Steel Making Processes

POST-SOLIDIFICATION TREATMENT

•ESR (Electro-slag Refining)

•VAR (Vacuum-arc Remelting)
Vacuum-arc remelting
Why post-solidification?

• Improves quality.
• Cleanliness.
• No cavities.
• Reduced inclusions.
• Minimize macro-segregation & reduced micro-segregation.
• Composition remains same as that of the original material.
• Prolong the bearing service life.
Electro-slag Refining:

• Arc-less process.
• Process of remelting a consumable electrode
• Low sulphur content.
• Fine grain structure.
• No shrinkage defects.
• Good surface quality.
• Slag composition is critical.
(Reason: Slag acts as a resistor as well as refining agent.)
• Applications: Stainless steels, Tool & die steels, Rolling mill
rolls, Super alloys, Titanium alloys for aerospace
applications.
 Slag Composition:
• Highly reactive slag.
• Usually based on CaF2, CaO & Al2O3. MgO, TiO2 & SiO2 may also be
added (a/c to the metal/alloy to be melted.)
• Melting point of slag should be lower than that of the metal.
• Must be electrically efficient.
• Must have suitable viscosity at melting temperature.
ESR Electro Slag Re-melting
• It is a process used for re-melting and refining of steels and special
alloys.
• For critical applications in aircraft, thermal and nuclear power plants,
defence, hardware, etc.
• To control both solidification structure and chemical homogeneity
simultaneously.
• Hydrogen has to be controlled by restricting, hydrogen content of the
starting electrode. This has been one of the important limitations of
the ESR process.
• Electroslag Remelting (ESR) is a process of remelting a consumable
electrode utilizing the heat generated by an electric current passing
through a molten slag between the electrode and the solidifying ingot.

• The consumable electrods are as cast or forged cylindrical parts made of

an alloy to be remelt.
• An electroslag remelting process (ESR) starts when the lower tip of a
consumable electrode is immersed into a pool of molten slag.
• The premelted slag possessing electrical conductivity is located on the
water-cooled mold base connected to a power supply.
• The electric current (commonly AC) passing through the the slag keeps it
at high temperature, which is about 360ºF (200ºC) higher than the
melting point of the remelted metal.
• The electrode tip is heated by the hot slag and starts to melt forming
droplets of liquid metal, which disconnect from the electrode and
sink through the slag layer.
• The slag composition is based on calcium fluoride (CaF2), lime
(CaO) and alumina (Al2O3).
• A reactive slag bath is contained in a water cooled copper crucible.
• Deposit on the other side of in the liquid pool progressively.
• The solidification rate of the liquid metal is controlled by the melting
rate and water cooling.
• CaF2, CaO and Al2O3, sulphur removal from the liquid metal takes
place rapidly.
To perform its intended functions, the slag must have some well-defined
properties, such as:

• Its melting point must be lower than that of the metal to be re-melted.
• It must be electrically efficient.
• Its composition should be selected to ensure the desired chemical
reactions.
• It must have suitable viscosity at re-melting temperature.
• The result is steel with a low inclusion level and a homogeneous
microstructure.
• The solidification rate of the liquid metal is controlled by the melting rate
and water cooling.
Variation of Process

• Pressure Electro slag Re-melting (PESR)

• Re-melting under Inert Gas Atmosphere (IESR)
• Electro slag Re-melting under Vacuum (VAC-ESR)
Usage of ESR process in developed countries

Grades Melted %Usage

Tool and Die Steels 37.5

Stainless and Nickel base alloys 25.0

High Strength Constructional 25.0

Super alloys 12.5

Total 100
Vacuum Arc Re-Melting
The primary benefits of re-melting a consumable
electrode under vacuum are:
• Removal of dissolved gases, such as hydrogen, nitrogen and CO.
• Reduction of undesired trace elements with high vapor pressure.
• Improvement of oxide cleanliness.
• Achievement of directional solidification of the ingot from bottom to
top, thus avoiding macro-segregation and reducing micro-segregation.
• Oxide removal is achieved by chemical and physical processes. Less stable
oxides or nitrides are thermally dissociated or are reduced by carbon
present in the alloy and are removed via the gas phase.
• Two major mechanical assemblies combine to form the vacuum vessel in
which melting occurs - the movable furnace head and the fixed melt
station.
• The movable furnace head is the upper section of the vessel. An integral,
highly sophisticated ram drive assembly supports and controls the
movement of the electrode.
A Arc Zone
B Water Jacket
C High Velocity Guide
D Water In
E Water Out
F Electrode
G Crucible
H Ingot
• The water-cooled ram extends through a vacuum seal in the head; the
electrode clamps to its lower end thus becoming the cathode of the arc
melting operation.
• The fixed melt station, the lower half of the vacuum vessel, consists of a
removable copper crucible that is placed into a fixed stainless steel water
jacket and guide.
• Design and construction of the crucible are critical to the successful
solidification of the restructured metal ingot.
• The entire melting cycle and all the key operating parameters
(Current, Voltage , Melt Rate and Arc Length) are automatically
monitored and controlled to a pre-defined melt recipe from start to
finish.
 Vacuum-arc Remelting:

• DC arc is used.
• Vacuum pressure: 0.001-0.1 mm of Hg.
• Water-cooled ingot mold in a vacuum chamber.
• Intense heat of arc melts the tip of the electrode.
• Improved homogeneity, cleanliness, fatigue &
fracture toughness.
• Directional solidification.
• Applications: critical sectors like aerospace,
defense, medical & nuclear industry.
ESR over VAR:
• Multiple electrodes can be melted into a single electrode.
• Ingots of much larger weight can be produced.
• Ingots of different shapes can be produced.
E.g.: Hollow, Square, Round & Rectangular.
• Desulphurization of steel (0.002%).
• Spacing between mold wall & electrode is not critical.
• No formation of white spots.
• Smooth surface due to slag skin on it.
Limitations of ESR & VAR:
• Consumable electrode melting processes.
• Both processes are highly expensive.
• ESR & VAR steel costs two to three times higher than that of the same
steel produced by other refining/secondary processes.
• Applications are limited to special products only.
E.g.: Turbo-rotor shafts
• Used for research only.
Differences:
ESR VAR

• Melting: Open atmosphere. • Melting: Vacuum atmosphere

• Hydrogen and Oxygen content are like in ordinary • Hydrogen and Oxygen content are very low.
steels.

• No white spots. • White spots are possible.

• Slag acts as refining agent as well as resistor. • Arc is struck between the electrodes and the mold
which generates heat and is used for melting process.

• Ingot shapes may vary from round to rectangular •Ingot shape is specified to round shape only.
shapes.

• Ingot is surrounded by a solid slag layer. • Ingot shrinks creating a gap.

• Ingots/electrodes can be used in as cast conditions. • Ingots must be machined prior to forging.

• Pool shape becomes V-shaped. • Pool shape becomes U-shaped.

Similarities:
• Production of alloy steels.
• Ingots solidifies in a water-cooled copper crucible.
Zone-refining:

• Production of purer metals.

• Technique used to control its composition by melting a short region
(i.e., zone).
• First used in the early 1950s to purify Germanium for transistors.
• More than 1/3 of the elements and hundreds of inorganic & organic
compounds have been raised to their highest purity by zone refining.