St.

Paul College of Ilocos Sur

St. Paul Avenue, 2727, Bantay, Ilocos Sur

NSC 101- BIOCHEMISTRY

(Lipids)

Module 5

Melanio P. Rojas Jr
Clinical Instructor
 LIPIDS
Lipids compose a group of naturally occurring substances consisting of the higher fatty acid,
their naturally occurring compounds, and substances
found in naturally in chemical association with them.
OCCURRENCE IN NATURE OF LIPIDS
Most of the lipid materials found in nature differs from
the carbohydrates and the proteins in being insoluble
water and soluble in organic solvents. Neutral fat
contains ester of glycerol with three fatty acid
molecules. This is found in fat deposits of animals.
Most cells other than adipose tissue contain much less
fat; their lipids consists largely of phospholipids and
cholesterol. The brain is rich in cholesterol,
phospholipids and glycolipids.
Classification of Lipids:
I. Simple lipids- esters of the fatty acids with various alcohols.
a. Neutral fats- esters of the fatty acids with glycerol.
b. Waxes- esters of the fatty acids with alcohol other than glycerol
II. Compound lipids- compounds of the fatty acids with alcohol but containing other
groups in addition to alcohol.
a. Phospholipids- substituted fats containing phosphoric acid and nitrogen.
1. Lecithins
2. Cephalins
3. Shingomyelins
b. Glycolipids- compounds of the fatty acids containing both a carbohydrate and a
nitrogen base but containing neither glycerol nor phosphoric acid.
1. Cerebrosides
2. Gangliosides
c. Phosphatidic acid- compounds similar to the phospholipids but with the organic
base removed.
d. Sulfolipids- lipids containing sulfuric acid
III. Derived lipids- substance derived from the above groups by hydrolysis.
a. Fatty acids- straight chain carboxylic acids
b. Sterols
c. Alcohols
d. Nitrogen bases
e. Fatty aldehydes
IV. Substances associated with lipids in nature
a. Carotenoids ( Vitamin A)
b. Tocopherols ( Vitamin E)
c. K vitamins
d. Steroids
 SIMPLE LIPIDS
Fats and Oils
Fats and oils are esters of fatty acids with glycerol. Fats are solid at room temperature oils are
liquid at room temperature. Fats and oils are also called “triglycerides.”
Division of Natural Fats and Oils
1. Fatty or non-volatile fats and oils or “ true fats”- composed of esters of fatty acid ( mainly
glycerol esters). Example- coconut oil.
2. Essential or volatile oils- plants products volatile with steam and separating as oily layer
in the distillate; consists of aldehydes, alcohol, acids, hydrocarbons, terpenes etc.
volatile oils are not included in the term “lipids.” Example- anise oil.
Composition of True Fats
True fats contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Certain derivatives contain nitrogen,
phosphorus or both. Some derivatives contain sulfur.
General Structure of Fats and Oils
R1, R2, R3 represent fatty acids chains which may or may not have all be the same. The most
common fatty acids occurring in the fats are:
Fatty acid Formula Occurrence
Saturated fatty acids: C₃H₇COOH glycerides in butter
Caproic acid C₅H₁₁COOH goat and cow butter; coconut fat
Caprylic acid C₇H₁₅COOH goat and cow butter; coconut fat, human fat
Capric acid C₉H₁₉COOH goat and cow butter; coconut fat, fat of spice bush
Lauric acid C₁₁H₂₃COOH butter, coconut fat, palm oil
Palmitic acid C₁₅H₃₁COOH animal, and vegetable fats, beeswax, spermaceti
Stearic acid C₁₇H₃₅COOH animal and vegetable fats

Unsaturated Fatty Acids:

Oleic acid C₁₇H₃₃COOH animals and vegetables oils and fats

Eurcic acid C₂₁H₄₁COOH mustarded; rapeseed; marine animals oils
Linoleic acid C₁₇H₃₁COOH linseed oil
Linolenic acid C₁₇H₂₉COOH linseed oil
Arachidonic acid C₁₉H₃₁COOH lipids of the liver and brain; egg yolk

Animals fats contain mostly oleic, palmitic and stearic acids. Mutton fat has more stearic and
less oleic than pork fat. Butter fat is composed mainly of palmitic and oleic with small amounts
of butyric and caproic acids. Human fat is mostly oleic acid.

Fatty acids occurring in nature have a straight chain and number of carbon atoms.
GLYCEROL, glycerin, trihdroxypropane, CH₂OHCHOHCH₂OH

Preparation
1. By product in soap manufacture
2. By bacterial and yeast fermentation
3. Synthesis from propylene
Physical Properties
1. Colorless oil fluid with a sweetish taste.
2. Miscible with water and alcohol in all proportions but insoluble in ether, CHCl₃ and C₆H₆
Chemical Properties
1. Acrolein Test: with dehydrating agents like KHSO₄, glycerol forms acrylic aldehyde or
acraldehyde which has a penetrating acrid color. Any compound containing glycerol will
give the acrolein test. The odor or acrolein is noticeable when a fellow candle is blown
out or when fat is heated to too high a temperature.
2. Borax fusion test. Characteristic green flame which indicates the presence of glycerol.
3. Reduces metallic salts, like Benedict’s solution.
4. Maybe oxidized to glyceric aldehyde or to CO₂ and water.
5. Forms glycerides with alkalies.
6. Esterified by acids e.g., glycerol phosphoric acid esters.
7. Forms nitroglycerin with nitric acid.

NUTRITIONAL VALUE

When free glycerol is absorbed and metabolized, it yields a caloric value similar to glucose.

Uses:
1. Pharmaceutical preparations ( as preservatives)
2. Cosmetic preparations.
3. Medicinally as stimulant and a solvent.
4. In printing inks and ink pads for rubber stamps in order to keep the latter wet without
volatizing the ink (since glycerol is non-volatile and hygroscopic).
5. In aromatizing tobacco and tobacco products.
6. As a sweetening agent in fermented liquors and confectionaries.
7. As a plasticizer in the manufacture of artificial silk.
8. In the manufacture of explosives.
9. As an antifreeze.
10. Added to bakery products to prevent ropiness
 FATTY ACIDS

Classification

A. According to structure:
1. Saturated fatty acids
2. Unsaturated fatty acids
3. Hydroxyl fatty acids
4. Keto acids
5. Saturated dibasic acids
6. Chaulmoorgic series
B. According to volatility
1. Volatile fatty acids
2. Non-volatile fatty acids

 Saturated fatty acids are found abundantly in animal like butter, lard, and cod liver oil
and in vegetable fats like coconut and peanut oils.
 Unsaturated fatty acids contain one or more ethylenic linkage or double bond in its
molecule. Some unsaturated acids are nutritionally essential in that they are not
synthesized in the body or not rapidly enough to meet its needs for best results, so
that, for optimal nutritional well-being, they must be furnished in some form in the
nutrient. These acids are called essentially fatty acids. They are linolenic acid,
linoleic acid and arachidonic acid.
 Volatile fatty acids contain 10 or less carbon atoms. They are water-soluble fatty
acids. The solubility of the fatty acids in water decreased as the number of carbon
atoms increases. Most natural fats contain some of the volatile fatty acids such as
butyric acid, caproic acid, and caprylic acid in butter fat.
 Non-volatile acids are insoluble in water and hydrochloride; slightly soluble in alcohol
but soluble in CHCl₃, ether and CCl₄. The solubility in NaOH is due to the formation
of soap. Oleic, stearic, palmitic, linoleic and linnolenic acids constitute the principal
non-volatile acids occurring in nature.

Chemical Properties of the Fatty Acids

A. Properties involving the-COOH group

1. Form salts ( soaps) with metallic ions
2. React with alcohols to form esters
B. Properties involving the hydrocarbons chain
1. Hydrogenation: unsaturated fatty acids react with hydrogen (in the presence of metal
catalyst) to form the corresponding saturated acids.
2. Oxidation: fatty acids form a number of products, e.g., peroxides, aldehydes. They
may further be polymerized to form a solid surface, e.g. drying oils.
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FATS AND OILS

1. Glyceride of the lower fatty acids melt at lower temperature than those of the higher fatty
acids and the unsaturated fatty acid glycerides still lower.
2. They are not soluble in water and dilute acid; but soluble in ether, CHCl₃ hot alcohol, hot
acetone and CCl₄. The solubility in NaOH is due to saponification.
3. When brought into contact with a substance like paper, they penetrate through it
producing a translucent spot which does not disappear.
4. Fresh fats and oils are neutral to litmus. Rancid fats and oils are acidic to litmus due to
the formation of volatile fatty acids.
5. They form a temporary emulsion by shaking with water. Emulsifying agent such as
gums, soap and proteins produce more stable emulsion. The emulsification of fats in the
intestinal canal is prerequisite for digestion and absorption.
6. They produce characteristic crystals with definite melting points which serves to
differentiate them from another.
7. The hardness of common fats depend largely on the relative amount present of fats
containing long chain saturated fatty acid which are solid, and those containing
unsaturated fatty acids which are liquid. There are larger portions of the soft fats in cold
blooded animals than warm blooded animals. This facilitates motility at low temperature.
Herbivora contain as a rule harder fats than carnivora, land animals have harder fats
than marine animals.
8. The specific gravity of all fats is less than one. Consequently all fats float on water.
9. Pure fats and oils are tasteless.
10. Pure fats and oils are colorless. The color of human body fat, as well as of human milk,
is derived from carotene and xanthophyll present in the diet.
11. Fats and oils have a characteristic greasy feeling.
12. Fats and oils are odorless when pure.

CHEMICALS PROPERTIES OF FATS AND OILS

1. Fats and oils are readily hydrolyzed by:

1. Super-heated steam
2. Specific-fat-splitting enzymes, the lipase
3. Alkali ( saponification)
4. Acid
2. Most fats and oils develop an unpleasant odor and flavor ( become rancid) on exposure
to air due to:
a. Hydrolysis of the fat leading to the liberation of volatile fatty acids having more or
less unpleasant odor.
b. Oxidation of the unsaturated acid with the formation of peroxides and later
polymerization or decomposition products.

Factors affecting rancidity:

a. Light
b. Heat
c. Moisture
d. Bacterial action
e. Enzyme action ( lipoxidase)
 Effects of rancidity
a. Rancid fats and oils of have disagreeable odors and flavors
b. Physiological effect of rancid fats and oils; they oxidize a number of essential
dietary substances such as Vitamin E, Vitamin A and carotene.
Effects of antioxidants
 Antioxidants inhibit the auto-oxidation of the fats. Phenolic compounds are
antioxidants. The most common antioxidants is Vitamin E and is often added to
foods and other materials to prevent the production of rancidity.

FAT ANALYSIS

A. Physical properties
 Fats and oils may be identified by their physical properties such as melting
point, index of refraction, etc.
B. Chemical Constants
1. Iodine Number
 This is the number of grams of iodine taken up by 100 grams of fat.
Unsaturated fatty acids are capable of taking up iodine and other halogens at
their double bonds until the unsaturation is completely satisfied. The degree of
unsaturation of a given sample of fat therefore can be measured by the amount
of iodine required. This is also useful in determining the fat’s freedom from
adulteration.
2. Saponification Number
 This represent the number of mg. of alkali required to neutralize the fatty acids
contained in one gram of fat. The greater the number of molecules of fatty
acids ( as in the short chain fatty acids) the greater will be the amount if alkali
needed. Butter which has a greater number of short chain fatty acids has a
high saponification number, while oleomargarine with less number of fatty
acids chains has a lower saponification number.
3. Reichert-Meissl Number
 This is the amount of 0.1 N alkali required to neutralize the volatile fatty acids
distilled from 5 grams of fats. Butter is the only fat which gives a high Reichert
Meissl number and therefore, it serves as an important aid in the detection of
butter substitutes.
4. Acetyl Number
 This represent the number of mg. of KOH necessary to neutralize the acetic
acid liberated from the hydrolysis of one gram of acetylated fat. This measures
the number of hydroxyl groups presents in the fat. Adulteration is also detected
by this test.
.
 COMPOUNDS LIPIDS
Phospholipids ( Phosphorized fats, Phospholipins and Phosphatides)

Role in the Body: Transport of fat to the different tissues. Phospholipids are the fatty matter of
the active tissues of the body.

LECITHINS

Definition: phosphoric esters of diglyceride and choline

Occurrence: liver, brain, nervous tissue, egg yolk.

Properties:

1. On hydrolysis, it forms glycerol, fatty acids, H₃PO₄ and nitrogen base, choline.
2. Forms colloidal solutions with water.
3. Forms a water- soluble compound with bile salts.
4. Forms complexes with proteins, called lecithoproteins.
5. Split by enzymes lipase and lecithinase.
6. Translucent, paraffin-like colorless solid, which quickly turn yellow on exposure to air and
finally becomes opaque brown.
7. Soluble in many fat solvents including ether, chloroform, C₆H₆ and hot alcohol. This
property is used in separating them from cholesterol and fat.
8. When heated with dehydrating agents, the yield acrolein.
9. Saponified by alkalies to produce glycerol, soaps, choline and phosphates.

Physiologic Importance
1. Assists in regulating the permeability of the cell membrane.
2. Maintains prostoplasmic (due to emulsifying property).
3. Forms coordinate complexes with proteins and in the form of lecithoproteins play
important physiological roles.
4. Lecithin formation is an intermediary stage in the metabolism of fatty acids.

CEPHALINS

Phospholipids in which the nitrogen is in the form of primary amino group (ethanolamine or
serine).

Occurrence: brain, spinal cord and soy beans

Type of Cephalins
1. Phosphatidyl ethanolamines: phosphoric acid diesters of diglycerides and ethanolamine:
found in the brain.
2. Phosphatidyl serines: the hydrolysis products of which are fatty acids, phosphoric acid,
polyvalent alcohols and serine.
3. Inositol phosphatides ( lipositol): the hydrolysis products of which are glycerol, fatty
acids, inositol, phosphates and some nitrogen containing materials.
Properties
1. Practically the same solubilities as the lecithins with one exception: they are insoluble in
either ethyl or methyl alcohol.
2. Strong acidic.

Physiologic Importance
1. Initiates the process of blood coagulation.
2. Important constituent of brain and lung phospholipids

SPHINGONMYELINS

Phospholipids which consist of acid amides of sphingosine with fatty acids in ester linkage with
phosphoryl-choline.

Structural Components:

Fatty acid------- Sphingosine------H₃PO₄---------Choline

Occurrence: brain, liver, kidney and egg yolk.

Properties:
1. White, crystalline, non-hygroscopic substances.
2. Relatively stable to light and air.
3. Becomes hydrated and emulsified in water.
4. Insoluble in ether and cold alcohol but soluble in CHCl₃, C₆H₆ and hot alcohol

Physiologic Importance: important constituents of the brain and nerve tissues; in smaller
quantities in most of the organs of the body like the spleen and the lungs.

GLYCOLIPDS

CEREBROSIDES (Glycolipids, Galactosides, Galactolipins, Cerebrogalactosides)

Glycolipids containing sphingosine, D-galactose and C24 acid. It contains nitrogen but no
phosphorus.

Structural Components: Fatty acids--------- Sphinosine------------Galactose

Cerebrosides generally recognized: phrenosin, cerebrone, nervone, oxynervone.

Properties:
1. White and more or less wax like.
2. Almost insoluble in ether but more soluble in acetone; soluble in hot alcohol, C₆H₆ and
CHCl₃
3. Hydrolyzed by boiling acids.
4. Resistant to action by alkalies.
5. Not split by an enzymes.
Physiological Importance: important constituent of the medullary sheath of nerves in brain
tissues particularly in the white matter of the brain; also of the spleen, kidneys, liver blood
corpuscles, lungs, adrenals and retina of the eye.

GANGLIOSIDES

 These are found ganglion. Ganglioside are composed of one molecule each of stearic acid,
sphingosine, neutraminic acid and three molecules of a monosaccharide. Normally the
sugar is galactose, pathologically it may be glucose.

LIPOPROTEINS

 Lipoproteins occur in cytoplasm, plastids, membranes and mitochondria of cells; in bacteria

and viruses, in blood serum and particularly in the thromboplastic protein (tissue fibrinogen).
In egg yolk, it occurs as lipovitellin.

DERIVED LIPIDS

STEROL
 Sterols are hydroxyl derivatives of cyclopentanoperhydrophenantrene or “steroids.”

The steroids are classified into:

1. Steroids (cholesterol, ergosterol, etc.)
2. Bile acids ( cholic acid, lithocholic acid, etc.)
3. Substances derived from cardiac glycosides ( strophatidin, etc)
4. Substances derived from saponins ( digitogenin, from digitonin)
5. Substances derived from toad poisons ( bufatolin, etc.)
6. Sex hormones ( estradiol, testonsterone)
7. Adrenal corticosteroids ( desoxycorticosterone)
8. Vitamin D (irradiated, ergosterol, 7- dehydrocholesterol, etc.)

Some Naturally Occurring Sterols

Name Formula Occurrence

Dehydrocholesterol C₂₇H₄₈O animal tissues

Coprosterol C₂₇H₄₈O feces
Cholesterol C₂₇H₄₆O animal tissues, gallstones
Zymosterol C₂₇H₄₄O yeast
Campesterol C₂₈H₄₄O soybean oil, wheat germ oil
Ergosterol C₂₈H₄₄O yeast, ergot
Stigmasterol C₂₉H₄₈O soybean, calabar bean
Spinasterol C₂₉H₄₈O spinach, cabbage
Ostreasterol C₂₈H₄₈O oysters

Sterols of animal origin, notably cholesterol are, probably absorbed from the intestinal canal and
utilized.
 CHOLESTEROL

Occurrence:

It is a constituent of an animal cells. The corpus luteum and the adrenal cortex are particularly
rich in this lipid. It is the present in the blood and bile and is usually a major constituents of
gallstones. It is present in nervous tissues. All animals can synthesize cholesterol from other
dietary factors. Cholesterol is also found in egg yolk.

Properties:
1. Soluble in many fat solvents such as ether, CHl₃, C₆H₆ and hot alcohol.
2. Cannot be saponified.
3. Crystallized from fat solvent in colorless rhombic plates with one or more characteristic
notches in the corners.
4. It will take up two halogen atoms.
5. It forms an insoluble precipitates with digitonin. This reaction is used in the quantitative
determination of cholesterol.
6. It inhibits the reactions of saponins.

Preparation:

Cholesterol is extracted with ether from brain tissues or from gallstones.

Color Reactions: Salkowski Reaction

A solution of the sterol in chloroform is shaken with conc. H₂SO₄. A cherry red color appears in
both lateyes

2. Liebermann-Burchard Reaction

The sterol is treated with chloroform, acetic anhydride and conc. H₂SO₄ to produce a
green color.

3. Steinle- Kehlenberg Reaction

A clear purple solution changing to cobalt blue on exposure to light of steroid in

chloroform solution is produced on treating with Sbcl₅.

Importance:

1. In the blood, it transports fatty acids in the form of cholesterol esters.

2. In the nerve tissues, it serves as an insulator by forming a part of the myelin sheath.
3. It maintains the normal permeability of the cell wall.
7- DEHYDROCHOLESTEROL

Occurrence: Found underneath the skin

Color Reactions: Same as cholesterol

Biological Importance: When the skin irradiated with ultraviolet light, the sterol is converted to
one of the D vitamins called “pro-vitamin D.” This explains the value of sunshine in preventing
rickets.

ERGOSTEROL

Occurrence: Ergot (a fungus of rye), yeast and certain mushrooms, found underneath the skin
with 7-dehydrocholesterol.

Color Reactions: Same as cholesterol

Biological Importance: Also converted to vitamin D by irradiation with ultraviolet. Therefore, it is

also called pro-vitamin D.

Biological Significance of Lipids

1. As a fuel: lipids yield more heat per gram when burned than carbohydrates and can be
stored in the body in unlimited amount.
2. Deposits of lipids may exert an insulating effect in the body while others may provide
padding to protect the internal organs.
3. Some compound derived from lipids are important building blocks of biologically active
materials.
Fatty acids acetic acid cholesterol hormones

METABOLISM OF LIPIDS

STORAGE OF FAT

After entering blood the fats and phospholipids are transported to all parts of the body and
maybe stored in various places as fat. Phospholipids are converted into fat before being stored.

The body stores fat largely in three places:

1. Under the skin in adipose tissues. This act as an insulating material preventing the loss
of heat from the body.
2. Abdominal cavity, especially around the kidney.
3. Intramuscular connective tissues. Such as fat in animals can be readily seen in a tender
beef steak.

An analysis of stored fat reveals that is mainly composed of the glycerides of stearic, oleic and
palmitic acids. The stored fat may have its origin in any one of the three common foodstuffs,
carbohydrates, protein and fat.
OXIDATION OF FATS

Before fats are oxidized they are hydrolyzed to glycerol and fatty acids

OXIDATION OF GLYCEROL

The glycerol follows the route of carbohydrates metabolism.

Glycerol ATP/Phosphokinase -> glycerophosphate DPN/dehydrogenase -> dihydroxyacetanone

phosphate

The dihydroxyacetone phosphate is then oxidized to CO₂ and water by way of pyruvic acid and
the Kreb’s cycle or converted to glycogen via the glycolytic phase of carbohydrate metabolism.

FATTY ACID METABOLISM

Stepwise Mechanism
1. This steps involves activation of the fatty acid by coupling it with CoA, reaction which
required the high-energy pryosphosphate bond (P-P) of ATP. This forms a fatty acid
thioester.
2. The fatty acid thioester is dehydrogenated in the position by a dehydrogenase bearing
FAD prosthetic group.
3. A molecule of water is added to the double bond to form B-hydroxy bearing FAD
prosthetic group.
4. A second dehydrogeneation occurs under the influence of an anaerobic dehydrogenase
with DPN coenzyme
5. A cleavage reaction similar to hydrolysis takes place involving CoA instead of water and
splitting off a molecule of acetyl CoA and leaving a fatty acid thioester containing two
less carbon atoms than the original.

ORIGIN OF FATS FROM CARBOHYDRATES AND PROTEIN

 Not all the fat in the body comes from dietary fat. The fattening of animals on a diet with
little fat but much carbohydrates indicates that there is conversion of carbohydrate into
fat. Schoenheimar demonstrated this conversion by the use of istopes.

 Longnecker has demonstrated experimentally that protein is converted into fat in rats.
He feds rats that have been starved to reduce their fat reserves a diet consisting of
casein, yeast and mineral salts and found that they have regained their weight. An
analysis of their tissues showed that much of the new tissue was fat. Since the diet was
largely protein and contained little carbohydrate or fat, the deposited fat may have come
from protein.

CHOLINE AND FAT METABOLISM

 In the more active tissues of the body, lecithin and other phospholipids, rather than
neutral fat are found. The phosphoric acid-choline complex and the unsaturated fatty
acid make the lecithin molecule more diffusible and oxidizable than a neutral fat
molecule. If there is insufficient choline in the diet, an animal fed diet rich in fat, deposits
 large quantities of fat in liver. This development of fatty livers may be prevented by the
inclusion of lecithin or choline in the diet.
 Substances such as lecithin and choline which prevent the formation of fatty livers are
said to be lipotropic. Other lipotropic agents are betaine and the amino acid methionine.
Proteins such as casein, which contain a high percentage of methionine are lipotropic.

 The lipotropic action of these compounds is based on their ability to provide methyl
groups needed for choline synthesis. Choline contains three methyl groups and its
chemical name is hydroxyethyltrimethylammonium hydroxide. The significance of
choline in fat metabolism lies in the fact that it enhances the synthesis of phospholipids
which is the transport form of lipids.

METABOLISM OF CHOLESTEROL

 Of the many sterols in nature, cholesterol is the only one which is of great significance
in animals metabolism. It can be synthesized in the body from such simple compound
as acetic acid, an important metabolic intermediate. The liver is the major site of
synthesis of cholesterol.
 In the blood, cholesterol is found in free or in the form of esters. The large amount of
cholesterol esters in the blood suggests that an important function of cholesterol may be
transported fatty acids in the body.
 Cholesterol may be converted into bile acids in the body. It may also be the parent
substance of the sex and adrenal cortical hormones, which are steroid derivatives.
 Any excess of cholesterol in the blood is excreted by the intestines or by the liver in the
bile. Excess cholesterol in the bile pigment may precipitate in the gall bladder forming
gallstones or calculi. Cholesterol together with calcium salts may deposit in the arteries
resulting in their hardening, a condition known as atherosclerosis
 Although cholesterol is an essential compound for life, it is not necessary to supply it in
the diet since the body can synthesize it from other resources.
 High-density lipoprotein (HDL) is also known as “good” cholesterol because it transports
cholesterol in the liver to be expelled from body. Low density lipoprotein is called bad
cholesterol because it takes cholesterol in the arteries where it may collect in the artery
wall.
 Elevated cholesterol is associated with elevated risk of cardiovascular diseases. That
include coronary heart disease, stroke and peripheral vascular disease. It also includes
diabetes and high blood pressures.
 Medications to lower cholesterol includes: simvastatin, atorvastatin, and rosuvastatin.

DIAGNOSTIC TEST (BLOOD LIPIDS)

 Cholesterol
 The client should be on NPO for 10-12 hours.
 Normal range is 150-200 mg/dl
 Triglycerides
 The client should observe fasting 10-12 hours
 Normal range is 140-200 mg/dl
Activity No. 1. Identify the different molecular and structure of fats and oils.

Fats and Oils Molecular Structure

Saturated fatty acids
Caproic acid
Caprylic acid
Capric acid
Lauric acid
Palmitic acid
Stearic acid
Oleic acid
Eurcic acid
Linoleic acid
Linolenic acid
Arachidonic acid

Activity No. 2 Make Drug Study the following medications.

1. Simvastatin
2. Atorvastatin
3. Rosuvastatin

Activity No. 3. Diagnostic blood test

Diagnostic blood test Normal Value Decrease Increase
Cholesterol
Triglycerides
LDL
HDL

Activity No. 4. Draw your own metabolism of cholesterol

Activity No. 5. Create a sample NCP

1. Identify 3 diseases associated to high cholesterol. After which create a hypothetical nursing care
plan. Using this format. Assessment, Nursing Diagnosis, Planning, Intervention, Rationale and
Evaluation.
2. Please be guided the following format: long coupon bond, landscape and arial 11.
Fatty acid Formula Occurrence
Saturated fatty acids: C₃H₇COOH glycerides in butter
Caproic acid C₅H₁₁COOH goat and cow butter; coconut fat
Caprylic acid C₇H₁₅COOH goat and cow butter; coconut fat, human fat
Capric acid C₉H₁₉COOH goat and cow butter; coconut fat, fat of spice bush
Lauric acid C₁₁H₂₃COOH butter, coconut fat, palm oil
Palmitic acid C₁₅H₃₁COOH animal, and vegetable fats, beeswax, spermaceti
Stearic acid C₁₇H₃₅COOH animal and vegetable fats

Unsaturated Fatty Acids:

Oleic acid C₁₇H₃₃COOH animals and vegetables oils and fats

Eurcic acid C₂₁H₄₁COOH mustarded; rapeseed; marine animals oils
Linoleic acid C₁₇H₃₁COOH linseed oil
Linolenic acid C₁₇H₂₉COOH linseed oil
Arachidonic acid C₁₉H₃₁COOH lipids of the liver and brain; egg yolk