpless, just blown away." These dreams clearly do not picture the details of
what actually happened to him – the fire. Rather, they reflect his emotional state.
2. I am convinced that such dreams are by no means nonsense. They reflect our emotional state –
our feelings of fear, terror and helplessness. I have collected and studied many series of dreams
after major trauma and have repeatedly come across dreams about tidal waves, whirlwinds, or
being chased by gangs of bullies. These dreams picture the emotional state of the dreamers'
minds.
3. In the past few decades, dreams have not gotten much respect. There have been two dominant
schools of thoughts. One view, held by some biologists, is that dreams are basically random
nonsense, the products of a poorly functioning brain during sleep. If there is any meaning to
dreams, it is "added on later" as our brains try to "make the best of a bad job." A related view is
that dreaming may function as an "unlearning" procedure: a dream is garbage being thrown out
by a computer to keep itself from being clogged up. In this view, we dream specifically about
what we do not need to remember.
4. The other view of dreams, commonly held by psychoanalysts and therapists, derives largely from
the pioneering work of psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud. Freud took dreams seriously in one sense,
calling them the "royal road" to the workings of the unconscious. He felt that his main
contribution was his finding that, when analyzed properly, every dream turns out to be a
fulfillment of a wish. But although Freud appears to take dreams much more seriously than the
biologists do, he does not place much value on the dream itself. He continually refers to dreams
as an irrational mental product, whose value emerges only when we analyze it by a process of
free association, leading eventually to an underlying wish.
5. After years of research on the biology of dreaming, I disagree with both these broad views. I have
spent many years analyzing my own and my patients' dreams in my clinical practice, using
techniques by Freud, Carl Jung and others. Based on this analysis, I have no doubt that dreams
are meaningful and can lead us to useful knowledge about ourselves. However, I disagree with
Freud’s thesis that every dream, when properly understood, is the fulfillment of a wish. For
example, the hundreds of dreams I have collected of the tidal wave cannot in any way (with or
without free association) be interpreted as fulfillment of wishes. Rather, they provide a context
for an emotional concern.
6. When dreaming, we make connections more broadly than when awake. Although the connections
may sometimes seem far-fetched or strange, they actually often make sense. Four different
women have reported dreaming of their boyfriends. In their dreams the boyfriends looked like
their fathers. Each woman, when she woke up, realized that her boyfriend was actually like her
own father in many ways – something she had never realized before. The dreams simply put
together things in these women's minds that they had never put together in waking. While awake,

16
 "father" and "boyfriend" occupied different channels of thought. Only in the broadly connected
state of dreaming were the two brought together. This connection is both meaningful and useful.
7. Our conclusion is that dreams make connections broadly, but by no means randomly, in the
minds of the dreamers. The connections are guided by the emotional state of the dreamer.
Furthermore, dreams have their own language for doing this. Dreams obviously do not deal in
words or mathematical symbols, but rather in pictures or picture metaphor. There is a whole
continuum in our mental functioning, running from rational waking thought at one end (solving a
problem, for example), through looser thought, daydreaming and eventually dreaming at the other
end. As we move on this continuum from one end to the other, we think more in pictures and
specifically in picture metaphor.
8. I claim that dreams contextualize emotional states by using the language of picture metaphor. For
example, in our culture, a trip in a car is often a metaphor for the course of lives or relationships.
Dreams such as "I am in a car going downhill and the brakes don't seem to be working," may
mean that certain relationships are in difficulty or seem to be out of control.
9. Another important question to consider is whether dreaming has a function or use. Is all this
making of connections simply something that happens every night and has no other significance,
or does it have a function in our lives, and can we make use of it? My collaborators and I
speculate that dreaming probably does have a function.
10. Roughly, the most basic function can be called re-weaving or interconnecting. Returning to the
dreams after trauma, we have found that the person first dreams about tidal waves and gangs,
then more and more about other related material from his or her life. The dream makes
connections and ties things together. It starts with a new piece of distressing information and ties
it in, connects it with other images of trauma, other memories related to the same feelings. This
process interconnects and cross-connects the materials, so that next time something similar
happens, it will not be quite so frightening, since it will be part of a woven pattern in the mind.
Thus, the dream has the function of calming the mind and preparing it for the future.
11. What dreams seem to do after a traumatic event is similar to what a good therapist does. First, a
safe place is established. In therapy, the therapist must be someone the patient gradually learns to
trust; safety comes from a sense of alliance between patient and therapist. The patient is allowed
to tell his or her story about the trauma or new event over and over again, making connections to
other material, gradually seeing it in a new light. I believe this happens in dreaming as well. The
safe place is provided by a bed and the muscular inhibition of REM-sleep, which assures that the
sleeper will lie quietly in bed, rather than running around acting out the dream. Once safety is
established, the broad connections are gradually made.
12. In addition to the basic interconnecting function of dreaming, there are many ways in which
dreams can be useful to us when we do remember them. For example, the women who dreamed
about their boyfriends turning into their fathers generally found that this dream offered them a
useful insight, a new way of looking at their relationships with their boyfriends.
13. Sometimes, the new and broader connections made by dreaming can be helpful in our work and
in artistic and scientific discovery as well. A number of creative people have made use of dreams
in their discoveries. Some of the bestknown examples are the French chemist Auguste Kekule,
who saw snakes biting their tails in a dream, which led him to the correct ring structure for the
benzene molecule. Inventor Elias Howe attributed the discovery of the sewing machine to a
dream in which he was captured by cannibals. He noticed as they danced around him that there
were holes at the tips of spears. This made him realize that that was the design feature he needed
in order to solve his problem. Vladimir Horowitz and several other well-known pianists have
described playing piano pieces in their dreams and discovering a new fingering they had not tried
previously and which turned out to work perfectly. Robert Louis Stevenson said that his book,
The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, came to him in a dream.
14. I do not claim that all the hard work of discovery happened in the dream. Generally, the artist and
scientist made one new connection in a dream and then developed the work in the waking state.

17
 Stevenson probably dreamed of a respectable doctor turning into a monster. Then his waking
writing skills took over from there.
15. Dreams can be extremely useful in our personal lives, in scientific or artistic work, or even in
something as basic as career choice. I am certainly not suggesting that we should substitute the
dream for waking thought, but why should we leave it out entirely? Dreaming is one end of the
continuum, a way of making connections more broadly than our focused waking thought, but
guided by what is important to us. In my opinion, we should use everything we have and allow
ourselves to notice and employ this additional connecting power in our lives.

 Text 5 : Children Without Friends

1. Children who have difficulty forming friendships and gaining acceptance among peers have
received a tremendous amount of interest over the past decade. Research indicates that
approximately 6 to 11 percent of elementary school-age children have no friends or receive no
friendship nominations from peers (Hymel & Asher, 1977). This figure varies depending upon
the assessment procedure used and it may be even higher in some subgroups. For example,
children who have learning disabilities (Gresham, 1988), or are mildly retarded (Taylor, Asher &
Williams, 1987) may experience more difficulties forming social relationships. Nonetheless,
many average and above-average children are without friends. Consequently, research and
intervention focusing on children with peer relationship problems are becoming more extensive.
2. Research continues to seek information that may contribute to the understanding and awareness
of these children. Many children who experience poor peer relations are at risk and need support.
Research on the consequences of peer rejection can provide teachers with the foundation and
rationale for effective intervention. Teachers working closely with children who lack friends
understand the frustration such students experience during attempts to interact with peers.
3. The uniqueness of peer relationships contributes to a child's normal development. Unlike adult-
child relationships, childchild relations are more egalitarian and involve more reciprocal
interactions. These interactions help children achieve competency in many areas. Therefore,
children who lack friends do not enjoy many important benefits of interaction. Peer relations
should be viewed as necessary for a child's healthy development.

Identifying Children Without Friends

1. In order to determine a child's status within the peer group, researchers often use two
variations of sociometric measurement techniques. These measurements rely on children's
perceptions of others and can identify those children who are rejected or neglected by their
peer group. A widely used sociometric technique is the peer nomination method (Hymel &
Rubin, 1985). In this technique, children are asked to pick from a list the names of three
children with whom they like to play and three children with whom they do not like to play.
In general, this procedure provides a useful means of assessing children's impact on their
peers. Rejected children receive few positive nominations and many negative nominations,
while neglected children receive few positive or negative nominations.
2. The rating scale measure (Singleton & Asher, 1977), a slightly different approach, is used to
assess social acceptance or preference within the peer group. Children are asked to rate each
classmate on a 1-5 Likert-type scale, in response to questions about how much they like to
play or work with that classmate. Rejected children receive very low overall ratings, whereas
ratings of neglected children do not differ from those of average children. Although neglected
children are generally liked, they very often lack friends.

Sociometric Status and Behaviors in Children

1. Once researchers were able to identify rejected and neglected children, they became
interested in determining the behaviors associated with each status. Information is

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 typically gathered on child behavior in three ways: peer reports, teacher reports and direct
observation. The behaviors of the children are then correlated with sociometric status.
2. Peers can provide an important perspective on the behavior norms within a peer group,
providing insight on areas often unavailable or unknown to adults. A common technique
requires children to characterize the behavior of peers (e.g., aggressive, helpful,
cooperative, shy). A variety of behaviors attributed to children by their peers are related
to their sociometric status (Carlson, Lahey & Neeper, 1984; Coie, Dodge & Coppotelli,
1982; Wasik, 1987). Across age groups, peers accept children who are considered
helpful, friendly, cooperative, cheerful and prosocial. Peer rejection is generally
associated with aggression, disruption and fighting. Shy, quiet children lacking social
involvement are often neglected.
3. Because of their considerable contact with children, teachers can provide a valuable
perspective on children's behavior. French and Waas (1988) obtained teacher ratings on
popular, rejected and neglected 2nd- and 5th-grade children. Rejected children were
characterized as aggressive, hostile and task avoidant, while neglected children were
described as having more school behavior problems than popular children. Coie and
Dodge (1988) asked teachers to rank 1stand 2nd- grade boys of different sociometric
statuses on a variety of peer aggression items. Well-accepted and neglected children were
described as the least aggressive, whereas rejected children were described as the most
aggressive. Rejected children also scored low in conformity to rules and interpersonal
sensitivity. In general, teacher assessments coincided with children's perceptions.
4. Direct observational methods also contribute to research on the assessment of peer group
behavior. Trained observers unacquainted with children can provide unbiased
information on discrete behaviors of children. Various studies on school-age children
(Dodge, Coie & Brakke, 1982; Gottman, Gonso & Rasmussen, 1975; Ladd, 1983) show a
high degree of consistency in outcomes. Both popular and average-status children engage
in more cooperative play and social conversation than do rejected children. Rejected
children show many more inappropriate behaviors than any of the other status groups.
Often alone, they wander around the room and are off-task during the work period. They
are also more aggressive, argumentative and likely to engage in disruptive peer
interactions.
5. Less observational information is available on neglected children. In general, they spend
more time alone and make fewer social contacts. When they do attempt to make a social
contact, they are often ignored. They are characterized as being neither aggressive nor
disruptive and have difficulty integrating with peers. They engage in more solitary
activities than other children (Dodge, Coie & Brakke, 1982). In general, research
suggests that children who are rejected and neglected display certain behaviors that may
contribute to their failure to interact with peers.

Children's Status and Dropping Out of School

1. Children who continually experience rejection are considered to be at risk for
dropping out of school. Approximately 20 percent of children who enter school do
not graduate for various reasons (Weiner, 1980). A small percentage leave
reluctantly, generally due to family emergency or crises. Others do so because of
frustrations related to poor social adjustment. Yet, the majority of these students are
considered at least average in intelligence with the ability to graduate.
2. Several studies provide support for the hypothesis that peer assessment of low
acceptance can predict future dropouts. Gronlund and Holmlund (1958) reported that
54 percent of low-accepted boys dropped out of school, compared to 19 percent of
high-accepted boys. Among girls, the dropout figure was 35 percent for low

19
 acceptance, compared to 4 percent for high acceptance. Barclay (1966) reported that
lowaccepted boys and girls were two to three times more likely to drop out of school.
3. These early studies did not distinguish between rejected and neglected children, a
more recent concern. Kupersmidt's (1983) study does address the subclassification
issue. In a 6-year longitudinal study of 5th-graders, she reports the dropout rate
included 30 percent of the rejected, 21 percent of the average and 4 percent of the
popular sample. Although differences were only marginally significant, the rejected
group did show a greater dropout rate. Kupersmidt suggests that perhaps only the
rejected children are at risk.
4. In sum, evidence suggests that many adolescents who drop out of school experience
poor peer adjustments in their earlier years of school. They are more likely to drop
out of school than their more accepted peers. The effects seem to be stronger for boys
than girls, yet patterns are consistent regardless of gender. Evidence suggests that
peer rejection may be such an adverse experience that adolescents decide to leave
school (Kupersmidt, Coie & Dodge, 1990). The relationship between neglected
children and dropout rates is not so clear and needs further examination.

Considerations for Teachers

1. Children who are rejected by their peers often report feelings of loneliness and
lower levels of self-esteem. A sensitive and supportive teacher will be aware of
these feelings and will attempt to assess each child's situation. Teachers can
begin by careful observation of the child. While observing the child who appears
to be having difficulty interacting with peers, the teacher can ask: • Do the
children in the class seem to avoid, ignore and reject the child? • Does the child
lack certain social skills necessary for successful interaction with others? • Does
the child have difficulty interpreting other people's cues or requests? • Does the
child have difficulty communicating with others about his/ her needs and desires?
• Does the child act aggressively while interacting with others? • Is the child
disruptive in the class?
2. Although there are no plans that work with every child, teachers can choose from
several approaches found to be successful. Teachers will need to choose
strategies that best fit the child's needs, are adaptable to the classroom and
support their philosophy.
3. Some children are disliked by peers because they lack the skills necessary to get
along with others. Researchers (Oden & Asher, 1977) have developed techniques
for coaching children in social skills. Coaching involves identifying the child's
problem and providing some form of direct instruction regarding strategies for
use when interacting with peers.
4. Children can be coached on specific concepts that will contribute to more
positive interactions. Concepts that were used by Oden and Asher (1977)
included participation (e.g., how to get started and the importance of paying
attention), cooperation (e.g., the importance of taking turns and sharing
materials), communication (e.g., the importance of talking with others and
listening) and being friendly and nice (e.g., the importance of smiling, helping
and encouraging others). Coaches can assist children by:
 telling them why each concept is important to peer interaction
 asking for examples to assess children's understanding of the concept
 reinforcing the examples by providing suggestions when children have
trouble finding their own examples

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  discussing both positive and negative behavioral examples that are
important to interactions
 trying out some of the ideas in a play situation
 assessing the situation afterwards
5. Some children may benefit from practice with younger age-mates. Coaching
children has contributed to long-term changes in their behavior and sociometric
status.
6. Children who have difficulty reading other children's cues may benefit by
watching others who interact successfully. Low-status children can watch a
variety of successful interactions on videotape or acted out by adults, other
children or puppets. Studies (Gresham & Nagle, 1980; Jakibchuk & Smeraglio,
1976) indicate that low-status children exhibit an increase in positive interaction
after viewing models, and the effects are maintained over time. Factors
contributing to these positive outcomes seem to be:
 similarity of the model to the target child
 explicitly identifying the model's behavior to the target child
 using simple step-by-step narration to describe the purposes of the
behavior (Asher, Renshaw & Hymel, 1982)
7. Children who act aggressively toward others are often the least liked in the
classroom. Self-control training, also referred to as cognitive behavior
modification, focuses on the maintenance of positive behaviors through internal
cognitive control (Meichenbaum, 1985). In some cases, teaching aggressive
children to self-regulate their behavior has proven more effective in reducing
inappropriate behaviors than external reinforcement from teachers (Bolstad &
Johnson, 1972).
8. Researchers (Camp, Blom, Herbert & Van Doornick, 1977) have taught children
to reinforce themselves directly by following a thinking-out-loud strategy that
was found to reduce disruptive behaviors and increase prosocial behaviors. When
using the thinking-out-loud strategy, children are trained to say to themselves,
first out loud and then silently, "What is my problem? What is my plan? Am I
using my plan? How did I do?" The process helps children interrupt their
impulsive behavior, keeps them on task and reminds them of the necessary steps
to take when carrying out their task. This training often includes social problem-
solving skills, whereby children are encouraged to suggest and evaluate solutions
to problems (Spivak, Platt & Shure, 1976).
9. Disruptiveness is another behavior often related to peer rejection. Disruptive
children are often off-task and engage in inappropriate classroom behavior. The
percentage of rejected children described as disruptive by peers ranges from 36
percent to 38 percent (Coie & Koeppl, 1990). Two techniques for reducing
disruptive behavior in the classroom are use of reinforcement and token
incentives.
10. Positive reinforcement, often used in connection with modeling, has produced
some immediate positive outcomes (Asher, Renshaw & Hymel, 1982). The
behavior of a child or group of children can be subjected to direct reinforcement.
Teachers can make a point of praising socially cooperative interactions, while
ignoring any undesirable interactions deemed tolerable. Specific praise of a child
immediately after a desirable behavior provides the strongest results. Other
studies (e.g., Gresham, 1979) used reinforcement procedures to reduce the
frequency of negative social behaviors, and these effects were found to maintain
over time.

21
 11. The use of tokens as a reward for desirable behavior, in conjunction with positive
reinforcement, tends to reduce disruptiveness and increase on-task behavior
(Kazdin, 1977). In a token economy, teachers identify those behaviors deemed
desirable and undesirable. When students act in a desirable manner, they are
rewarded with a token of the teacher's choice. Tokens can range from a point
system, plastic disks or plastic cards that can be exchanged for toys, food or other
privileges. Several variations of token economies exist in schools and
institutions. Descriptions of procedures, rules and additional considerations of
this system can be found in Kazdin (1977).
12. Although token economies have shown success, they are not without their critics.
This procedure focuses on the symptoms rather than the causes, and the effects of
the program do not always generalize to other settings – such as home or play
settings (Kazdin, 1977). In some cases, the system may not work at all. For
example, Coie and Koeppl (1990) point out that children who lack basic skills or
are unable to perform classroom tasks may need specific coaching in academic
skills.
13. Communicating with parents will be especially important for teachers working
with children who have difficulty interacting with peers. The increasing number
of single-parent families or families with both parents working outside the home
means that teachers will need to utilize a variety of approaches to maintain
contact.
14. Options may include telephone calls, notes, letters and parent conferences. In
order for children to benefit, parents need to have an understanding of their
child's development and progress. Teachers can discuss their observations of the
child and share what they are doing in the classroom that might also be
reinforced at home. In addition, teachers can ask for parental input and
suggestions. Teachers can also share information with parents on child guidance
or parent discussion groups that might be available in the community.
15. In some cases, teachers may find that some children will need more assistance
than is possible within the classroom. Not all children will respond to the
techniques suggested. At some point, teachers must acknowledge the need for
additional help. Teachers will need to work with the family and suggest other
resources. A professional teacher will understand the importance of compiling
resources and referrals that can be useful for families. This information might
include services such as the school psychologist; community mental health
clinics; child, family and marriage counselors; and developmental screening
clinics.

Summary
A significant percentage of children are rejected or neglected during childhood.
A lack of friends can put children at risk for later problems. More immediately,
not having friends contributes to loneliness, low self-esteem and inability to
develop social skills. Rejection or neglect by peers is a traumatic experience for
some children. Research indicates that identification and intervention may help
modify the negative experiences that some children encounter.

 Text 7: The Power of Play

Most of us think of adult play as respite or indulgence, but having fun is no trivial pursuit. In
fact, it's crucial to mental creativity, health and happiness. We all agree that playing takes stress away
from us. It refreshes us and renews us. This serves as our optimism. It changes our perspective, stimulates

22
creativity. It renews our ability to get the world's work done. According to anyone's calculations, it was a
very valuable decision. But there is also evidence that play has more benefits. It is truly an inhibited
human expression, and advances the evolutionary process. Play allows our brains to exercise their
flexibility, to maintain and renew the neural connections that realize our human potential to adapt, to meet
all possible environmental conditions. And it may be that pleasure is a power woven through our search
for a mate. Of course, playful people are the most fun to hang out with. But the ability to play may be a
strong and compelling signal of something more. Especially among men, especially to protect us. This
may be a way of showing the candidate that the person is mentally ill for himself, for his offspring - or for
the wider community. It can truly be said that we were created to play; after all, humans are among the
few animals that play as adults. The added evidence is: we are most human when we play - and only
because we play Like art, play is a classic experience that is almost impossible to define - because it
includes infinite variability - but one that we all recognize when we see, or experience. So, let's get back
to shore in understanding all that contributes to this important and noble psychological state.

 Text 8: Bullying in School

Being bullied in school is not "part of growing up" or just a "rite of passage." Some children who
endure bullying never get over the fear and the humiliation, according to Mr. Barone. By working
together, schools and parents can make going to school an experience that students will enjoy, not dread.

It seems that bullying has been a problem in schools for as long as there have been schools. Why
is this so? Although not encouraged, bullying continues to be a problem for many children because it is
widely tolerated. Teachers, school officials, parents, and other students too often seem to stand by as
children are degraded, humiliated, beaten, and ridiculed. 5 Left unchecked, bullying in school can lead to
tragic consequences akin to the two cases mentioned above. Even when suicide or murder is not the
outcome, bullying can leave lasting emotional and psychological scars on children. Furthermore, research
has shown that bullying can extend across the generations: the children of bullies often become bullies
themselves.

Why, then, do school officials, teachers, and parents often appear to take so little notice? One
reason may be because many adults consider bullying to be a normal part of growing up. Confronting a
bully is considered one of the "rites of passage" for a boy. Unfortunately for the victim, the age-old advice
to "stand up to" the bully and fight back usually leads to more violent bullying. Rarely does the bully back
down. A second reason why bullying continues unabated might be that educators have become
desensitized to bullying and do not even see it. Thus they seldom report it. A third reason could be that
the schools are overwhelmed by other issues and problems outside of education with which they must
deal. And finally, schools may not want to identify bullying as a problem because they do not have the
resources to address it.

Scope of the Problem

Students who are the victims of bullies and school officials who hold the power to stop them have
very different perceptions of the problem.

I developed a survey that was administered in spring and summer of 1993 to two groups in
upstate New York. The first group consisted of 847 eighth-graders; the second group consisted of 110
counselors, teachers, and administrators in the same schools as the students. The survey contained the
following definition of bullying: "Bullying is a situation when a student or group of students is mean to
you over a long period of time (weeks or even months). Bullying can either be physical (hitting, kicking,
and so on) or it can be verbal (threats, name calling, gossiping, or ignoring)." Using this definition, the
school staff members were asked to estimate the percentage of the "students in their schools" who had
been victimized by bullying. On average, the staff members believed that 16% of the students had been

23
victims of bullies. The students in the same schools were asked whether they had "ever been bothered by
a bully or bullies while you were in middle school." And 58.8% of the students surveyed said that they
had.

The size of the difference in perceptions between students and school staff members suggests that
the staff members do not recognize the extent of the bullying that students face.

Not surprisingly, the bullying that takes place among boys tends to be more physical (punching,
kicking, pushing, and so on) than that which takes place among girls (which is usually more verbal in
nature). Among the students who said that the bullying they had experienced was mostly physical, 89.3%
were boys. Among those students who said that the bullying they experienced was mostly verbal, 67.1%
were girls. Among all students surveyed, 10% indicated that they had been physically injured by a bully
in school. Furthermore, the nature of the injuries ranged from minor bumps and bruises to some injuries
that required hospitalization. Of those students who said they had been injured by a bully, 76.5% were
boys.

Effective Remedies

When asked to name the three most effective ways of solving the bullying problem in school,
most staff members named "tougher discipline" (41.4%), followed by "better supervision" (33.7%). Only
17.4% of staff members listed "more counseling." Students, on the other hand, mentioned "more
counseling" most often (43.2%); 25.8% mentioned "tougher discipline," while 22% mentioned "better
supervision."

Tougher discipline is clearly important. Bullies must be held accountable for their behavior, or
the behavior will continue. Victims will come forward if they can see that bullies are dealt with sternly,
and bullies will be deterred. Schools also need to improve their supervision efforts. This does not
necessarily mean having more supervision, but rather making certain that the correct areas are supervised.
Most adult survey respondents said that they believed bullying tends to occur in out-of-the-way and hard-
to-supervise places, such as on playgrounds and in locker rooms. But 62.9% of the students surveyed
indicated that most bullying in their school occurs in the hallways. (Only 10.6% of the staff surveyed felt
that most of the bullying in their school takes place in the hallways.) Staff members need to improve the
ways they supervise school hallways. Teachers can do this effectively by situating themselves in the
doorways of their classrooms during passing time. Teachers also need to be taught what to look for when
monitoring for bullying. What teachers may interpret as accidental pushing and shoving in a crowded
hallway may in fact be deliberate and premeditated bullying.

Finally, schools need to invest in inservice training for staff members and in counseling programs
that counsel victims and bullies alike. Several programs exist that do so. Some involve large-group
sensitivity training, while others interweave the issue of bullying into the curriculum.

 Text 9: Using Multiple Intelligence Theory to Identify Gifted Children

In the sprawling Charlotte-Mecklenburg school district, thousands of children identified as gifted

are tackling challenging, real-world problems. They're doing so in a curriculum designed for multiple
intelligences.

Our approach to gifted education for our younger students could easily apply to the learning of all
students – and does to varying degrees in our schools. We believe that to be truly effective, curriculum,
instruction, and assessment should fuse the three characteristics that are vital to

all student understanding: in addition to using multiple intelligences, they should be problem-
centered and thought-demanding. To elaborate:

24
• A multiple intelligences-infused classroom personalizes and deepens students' understanding by
offering them many opportunities to explore significant concepts and topics on their own, to think about a
topic in many ways, and to have different ways to make sense of what they find.

• A problem-centered classroom offers a range of topics that appeal to wide interests, engages
students in personally meaningful problem finding and problem solving, and enables students to
demonstrate understanding through authentic performance assessment.

• A thoughtful classroom offers students opportunities to develop a tendency to think critically and
creatively. It also strengthens the ability to apply knowledge and concepts appropriately in new situations,
and cultivates a reflective disposition.

3.4. CHAPTER 4 : Appendix

Using the Appendix:

1. Glossary
Encourage students to look words up only after they have attempted to guess their
meanings from the context. Ask them to identify the part of speech of a word before
looking up its meaning. Since most of these words appear repeatedly, it might be useful
to have students mark words on the list as they encounter them in texts.

2. List of Irregular Verbs

This list can be used to help students find the meaning of irregular verbs that they do not
recognize. Show them how looking up the second or third form of an irregular verb gives
them the first form, which they can then look up in a dictionary.

3. Prefixes, Suffixes and Roots as Keys to Meaning

Refer students to these lists as they come across specific examples of prefixes, suffixes or
roots in their reading of texts. Show them how to use these word parts to get at the
meaning of words.
a. Prefixes. Prefixes are word parts that come at the beginning of words. They change the
meaning of words. For example, the prefix re- means "again". When we add it to a word,
we add the meaning of "again" to the original word.
Examples: do => redo (do again)
write => rewrite (write again)
b. Suffixes. Suffixes are word parts that come at the end of words. They can change the
meaning of words, but most important they show the grammatical function (the "part of
speech") of a word. For example, the suffix -tion at the end of a word shows that the
word is a noun. Adding -ion or tion to a verb is one way of changing it into a noun.
Examples: invite (verb) => invitation (noun)
direct (verb) => direction (noun)
Another example is the suffix -ize, which is a sign that the word is a verb. Adding -ize to
a noun is one way of changing it into a verb.
Examples: apology (noun) => apologize (verb)
sympathy (noun) => sympathize (verb)

C. Roots. Roots are word parts that carry the basic meaning of the word. They are not
used alone. Instead, they are combined with other word parts. For example, the root cycl
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 means "circle". English has created many words using this root, such as: bicycle,
motorcycle. Another example is the root graph, which relates to writing. From this root
English has created many words, such as: autograph, graphology, graphics.
CHAPTER III
DISCUSSION

4.1. The Strengthen

As for the Strength of the book is that it is based on a book entitled “Reading Academic
English”, the author presents the material well and clearly. This is because each material discussed is
accompanied by examples that support the material.

In addition, each discussion chapter is given practice questions to test the reader in
understanding the context of the material that has been presented. The author also provides some tips
and ways to answer questions, so that it can make it easier for readers to answer the questions
contained in the book. And also in the book the author's when explain material not only displays it in
written form, but is accompanied by a table form that strengthens the content of the material
presented.

4.2. The Weaknesses

In the glossary of academic words of chapter four, there is writing that cannot be understood,
which makes the reader confused . In the additional text section of chapter three, there too much text
are given which also long so that it makes the reader feel bored to read, moreover to answer the
analysis questions that are under the texts. There are too many questions and assignments in the book,
therefore it is more suitable to be done in groups

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 CHAPTER IV
CLOSING

5.1. Conclusion

The conclusion of this book is, this book is quite good and appropriate for student teacher
candidates to read. Because this book is classified as complete with explanations and examples. This book
also provides many questions that can train the reader to become more proficient. However, this book
also has many shortcomings, namely in terms of the explanation of many words and sentences that are
difficult to understand for readers whose English skills are still lacking.

5.2. Suggestion

The advice for this book is to make up for the shortcomings. That is to reduce the level of
questions because readers will get bored if there are too many questions, and if possible for the author to
simplify the explanation more, so that the reader better understands what the author means.

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 REFERENCE

Rapoport, Judy. Ect. 2010: Israel. Tirosh PublisherLtd.

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