LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE OF COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

Module No. 3
MEASUREMENT OF DIRECTIONS AND ANGLES

I. Topic:

• The Theodolite
• Traverse Surveying
• Bearing and Azimuth
• Departure and Latitude
• Balancing Traverse
• Magnetic Declination

II. Time Frame:

III. Introduction:

Angles and directions are fundamental prats of surveying

information. In these chapter, we will learn various systems of measuring
directions (azimuth, bearings and so forth), traverse computations (open
and close traverse), balancing traverse and magnetic declination.

IV. Objectives:

At the end of this chapter, the students are expected to:

1. Define the theodolite, its parts, types and functions;
2. Identify open and closed traverse;
3. Balancing traverse in terms of their latitudes and departures;
4. Differentiate azimuth from bearing and converting angles to
azimuths and bearings;
5. Solve problems related to magnetic declination.

V. Learning Activities:

THEODOLITE
Introduction

The theodolite is an angular measuring instrument that can read both

horizontal and vertical angles. Theodolites are generally classified by the
precision of the angle that they will read directly off their measuring scales or
micrometers. Most theodolites in use today are 20-second, 6 second or 1
second instruments. Theodolites (and other survey instruments) used in
Australia are of European or Japanese manufacture.
The main purpose of a theodolite is to observe angles in the horizontal and
vertical planes.

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Thus, a pointing to an elevated or depressed point is the equivalent of a

pointing to the vertical deposition of that point on the vertical plane that
passes through the instrument.
When the angle is turned and measured between two points the angle
recorded is the angle in the horizontal plane of the instrument.

The vertical circle registers the altitude of the point above or below the
horizontal plane of the instrument.
Horizontal and vertical angles may be required in traversing, setting out works,
triangulation surveys and astronomical observations.

Theodolite Construction

These notes will describe mainly 20" type theodolite construction; that is,
those used by students in elementary levels of surveying practice.

The theodolite consists of the following main parts:

• a fixed base with tribrach

• a movable upper part and
• a telescope

Figure 1
Essential features of a theodolite

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The base, with the tribrach, is screwed securely to the tripod head and is levelled up by
means of its three foot-screws.

In simple theodolites of older construction, the horizontal circle is fixed rigidly to this
base. In modern instruments the circle can be rotated independently, by means of a
milled knob or some other device.
On the upper part (the alidade), that is rotatable about the standing (vertical) axis, the
two standards for the tilting (horizontal) axis are fixed, bearing the telescope (with the
sighting axis) and the vertical circle. The alidade also contains the reading index for the
horizontal circle.

For rough levelling-up the base has a circular bubble fitted but, for more accurate
levelling-up, the more sensitive alidade tubular level (the plate level) is used.
The instrument is centered over the station point by means of a plumb bob or a built-in
optical plummet.

The vertical circle usually has an index level so that it can be oriented correctly, in
relation to the horizontal, before a vertical angle is read. Some theodolites have an
automatic index. The telescope may be aimed in any desired direction in space, by
means of rotations about its standing and tilting axes. Fine pointing to a particular
target is achieved accurately by means of clamping and slow motion (drive) screws.

In a Repetition Theodolite the horizontal circle can be rotated independently about the
standing axis, which, as a result, is made as a double axis. In this way, when sighting
to a target, any required reading can be set on the circle, e.g. the initial reading to the
RO (Reference Object) can be made zero.

Optical Plummet
The optical plummet is either incorporated within the tribrach or the instrument lower
plate. When the theodolite is set up and levelled, the observer is able to view the

ground station through the eyepiece of the optical plummet. It is a great aid in precisely
centering the theodolite over the ground mark, particularly on windy days.

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Figure 2
Optical Plummet

Theodolite Classifications

Theodolites may be classified by their methods of circle reading. Two methods are
commonly employed today:

• Optical Scale and Micrometer

• Digital or Electronic.

Just as the scale and micrometer reading methods replaced an earlier vernier method of
reading the circle, so the recent electronic and digital instruments are replacing the
scale and micrometer theodolites.

The majority of theodolites sold today are the electronic type.

Optical Micrometer Theodolite

In the optical micrometer theodolite, a small section of both the vertical and the
horizontal circles are enlarged by two internal microscopes. These images are projected
through a series of prisms and lenses to a small eyepiece that is usually alongside the
main telescope

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Figure 3
The view through the eyepiece will usually show three scales. There is a horizontal
scale and vertical scale, each giving the whole degrees and tens of minutes for both the
horizontal angle and the vertical angles. There is also a common micrometer that will
show the units of minutes and the seconds. This micrometer must be set separately for
both the horizontal angle and the vertical angle.

Electronic Theodolite

The electronic theodolite is controlled by a microprocessor in the instrument. The

operator views the circle readings from the liquid crystal display screen. This type of
theodolite gives a direct reading for both the vertical and horizontal angles on the
screen.

Figure 4

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Temporary Theodolite Adjustments

Temporary adjustments are those adjustments that always have to be made when
using an instrument − for example, levelling, focusing, sighting targets, setting
micrometers and so on.

Every time a theodolite is `set up' to read an angle, a procedure of temporary

adjustments must be undertaken. These include:

- placing the theodolite on the tripod

- attaching the plumb-bob
- levelling the instrument
- centering the instrument
- eliminating parallax
- zeroing the horizontal circle
- pointing to the target and focusing.

Levelling and centering the instrument are shown as individual adjustments, although in
practice neither is a completely individual temporary adjustment since each is
performed in conjunction with the other.

Placing the Theodolite on the Tripod

• Unclamp and extend the tripod legs. Open them and place the tripod firmly on the
ground with the top nearly level, and at a convenient height.

• Remove the theodolite from its case, after noting how it has been secured so that it can
be easily replaced, and secure it to the top of the tripod.

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Figure 5

Attaching the Plumb-bob

The theodolite and tripod legs are positioned over the ground station using the plumb
bob and/or optical plummet.

(Note: the theodolite must be `levelled' before the optical plummet can be used
accurately.)

Figure 6

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For a plumb bob to be used accurately it is important that the string from the tripod to
the plumb bob is kept straight. This can be achieved by tying a simple slipknot in the
string, as shown below.

Figure 7

Levelling & Centering the Instrument

There are a number of different routines for setting the theodolite exactly over a station
point. The one described below is reasonable for beginners. An alternative method is
also given.

• The theodolite and tripod are set over the point as well as judgement allows. Adjust one
leg only of the tripod by moving it sideways and pushing in and out until the instrument
base below the foot screws is as level as may be achieved by examination.
• Attach the plumb-bob to the hook or eye under the instrument and note the distance
and direction of the plumb from the station point. Carefully move each leg in turn the
same distance and in the same direction so that the plumb is almost over the mark.
• Tread each leg firmly into the ground for stability, taking the opportunity to set the
plumb-bob directly over the station point (or within 5 mm) by varying the amount each
leg is pushed into the ground.

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• Level the instrument as shown in the following:

1. Rotate the theodolite so that the plate bubble is astride two levelling
screws.

2. Turn both screws together in or out, until the bubble is central in its run.

3. Rotate the theodolite through 90°.

4. Turn the remaining foot screw until the bubble is central in its run.

5. Repeat procedure (2) and (4) as a check.

Figure 8

Note:

The bubble should remain in the center of its run at any position of rotation, after
levelling up. If the bubble `wanders' the instrument is out of adjustment. Plate bubble
adjustment is covered under Permanent Adjustments later in the chapter.

• Set the instrument accurately over the point by loosening the clamp under the tripod
and sliding the instrument across. If using the optical plummet, the plumb bob would
need to be removed.

Alternative Method of Levelling and Centering

Figure 9

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1. The theodolite is secured to the tripod and then is placed approximately over a
ground station. The legs of the tripod are firmly pushed into the ground.

2. The foot screws are adjusted until the optical plummet appears to be ‘over’ the
ground station.

Figure 10

1. Individual legs are adjusted till the plate bubble is centered in any position. Use
of the circular bubble is employed. Once the bubble is centered a check via the optical
plummet should reveal the instrument over the ground station.

Note: The feet of the tripod legs must not be moved at any time
throughout.

Figure 11

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Eliminating Parallax

Screwing the eyepiece in or out focuses the image of the diaphragm crosshairs on the
retina of the observer's eye.

The telescope focusing screw focuses the image of the target sighted onto the
diaphragm and, hence, to the retina of the eye through the eyepiece which has already
been focused.
When focusing is adequate, a sharp image of the target and the crosshairs is obtained,
with both focused onto the crosshairs.
When focusing is not adequate the image of the target does not fall on the plane of the
diaphragm, and when the eye is moved across or up and down there will appear to be
relative movement between the target and the crosshair.
This is parallax and accurate observations and results are not possible when it is
present. This is the same as discussed in the chapter on levelling.

The adjustment procedure to eliminate parallax is the same as for a level:

1. Maintain even illumination of the object lens either by holding your hand in front of the
telescope or pointing the telescope towards the sky.
2. Adjust the eyepiece focus, at the rear of the telescope, until the crosshairs are in sharp
focus.

A check on this adjustment is carried out as follows:

1. Sight to a target and, using the image focusing screw, bring the image into sharp
coincidence while your eye is fixed on the crosshairs.
2. Move your head up and down, while still looking through the telescope. If the instrument
has been correctly adjusted, there will be no relative movement between the image and
the crosshairs. If there is movement, repeat the above procedure.

Note:

(a) To be safe, this check for relative movement of image against crosshairs by moving
your eye from side to side should be carried out with each pointing.
(b) Generally, there is no need for parallax adjustment at each set up when all the sightings
are over relatively long distances.
(c) Targets that lie close to the theodolite may require parallax adjustment with each
pointing, especially as the eye tires.

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Targets
The most common form of target used in angular measurement is the tripod mounted
target incorporating a reflector prism associated with EDM.

Other targets commonly used in plane surveying include:

• range poles
• plumb bob string line
• sighting tripod
• waddy / survey stake.

The last term, waddy, refers to a survey stake. It is driven into the ground using a
hammer or an axe.

The top of the stake is plumbed over the line or station mark, and used as a target in
sighting. In addition, a red-and-white target of thin cardboard is used to aid in the
sighting. A spring head nail is poked through the red-and-white target and hammered
into the top of the stake.

Figure 12
Waddy with a red-and-white target

Stakes are often used with spring-head nails and red-and-white targets.

For short sights, a plumb-bob string line held over the ground mark is preferred to a
stake or range pole because the smaller diameter enables more accurate centering. If
the ground point can be seen directly then the sight should be taken to the actual point.
Showing the ground point by using the plumb bob as a pointer can be an aid.

Accurate plumbing of waddies is essential.

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Errors in Angular Measurement

As in levelling and linear measurements, angular measurements are subject to the

same three sources of error.

Sources of errors

Instrumental Errors
These are cumulative in effect and are caused by defects in the instrument, such as
poor design or construction, or the instrument being out of adjustment.

Personal Errors
These errors in adjusting, readings, handling and sighting the theodolite, are due to
human limitations and are unavoidable. They are, on the whole, compensating, and
their effect may be reduced by increasing the number of angular observations and by
adopting a mean value.

There is no excuse, however, for gross carelessness due to:

• instrument not being set exactly over the station mark
• level bubbles not perfectly centered
• poor focusing
• careless plumbing of a target causing the sighted point not to be over the mark.

Environmental Errors
These arise from variations in the following:

• Wind, that can vibrate the theodolite or deflect a plumb bob.

• Temperature, if extreme hot or cold, may cause unequal expansion of different parts of
a theodolite.
• Refraction is the bending of the line of sight as it passes through different air densities.
This does not apply to short sights. The effect is to cause an apparent shimmering for
the observed target. A sight to a target on a very hot day is likely to produce this effect.
• Settling of the tripod in soft ground such as sand or a swamp.

Errors may be categorized under the headings `gross', `systematic' or `random'.

Types of errors

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Gross Errors
These are mistakes on the part of the observer, due to carelessness, inexperience or
fatigue. They are shown listed previously under the heading `Personal Errors'.

Systematic Errors
Errors of this type are often due to the instrumental defects as noted previously under
the heading `Instrumental Errors'.

Random Errors
Small random errors cannot be avoided. They are due mainly to environmental
conditions but may also be due to normal differences and imperfections between
individual observers with regard to their sight and touch (eg reading scales and pointing
to targets).

The resulting small errors tend to be compensatory. Extreme wind or temperature can
cause errors. In windy weather, shelter the instrument as much as possible. Choose a
favorable observation time so as to avoid heat haze that can make accurate sighting
difficult.

TRAVERSE SURVEYING

A traverse is a form of control survey used in a wide variety of engineering and property
surveys. Essentially, traverses are a series of established stations tied together by
angle and distance. Angles are measured by theodolites or total stations; the distances
can be measured by electronic distance measurement (EDM) instruments, sometimes
by steel tapes. Traverses can be open, as in route surveys, or closed, as in closed
geometric figures.

Traverse computations are used to do the following: balance field compute latitudes and
departures, compute traverse error, distribute the errors by balancing the latitudes and
departures, adjust original distances and directions, compute coordinates of the
traverse stations, and compute the area enclosed by a closed traverse. In modern
practice, these computations are routinely performed on computers and/or on some
total stations or their electronic field books/data collectors.

Open Traverse

An open traverse is particularly useful as a control for preliminary and construction

surveys for highways, roads, pipelines, electricity transmission lines, and the like. These
surveys may be from a few hundred feet (meters) to many miles (kilometers) in length.
The distances are normally measured by using EDM (sometimes steel tapes). Each
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time the survey line changes direction, a deflection angle is measured with a theodolite
or total station. Deflection angles are measured from the prolongation of the back line to
the forward line (Figure 1); the angles are measured either to the right or to the left (L or
R), and the direction (L or R) is shown in the field notes, along with the numerical
values.

Many states and provinces have provided densely placed control monuments as an
extension to their coordinate grid systems. It is now possible to tie in the initial and
terminal survey stations of a route survey to coordinate control monuments. Because
the Y and X (and Z) coordinates of these monuments have been precisely determined,
the route survey changes from an open traverse to a closed traverse and is then subject
to geometric verification and analysis. Of course, it is now also possible, using
appropriate satellite-positioning techniques, to directly determine the easting, northing,
and elevation of all survey stations.

Figure 13

Closed Traverse

A closed traverse is one that either begins and ends at the same point or begins and
ends at points whose positions have been previously determined (as described above).
In both cases, the angles can be closed geometrically, and the position closure can be
determined mathematically. A closed traverse that begins and ends at the same point is
called a loop traverse In this case, the distances are measured from one station to the
next and verified, using a steel tape or EDM instrument. The interior angle is measured
at each station, and each angle is measured at least twice.

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Figure 14

BEARING AND AZIMUTH

Azimuths

The azimuth of a line is its direction as given by the angle between the meridian and
the line measured in clockwise direction from either the north or south branch of the
meridian. Azimuths are usually preferred over bearings by most surveyors because they
are more convenient to work with such as in computing traverse data by electronic
digital computers.

The azimuth of a line may usually range from 0 to 360 and letters are not required to
identify quadrants. For any particular survey the direction of zero azimuth is either north
or always south. In practice, azimuths are generally measured from the north branch of
the reference meridian for ordinary plane surveys.

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Figure 15 Figure 16
Line pa = 45°10′ Line pa = 56°18′
Line pb = 145°05′ Line pb = 155°44′
Line pc = 230°52′ Line pc = 225°29′
Line pd = 342°48′ Line pd = 270°00′
Line pd = 325°05′

Any line established on the earth’s surface has two azimuths – forward and
backward azimuths. Depending on by which the line is considered, these directions
differ by 180 degrees from each other since the back azimuths is the exact reverse of
the forward azimuth. To determine the back azimuth when the forward azimuth is
known, the following rules are used:

RULE 1: If the forward azimuth of the line is greater than 180 degrees, subtract 180
degrees to obtain the back azimuth.

RULE 2: When the back azimuth of the line is less than 180 degrees, add 180
degrees to determine the back azimuth.

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Shown in the figure 17 are four successive lines whose azimuths have been
observed. Tabulated immediately below the figure are forward and backward azimuths
(reckoned from south) of lines AB, BC, CD, and DE. The tabulation also shows the
forward and backward azimuth of each line as reckoned from the north branch of the
reference meridian. By applying rules 1 and 2, the student show be able to determine
how the tabulated back azimuths have been determined.

Figure 17

Table 1

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BEARINGS

The direction of a line may be described by giving its bearing. The bearing of a line is
the acute horizontal angle between the reference meridian and the line. A
quadrantal system (figure18) is used to specify bearings such that a line may fall under
one of the following quadrants: NE, SE, NW and SW. Each quadrant is numbered from
0 to 90 degrees from either the north or south end of the meridian to the east or west
end of the reference parallel (or the E-W Line). The fact that bearing angles never
exceed 90 degrees is an advantage when extracting values of their trigonometric
functions for use in computations.

Either the letters N or S precedes the bearing angle and the letters E or W follow the
indicated values of the angle. It is never done the other way around. Therefore, to locate
a line it is always necessary to locate the directional quadrant in which it lies as well as
the angle it makes with the reference meridian. The line could lie in any of the four
quadrants if only the bearing and the angle of the line is known.

BEARINGS OF LINES:
Line pa = N 44°30’E
Line pa = S 50°15’E
Line pa = Due South
Line pa = S 60°18’W
Line pa = Due West
Line pa = N 20°40’W

Figure 18

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The bearings of the lines originating from point p are given.

Figure 19

FORWARD AND BACK BEARINGS

Using quadrantal system, any line on the surface of the earth may be identified by two
direction which differ from each other by exactly 180 degrees. The direction will depend
in which end the line is observed. When the bearing of the line is observed in the
direction in which the survey progresses, it is referred to as forward bearing, if the
bearing of the same line is observed in an opposite direction it is called the back
bearing. In figure 18 assume a compass is set up successively at stations A, BA, BC,
CB, CD, DC, DE and ED. The observed bearings of the lines AB, BC, CD and DE are
called forward bearings; those of BA, CB, DC and ED are back bearings. From the
illustrated direction given in figure 19 it can be readily seen that back bearings can be
obtained from forward bearings by simply changing the letter N to S and also changing
E to W, and vice versa.

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Figure 20

Table 2

I. DETERMINING ANGLES FROM BEARINGS. Compute the angles AOB, COD, EOF
and GOH from the following set of lines whose magnetic bearings are given:
a.) OA, N 39° 25’ E and OB, N 75° 50’ E
b.) OC, N 34° 14’ E and OD, N 53° 22’ W

SOLUTIONS:

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II. DETERMINE ANGLES FROM AZIMUTH. Compute the CPD and EPF from the
following sets of lines whose azimuths are given.

a.) AZIM A of Line PA = 39°48’; AZIM N of Line PB = 115°29’

b.) AZIM A of Line PA = 39°48’; AZIM N of Line PB = 115°29’
c.) AZIM A of Line PA = 39°48’; AZIM N of Line PB = 115°29’

SOLUTIONS:

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LATITUDES AND DEPARTURES

The closure of a traverse is checked by computing the latitudes and departures

of each of it sides.

Figure 21

The latitude of a line is its projection on the north–south meridian. The

departure of a line is its projection on the east– west line.

Figure 22

A northeasterly bearing has: + latitude and + departure

Error of Closure

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Consider the following statement: “If start at one corner of a closed traverse and
walk its lines until you return to your starting point, you will have walked as far north as
you walked south and as far east as you have walked west”
Therefore,  latitudes = 0 and  departures = 0

When latitudes are added together, the resulting error is called the error in
latitudes (EL). The error resulting from adding departures together is called the error in
departures (ED). If the measured bearings and distances are plotted on a sheet of
paper, the figure will not close because of EL and ED.

Figure 23

Figure 24

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Figure 25

Figure 26

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Table 3

Table 4

BALANCING TRAVERSE (LATITUDES AND DEPARTURES)

A traverse is balanced by applying corrections to latitudes and departures. This is

called balancing traverse. In case of a closed traverse, the algebraic sum of latitudes
and departures must be equal to zero. In other words, the sum of the northings should
be equal to the sum of the southing and the sum of the easting should be exactly equal
to the westings. It is clear that the closing error should be distributed throughout the
traverse that is effect is a little apparent on the plan as possible. The error in latitudes
and departures are determined. These errors are then distributed among traverse
stations proportionally. This can be accomplished mathematically.

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A popular method for balancing errors is called the compass or the Bowditch
rule. The “Bowditch rule” as devised by Nathaniel Bowditch, surveyor, navigator and
mathematician, as a proposed solution to the problem of compass traverse adjustment,
which was posed in the American journal The Analyst in 1807.
The compass method assumes:
1) angles and distances have same error
2) errors are accidental
The rule states: “The error in latitude (departure) of a line is to the total error in
latitude (departure) as the length of the line is the perimeter of the traverse”

FROM PREVIOUS PROBLEM

Figure 26

Table 5

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Figure 27

Figure 28

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Figure 29

Table 6

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Table 7

Table 8

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Table 9

MAGNETIC DECLINATION
The magnetic poles are not pointing but oval areas located about 2,000 km away from
the actual location of the geographic poles of the earth. The horizontal angle and
direction by which the needle of a compass deflects from the true meridian at any
particular locality is called the magnetic declination thus includes with missing data
(distance, bearing, latitude and departure). Deflection of the needle maybe eastward or
westward of the true meridian. A west declination occurs if the north end of the needle is
east of the true north. It is west declination occurs if the north end of the needle is west
of true north. Both conditions are illustrated in Figure 30.

Figure 30

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At the location on the earth’s surface magnetic bearings (or azimuth) may
easily be converted to true bearings (or azimuths) and vice versa, if the declination is
known. No specific formulas or rules are needed for such conversions. All that is
important is to draw a sketch which shows the existing relationship between lines and
directions and making only a simple analysis.

EXAMPLE PROBLEMS:
1.The magnetic declination in a locality is 2° 30′ E. Determine the true bearing and true
azimuths reckoned from the north and south of the following lines whose magnetic
bearings are given.
a.) AB, N 25° 40′ E

SOLUTIONS:

2.A field is in the form of rectangular pentagon. If the true bearing of side AB is N
30° 30′E, determine the true azimuth from south of the following sides of the field: AB,
BC, and CD. Assume that the corners of the field are labeled in clockwise direction.\
a.) Determine the interior angles.
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b.) Determine the true bearing and true azimuth of side BC.

MISSING DATA

1. A closed traverse has the following data:

Table 10

Compute the bearing and the distance of line E-A.

Solution:

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Line Bearing Distance Latitude Departure

A-B N 9.27° E 58.7 m + 57.93 + 9.46
B-C S 88.43° E 27.3 m - 0.75 + 27.29
C-D N 86.73° E 35.2 m + 1.98 + 35.14
D-E S 5.3° E 35.0 m - 34.85 + 3.23
E-A -24.31 -75.12

Table 11

Tan bearing = departure/latitude

tan bearing = 75.12/24.31

Bearing = S 72.07°
Distance = 75.12/sin 72.07°
Distance = 78.95 m

VI. Self-Evaluation Test:

Solve the following problems:

1. A line has a magnetic bearing of S 41° 30’E when the declination was
1° 30’E. what is the true bearing of the line if a local attraction of 3°30’ to
the east at the vicinity?

2. The bearing of a line AB of a hexagonal lot is N 20° E. what would be

the bearing of line EF if the corners of the lot are marked in clockwise
direction.

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3. A closed traverse has the following data

Course Bearing Distance

1-2 N 9.27° E 58.70
2-3 S 88.43° E 27.30
3-4
4-5 S 5.3° E 35.00
5-1 S 72.07° W 78.96

What is the length of course 3-4?

VII. Review of Concepts:

• Theodolite is measuring instrument that can read both horizontal and vertical
angles. Theodolites are generally classified by the precision of the angle that
they will read directly off their measuring scales or micrometers.
• Traverses are a series of established stations tied together by angle and
distance.
• An open traverse is particularly useful as a control for preliminary and
construction surveys for highways, roads, pipelines, electricity transmission lines,
and the like. A closed traverse is one that either begins and ends at the same
point or begins and ends at points whose positions have been previously
determined.
• The azimuth of a line is its direction as given by the angle between the meridian
and the line measured in clockwise direction from either the north or south
branch of the meridian. The bearing of a line is the acute horizontal angle
between the reference meridian and the line.
• The latitude of a line is its projection on the north–south meridian. The
departure of a line is its projection on the east– west line.
• A traverse is balanced by applying corrections to latitudes and departures.
• The horizontal angle and direction by which the needle of a compass deflects
from the true meridian at any particular locality is called the magnetic declination
thus includes with missing data (distance, bearing, latitude and departure).

VIII. References:
• Minchin, M. (2003). Introduction to Surveying, 2nd Edition. Western Australia:
Department of Training and Workforce Development.
• La Putt J. P. (2007). Elementary Surveying, 3rd Edition. Baguio City: Baguio
Research & Publishing Center

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