Fluid

Mechanics
A/Prof Mehdi Khiadani
Office: 23.203
Phone: 6304 5825
Email: [email protected]

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Intro & Concepts

2
Examples

3
More examples
Smooth surface
dimples

Rough vortex generators

4
surface
 Objectives of first part

 Understand the basic concepts of fluid

mechanics,
 Recognise the various types of fluid
flow encountered in practice

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 Fluid mechanics
Liquid & Gas Responses to forces

Fluid statics Fluid dynamics

Deals with bodies at rest Deals with bodies in motion

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Fluid vs Solid
A water molecule
(H2O) above Sea
Molecule structure

Solid Liquid gas

‘fixed’ ‘Move around’ ‘random’

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 Water meets Solid
Fluid vs Solid
Macro states

Gas pressure

Differences:
• Solid vs fluid: shape
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• Liquid vs gas: free surface, pressure
Fluid vs Solid
Under forces
Things getting serious…

Fn Solid: resist an applied shear stress

Normal stress: σ =
dA Fluid: deform continuously at F
Ft
Shear stress: τ = 9
dA
No-slip condition

velocity profile due to the

no-slip condition as a fluid
flows over a blunt nose.
Boundary layer
Boundary layer: The flow region adjacent to the wall in which the viscous
effects. blunt nose

Separation of flow over a curved surface

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Classification of Fluid
Viscous: frictional effects are significant
Inviscid: viscous forces are negligibly small

Flat plate

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Classification of Fluid
Internal - bounded fluid (flow open channel, duct, pipe)
External – unbounded fluid ( flow over a surface such as
plate, car, aeroplane)

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Classification of Fluid
Incompressible flow: density of flowing fluid is constant throughout (liquid).
Compressible flow: density of fluid changes during flow (e.g., high-speed gas
flow)

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Classification of Fluid
Laminar flow: The highly
ordered fluid motion
characterized by smooth
layers of fluid.
Turbulent flow: The highly
disordered fluid motion
that typically occurs at
high velocities and is
characterized by velocity
fluctuations.
Transitional flow: A flow
that alternates between
being laminar and
turbulent.

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Classification of Fluid
Forced flow: A fluid is forced to flow over a
surface or in a pipe by external means such as a
Natural pump or a fan.
versus Forced Natural flow: Fluid motion is due to natural
means such as the buoyancy effect (density
driven flow in ocean).

Steady versus Steady: No change in flow characteristics with

Unsteady Flow time.
Unsteady: The opposite of steady.

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Classification of Fluid
1, 2- and 3-D flows

Example: flow in a circular pipe

(cylindrical coordinates)

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 SYSTEM AND CONTROL VOLUME
• System: A quantity of matter or a region in
space chosen for study.
• Surroundings: The mass or region outside the
system
• Boundary: The real or imaginary surface that
separates the system from its surroundings.
• The boundary of a system can be fixed or
movable.
• Systems may be considered to be closed or
open.

• Closed system
(Control mass):
A fixed amount
of mass, and no
mass can cross
its boundary.
 • Open system (control volume): A properly
selected region in space.
• It usually encloses a device that involves
mass flow such as a compressor, turbine,
or nozzle.
• Both mass and energy can cross the
boundary of a control volume.
• Control surface: The boundaries of a
control volume. It can be real or imaginary.

An open system (a
control volume) with one
inlet and one exit.
Dimensions & Units
Seven fundamental (or primary)
Dimensions & their Units
length mass Time

temperature

Amount of Electric
light current
Amount of
matter 19
Dimensions & Units
Metric SI English
Dimension system system
Mass
kg Ibm
(M)
Length ft
m
(L)
Time s
s
(T)

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 Dimensional homogeneity
All equations must be dimensionally homogeneous.

To be dimensionally
homogeneous, all the
terms in an equation
must have the same
unit.
 PROBLEM-SOLVING
TECHNIQUE
 Step 1: Problem Statement
 Step 2: Schematic
 Step 3: Assumptions and Approximations
 Step 4: Physical Laws
 Step 5: Properties
 Step 6: Calculations
 Step 7: Reasoning, Verification, and
Discussion
Summary of this part
fluid & Fluid mechanics
 flow types
 external – internal
 compressible – incompressible
 steady – unsteady
 uniform
 1,2, or 3-demensional flow
 no-slip flow & boundary layers
 closed system – open system (control volume)

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Properties of
fluids

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 Objective of second part
 Understand the basic properties of
fluids and the continuum approximation,
 Understand vapour pressure
Coefficient of compressibility
Understand viscosity and the
consequences of the frictional effects it
causes in fluid flow

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Introduction Fluid is continuum
i.e., properties vary
continually
Properties

mass
volume
temperature
pressure
density

 Intensive properties:
independent of the mass of a
system
 Extensive properties: depend on
the size or extent of the system.
 Specific properties: Extensive
properties per unit mass.
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Density & Specific Gravity
mass m
density = or ρ= (kg/m 3 )
volume V
1 V 1
specific volume = or ν= = (m 3 /kg )
density m ρ
ρ liquid
Relative density for liquids (specific gravity, SG) =
ρ water at 4oc
ρ gas
Relative density for gases (specific gravity, SG)
ρ air (standard condition)

Specific weight (weight density) =γ = ρ × g

(N/m3)
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Density & Specific Gravity
 Density of Ideal Gases
Ideal-gas equation :

Ru: The universal gas constant

M: molecular weight

Another form of the ideal gas equation is:

Where N=m/M

Thermodynamic temperature scale in the SI is the Kelvin scale.

Thermodynamic temperature scale in the English system is the Rankine scale.

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 VAPOR PRESSURE AND CAVITATION
Saturation pressure Psat: The pressure at
which a pure substance changes phase at a
given temperature.
Vapour pressure (Pv): The pressure exerted by
its vapour in phase equilibrium with its liquid
at a given temperature.
• Vapour pressure is identical to the
saturation pressure (Pv = Psat).
 VAPOUR PRESSURE AND CAVITATION
Cavitation:
 It is a phenomenon which cause performance of a system drop and
in some cases erode impeller blade.
 When the liquid pressure in a system drop below the vapor
pressure cause the liquid vapourize.
 The vapour bubbles collapse as they are swept away from the low-
pressure regions, generating highly destructive, extremely high-
pressure waves.
 To avoid cavitation, the pressure in a system should not drop
below vapour pressure.

http://www.pumpfundamentals.com/images
/app_img_npsh1_med.gif
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 Coefficient of compressibility or Bulk modulus of
compressibility or Bulk modulus of elasticity
 The coefficient of compressibility represents the change in
pressure corresponding to a fractional change in volume or density
of the fluid while the temperature remains constant.

 A large value of k indicates that a fluid is less compressible.

 At normal pressures, liquids are usually considered to be
incompressible.
 The inverse of the coefficient of compressibility is called
isothermal compressibility of a fluid.
 It represents the change in volume or density due to a unit change
in pressure.
VISCOSITY
 It is a measure of a fluid resistance to deformation or the
internal resistance of a fluid to motion.
 It is due to the internal frictional force that develops between
different layers of fluids as they are forced to move relative to
each other.

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 Viscosity
Fα A
Shear force
FαV
F = τA 1
Fα
l

u u
µ coefficient of viscosity F = µA Fα A
Dynamic (absolute) viscosity l l
kg/m ⋅ s or N ⋅ s/m2 or Pa ⋅ s u du
=
This is valid for Newtonian l dy Shear stress
fluids (Fluids for which the
rate of deformation is du du
proportional to the shear F = τA = µA τ = μ
stress). dy dy
(Kinematic Viscosity) ν=µ/ρ (m2/s or Stoke ; 1 Stoke=1 cm2/s 37
Viscosity

The rate of deformation Variation of shear stress with

(velocity gradient) of a the rate of deformation for
Newtonian fluid is proportional Newtonian and non-Newtonian
to shear stress, and the fluids (the slope of a curve at a
constant of proportionality is point is the apparent viscosity
the viscosity. of the fluid at that point).
 Viscosity is caused by the cohesive
forces between the molecules in
liquids and by the molecular
collisions in gases, and it varies
greatly with temperature.
In a liquid, the molecules possess
more energy at higher
temperatures, and they can oppose
the large cohesive intermolecular
forces more strongly. As a result,
the energized liquid molecules can
move more freely.
In a gas, the intermolecular forces
are negligible, and the gas molecules
at high temperatures move
randomly at higher velocities. This
results in more molecular collisions
The viscosity of liquids
per unit volume per unit time and
decreases and the viscosity
therefore in greater resistance to
of gases increases with
flow.
temperature.
The variation of dynamic (absolute) viscosity
of common fluids with temperature at 1 atm
(1 Ns/m2 = 1 kg/m.s = 0.020886 lbf.s/ft2) 40
Viscosity: Measurement
Cross section of a journal bearing

•
2πR ωL
3
4π R n L 2 3
T = FR = µ =µ
l l
V
F = µA
l
V = ωR
A = 2πRL
•
ω = 2π n
L length of the cylinder

𝑛𝑛̇ number of revolutions per unit time

This equation can be used to calculate the viscosity of a fluid by measuring

torque at a specified angular velocity.
Therefore, two concentric cylinders can be used as a viscometer, a device that 41
measures viscosity.
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Summary of this part
Extensive & intensive properties
 Density,
 specific volume
 specific gravity
 specific weight
 Idea-gas equation of state
 Vapour pressure and cavitation
Compressibility
Viscosity

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