Chapter 7 – Part A
The Skeleton
Why This Matters
● Understanding the anatomy of the skeleton enables you to anticipate
problems such as pelvic dimensions that may affect labor and delivery
The Skeleton
● The skeletal system, or skeleton, is composed of bones, cartilages, joints,
ligaments
– Mostly bone
– Cartilage occurs in isolated areas
– Ligaments connect bones and reinforce joints
● The skeleton accounts for 20% of body mass
● Two major divisions
– Axial skeleton
– Appendicular skeleton
Part 1: The Axial Skeleton
● Axial skeleton consists of 80 bones divided into three major regions:
– Skull
– Vertebral column
– Thoracic cage
● Axial skeleton has three functions:
1. Form longitudinal axis of body
2. Support head, neck, and trunk
3. Protect brain, spinal cord, and thoracic organs
7.1 The Skull
● Skull is most complex bony structure in body
● Formed by two sets of bones:
1. Cranial bones (cranium)
● Enclose the brain in the cranial cavity
● Provide sites of attachment for head and neck muscles
The Skull (cont.)
2. Facial bones
● Form framework of face
● Contain cavities for special sense organs for sight, taste, and smell
● Provide openings for air and food passage
● Secure teeth
● Anchor facial muscles used for facial expression
– Most skull bones are flat and firmly locked together (except for mandible)
● Joints are called sutures
– Have a serrated, saw-tooth appearance
Overview of Skull Geography
● Facial bones form anterior aspect, with cranium forming the rest of skull
● Cranium is divided into a vault and a base
– Cranial vault (calvaria) forms superior, lateral, and posterior portion of
skull, as well as forehead
– Cranial base forms inferior aspect of skull
● Internally base is divided into three “steps,” or fossae: anterior,
middle, posterior fossae
● Brain sits within these fossae, enclosed by cranium vault
– Area referred to as cranial cavity
Overview of Skull Geography (cont.)
● Cranium also contains other cavities:
– Middle and internal ear cavities
– Nasal cavity
– Orbits that house eyeballs
● Skull has 85 named openings
– Foramina, canals, fissures
– Provide passageways for spinal cord, major blood vessels, and the 12
cranial nerves
Cranium
● Cranium is comprised of eight cranial bones:
– Frontal bone
– Parietal bones (two—left and right)
– Occipital bone
– Temporal bones (two—left and right)
– Sphenoid bone
– Ethmoid bone
Cranium (cont.)
● Frontal bone: shell-shaped bone forms anterior portion of cranium
– Vertical part, called squamous region, is also known as the forehead
– Inferior portion ends at supraorbital margins
● Area underneath eyebrows
– Forms superior wall of the orbits and most of anterior cranial fossa
– Supraorbital foramen (notch) allows supraorbital artery and nerve to
pass to forehead
– Glabella is area of frontal bone between orbits
● Frontal sinuses located just lateral to glabella
Cranium (cont.)
● Parietal bones and the major sutures
– Two large parietal bones form most of superior and lateral aspects of
cranial vault
– Four sutures mark articulations of parietal bones with frontal, occipital, and
temporal bones:
1. Coronal suture: between parietal bones and frontal bone
2. Sagittal suture: between right and left parietal bones
3. Lambdoid suture: between parietal bones and occipital bone
4. Squamous (squamosal) sutures: between parietal and temporal
bones on each side of skull
Cranium (cont.)
● Occipital bone
– Forms most of skull’s posterior wall and posterior cranial fossa
– Articulates with parietal, temporal, and sphenoid bones
– Foramen magnum: “large hole” through which brain connects with spinal
cord
● Flanked by pair of occipital condyles that articulate with 1st vertebra
– Hypoglossal canal allows cranial nerve XII to pass through
Cranium (cont.)
– External occipital protuberance: protrusion just superior to foramen
magnum
– External occipital crest: ridges that are site of attachment for ligamentum
nuchae
– Superior and inferior nuchal lines: site of attachment for many neck and
back muscles
Cranium (cont.)
● Temporal bones: paired bones that make up inferolateral aspects of skull
and parts of cranial base
– Three major regions:
1. Squamous: zygomatic processes articulate with zygomatic bone to
form zygomatic arch and mandibular fossa makes up part of
temporomandibular joint
2. Tympanic: surround external acoustic meatus (external ear canal)
Cranium (cont.)
3. Petrous: houses middle and internal ear cavities
– Makes up part of the middle cranial fossa
– Several foramina penetrate petrous region:
» Jugular foramen allows passage of three cranial nerves
» Carotid canal: passageway for internal carotid artery
» Foramen lacerum: jagged opening covered by cartilage in
living human
» Internal acoustic meatus and styloidmastoid foramen:
cranial nerve passageways
– Mastoid and styloid processes: areas for attachment of several
neck and tongue muscles
Clinical – Homeostatic Imbalance 7.1
● Mastoid process contains cavities (sinuses) called mastoid air cells
● Mastoiditis can develop if a middle ear infection spreads into mastoid process
area
● Mastoid air cells are separated from brain by a very thin bony plate,
increasing chances that the infection could spread to brain
Cranium (cont.)
● Sphenoid bone: complex, bat-shaped bone
– Keystone bone that articulates with all other cranial bones
– Sphenoidal sinuses found within body of sphenoid
– Body also includes sella turcica prominence that includes hypophyseal
fossa area enclosing the pituitary gland
Cranium (cont.)
● Sphenoid contains three pairs of processes:
– Greater wings
– Lesser wings
– Pterygoid processes
● Sphenoid contains several foramina:
– Optic canals: allow passage of optic nerves
– Superior orbital fissure: cranial nerve passage
– Foramen rotundum and foramen ovale: also passageways for cranial
nerves
– Foramen spinosum: opening for arteries
Cranium (cont.)
● Ethmoid bone: deepest skull bone
– Superior part formed by paired cribriform plates that also form roof of
nasal cavity and floor of anterior cranial fossa
– Crista galli: triangular process that is point of attachment for brain’s dura
mater covering
– Perpendicular plate: forms superior part of nasal septum and is flanked
by lateral masses that contain sinuses called ethmoidal air cells
● Lateral masses extend medially to form superior and middle nasal
conchae
– Orbital plates contribute to medial wall of orbits
Cranium (cont.)
● Sutural bones
– Tiny, irregularly shaped bones that appear within sutures
– Significance is unknown, as not everyone has these
Facial Bones
● Facial skeleton is made up of 14 bones, 12 of which are paired (mandible and
vomer are single)
● Mandible
● Maxillary bones (2)
● Zygomatic bones (2)
● Nasal bones (2)
● Lacrimal bones (2)
● Palatine bones (2)
● Vomer
● Inferior nasal conchae (2)
Facial Bones (cont.)
● Mandible: largest, strongest bone of face
– U-shaped lower jawbone made up of body (chin) and two upright rami
● Mandibular angle: point where rami and chin meet
● Coronoid process: superior end of rami serves as insertion point for
large temporalis muscle
● Condylar process: posterior to coronoid forms part of
temporomandibular joint
– Mandibular notch: separates processes
● Body consists of alveolar process that contains sockets for teeth and
mandibular symphysis ridge
● Foramina include mandibular (for nerves) and mental foramina (for
nerves and blood vessels)
Facial Bones (cont.)
● Maxillary bones (maxillae): medially fused to form upper jaw and central
facial skeleton
– Upper teeth held in alveolar processes
– Anterior nasal spine forms just below nose
– Palatine process forms two-thirds of hard palate
– Frontal process: forms lateral bridge of nose
– Zygomatic processes articulate with zygomatic bones
– Maxillary sinuses: flank nasal cavity laterally
Facial Bones (cont.)
– Openings for nerves and blood vessels include:
● Inferior orbital fissure
● Infraorbital foramen
● Incisive fossa and canal
Facial Bones (cont.)
● Zygomatic bones
– Form cheekbones and inferolateral margins of orbits
– Articulate with zygomatic processes of temporal, frontal, and maxillary
bones
Facial Bones (cont.)
● Nasal bones
– Form bridge of nose
– Articulate with frontal, maxillary, and ethmoid bones
– Attach to cartilage that forms tip of nose
● Lacrimal bones
– Form medial walls of orbits
– Articulate with frontal, maxillary, and ethmoid bones
– Lacrimal fossa that houses lacrimal sac allows passageway for tears to
drain
Facial Bones (cont.)
● Palatine bones
– L-shaped bones made from two bony plates
● Horizontal plate: completes posterior one-third of hard palate
● Perpendicular plate: forms part of posterolateral walls of the nasal
cavity and a small part of the orbits
● Vomer
– Plow-shaped bone; forms part of nasal septum
Facial Bones (cont.)
● Inferior nasal conchae
– Paired bones that form part of lateral walls of nasal cavity
– Largest of three pairs of conchae
● Ethmoid bone forms other two pairs
The Hyoid Bone
● Not a bone of skull
● Lies in anterior neck inferior to mandible
● Only bone in body that does not articulate directly with another bone
– Anchored by ligaments
● Acts as a movable base for tongue and site of attachment for muscles of
swallowing and speech
Special Characteristics of the Orbits and Nasal Cavity
● Orbits
– Cavities that encase eyes and lacrimal glands
– Sites of attachment for eye muscles
– Formed by parts of seven bones
● Frontal, sphenoid, zygomatic, maxilla, palatine, lacrimal, and ethmoid
Special Characteristics of the Orbits and Nasal Cavity (cont.)
● Nasal cavity: formed by parts of several bones
– Roof: cribriform plates of ethmoid
– Lateral walls: superior and middle conchae of ethmoid, perpendicular
plates of palatine and Inferior nasal conchae
● Spaces between conchae called meatuses
● Conchae increase turbulence of air flow
– Floor: processes of palatine and maxillary bones
– Nasal septum
● Bony posterior formed by vomer and perpendicular plate of ethmoid
● Anterior formed by septal cartilage
Special Characteristics of the Orbits and Nasal Cavity (cont.)
● Paranasal sinuses: formed from five skull bones: frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid,
and paired maxillary bones
– All contain mucosa-lined, air-filled spaces
– Functions:
● Warm and humidify air
● Help to lighten skull
● Enhance resonance of voice
