THE BASICS OF TRACK ENGINEERING PART C – GENERAL DESIGN

PART A – BASIC TRACK

Standards, Guidelines, Reference Materials
Basic Components of Track Railway Standards
Rail (weights, types, age, how it is marked) Government Standards
Ties (types, classification, spacing) AREMA
Ballast (types, depth, shoulders) Best and/or Common Practices
Plates (types, shoulders, sizes) Reference Materials and Tools developed by UMA
Spikes, Clips Track Spacing
Anchors Mainlines, siding, and service tracks
Joint Bars Yard: Ladders, Light Poles, Roads
Turnouts Clearances
Sizes Clearance Requirements vs. Actual Train Dimensions
Switch Points Various clearance envelopes
Frogs Curve and Superelevation allowance
Guard Rails Clearances inside of buildings (doors, cross docks)
Switch Stand, Switch Machine Horizontal Curves
Switch Ties & Plates What is a degree of curve? How does it relate to radius?
Other Selecting the appropriate degree of Curve
Insulated Joints, Compromise Joints, etc. Mainline and Yard or Industry (curve negotiation, coupling)
Derails Reverse Curves
Diamonds Widened track centres for curvature
Bumping Posts and Stop Blocks Gradients & Vertical Curves
Crossing surfaces (rubber, timber, flangeways) Mainline -Maximum grades, Formulae for vertical curves
Track Construction Industrial Tracks -Lead tracks, Storage tracks, loading & unloading tracks, Formulae
Skeletonized Track for industrial track curves, Minimum curve lengths
Lifting & Ballasting Yards -Leads, Classification Tracks, Storage Tracks
Lining Compensated grades
Continuously Welded Rail (CWR) Neutral grade
Speeds
PART B – OPERATIONS Curves
Turnouts
Train Control & Signaling
Traffic Control (General Intro, CTC, OCS, etc.) PART D – MAINLINE TRACK DESIGN
Track circuits
Wayside signals (bridges, masts, dwarfs) Superelevation
Basics of signal aspects (i.e. aspect indicates a max. speed) Balance speed
Basics of signal placement (e.g. control points, breaking distance) Imbalance
Crossing protection (gates, flashers, cross bucks, predictors) Variable speeds (freight vs. passenger)
Train Dynamics How to select the best superelevation for a design
Slack-action Impact of super on track maintenance
Rolling resistance and Curve resistance Spirals
Ruling Grade What is a spiral and when is it required?
Acceleration & Braking Formulae and Tables
Classification of Tracks (speeds, maintenance, ownership, standards) Length vs. actual superelevation and imbalanced superelevation
Common Track classifications: Mainline, Service Track, Spur Track, Industrial Track Compound spirals
Naming & Mileage Conventions for tracks Tangents
Time Tables & Operating Diagrams Minimum lengths between curves
Time Tables
Operating Diagrams PART E – YARD & INDUSTRIAL TRACK DESIGN
Track Speeds
Mainline vs. Siding vs. Yard / Industrial Curve & Turnouts arrangements
Limitations of equipment (freight, passenger, LRC, trackmobile) What size of turnout to use
What curvature to use
Simple turnouts
Sequential Turnouts & Ladders
Facing Turnouts
Crossovers
Maximum and minimum Curvature
Reverse Curves
Relationship of Curves, Turnouts, and Gradients
Horizontal Curves before and after turnouts
Vertical Curves before and after turnouts
Track Capacities
Clearance points for various switches and ladders
Capacity of tracks (How many cars will the track hold?)
Where do I place the bumping post
Safety Briefing
Purpose of Safety Briefing
• To make sure All workers understand:
Who will be working
Where they are working
When will this work be undertaken
What work will be undertaken
What form of protection covers this work
What hazards may be encountered
What to do in an emergency
Who will be responsible in an emergency
Implementing a Safety Briefing
• Pre-plan before Briefing
Develop work plan for this specific job
Plan work assignments for each person or group
Consider existing & potential hazards on job
weather, traffic, machine use, PPE, etc
Arrange for proper protection for planned work
Implementing a Safety Briefing (Con’t)
• Conduct Briefing
Make sure all participants are at briefing
Make sure all understand The Protection they will be working under, its
limits and duration
Explain job & how it is to be done (who, what, why, where, when)
Review equipment to be used, hazards, unusual conditions
Emergency procedures & who will handle them
Emergency: Phone #, radio procedures, access routes, first aid
provider, directions to local hospital
Coordination with other groups on site
Make sure all understand instructions (ask questions)
Implementing a Safety Briefing (Con’t)
• Follow Up
Make sure employee understand the protection
they are working under, its limits and duration
Make sure your plans are being followed
Make sure safe practices are being followed
Make sure hazards are being identified and work
is done safely in their vicinity
Ask questions to ensure employee understand the
safety briefing & job
Hold additional briefings if work plan changes
Today's Safety Briefing
• Meeting:
The Crown Plaza Airport Hotel
Centennial Room
• Purpose: Training session
THE BASIC OF TRACK ENGINEERING
• Process:
Series of presentations and work exercises
Break mid morning
Lunch about noon
• Our method of protection is individual protection
Todays Safety Briefing
• Emergency issues:
Number of people in room
First aider
Emergency phone person
Evacuation plan
Nearest hospital
• Other issues:
Location of Fire Extinguisher
Location of Bathrooms
BASIC COMPONENTS OF
TRACK
Terminology: Track vs. Rail
• The term “Track”
refers to the entire
track including two
Rails, Ties, and
Ballast
• The term “Rail”
refers only to the
steel rails
themselves
• Be careful not to
confuse these
terms
Rail Shapes
 Ties

• The common types

of Crossties (Ties)
are Wood, Concrete,
and Steel
• Tie type, spacing,
and length are set by
the Railway
Ballast and Subballast
• The track section is • Ballast depth is measured
made up of: from bottom of tie
Track: rail, ties, and • Thicknesses of ballast and
ballast sub-ballast each vary from
Roadbed: sub-ballast 6” to 12” [0.15 to 0.30m]
and subgrade
• Train and Rail loads are
distributed from the rail
to the ties, to the ballast,
to the subballast and
finally to the subgrade
Tie Plates
Fasteners
Rail Anchoring
Joint Bars
Turnouts
Other Track Components
Crossings & Flangeways
TRACK CONSTRUCTION
Track Construction
Track construction is completed is 5 basic steps:
1. Construct the roadbed to the level of the subballast
2. Assemble the track “skeleton”
3. Dump Ballast over the skeleton track
4. Lift the track up onto the ballast and Line the track
5. If the track is CWR, de-stress the track
 Track Construction - Roadbed
• Construct
embankment,
subgrade,
subballast
and ditches
 Track Construction – Skeletonized Track
• Assemble the
skeleton of
the track
including Ties,
Plates,
Fastenings,
and Rail
Track Construction – Dump Ballast
• Dump ballast over the skeleton track
 Track Construction – Lift and Line
• Lift the track to
the design
elevation, tamp
the ballast
• Line the track to
the design
alignment
Track Construction – CWR
• Complete welding of the rails
• De-stress the rails to the Preferred-Rail-Laying-
Temperature (PRLT), install the rail anchors
TRAIN DYNAMICS
Slack Action
• Railroad freight cars undergo considerable
stress during transit due to longitudinal forces
known as draft and buff forces.
Slack cushion draw bar

Up to one metre of slack per coupler

Slack Action

Buff forces Draft forces

Draft forces BuffBuff forces
forces
Rolling resistance
Journal Flange Air Grade
Curvature

Rt = (1.3wn+29n) + bwnV + CAV2 + 20wn*G + 0.8 wn*D

Rt = Total resistance in lb. including

Note:
0.0017wgrade
v = w resistance
* n =locomotives
streamlined gross vehicle weight
w = Weight per axle (tons) 0.0025 other locomotives
n = Number of axles 0.0005 for trailing freight cars
120 sq. ft. for locomotives
0.00034 for trailing passenger cars
V = Speed – mph 90 sq. ft. for freight cars
C = drag coefficient of air 120 sq. ft. for passenger cars
A = cross sectional area of vehicle
G = % grade (upgrade +, downgrade -)
D = Degree of curve
Rolling resistance Journal
1.3*gross car weight (tons) + 29 * Number of axles
Rolling resistance flange
0.045 * Gross car weight (tons) * velocity (mph)
Air Resistance
0.0005 * Cross section of car (Ft2) * Velocity2 (mph)
Grade Resistance
20 * Gross car weight (tons) * grade (%)
Curvature Resistance
0.8 * Gross car weight (tons) * curvature (degrees per 100 ft)
Ruling grade
Acceleration
Newton’s Second Law
F
F m a or a
m
Acceleration is limited by:
• Traction effort of locomotives
• Locomotives’ adhesion to the rail
• Coupler strength
• Rolling resistance of train
• Rotational mass
Braking
Types

• Independent – Locomotive brake

only
• Dynamic – current reversed in
traction motors
• Train brake – brakes applied on
each car by reducing train line air
pressure
• Emergency brake application
TRAIN CONTROL & SIGNALING
Train Control
The two common types of train control in
Canada are:

• OCS – Occupational Control System

• CTC – Centralized Traffic Control

Traffic Control - OCS

• Authority to occupy track

must be in writing
Traffic Control - CTC
• Authority to occupy track in the form of a signal
Track circuits
Wayside signals
Signals – Basic aspects
Signals – Speed indications

Stop Restricted Slow

Medium Limited Track speed

Signal placement
Controlled locations Advance signals considerations

• Safe breaking distance

• Signal viewable for 15
seconds at maximum speed.
CROSSING PROTECTION
Crossing protection
Passive crossings Active crossings
Crossing protection

• Active crossings may consist

of Lights and bell
or Light, bells and gates.
• Cantilever
Grade crossing warning Advance active warning
signal
Crossing regulations

• Railway-Highway Crossing at Grade

Regulations (1980)
• Highway Crossings Protective Devices
Regulations (No. E-6)
• Technical Standards and Inspection, Testing
and Maintenance Requirements (RTD10) -
Draft (2002)
• Grade crossing regulations – Draft (2002)
Crossing design factors
Gates must be horizontal for at least 5 seconds prior to
the train occupying the crossing

Others factors

• Departure time
• Pre-emption
• Design vehicle
• Track speed
OPERATIONS

This section will cover the following:

• Classification of tracks
• Time table
• Operating diagrams
• Track speeds
• Train dynamics
• Train control
Track Classification
Track Designations
• Maintrack (Mainline) • Industrial Lead
• Passing track • Customer Siding
• Back track • Yard Track
• Service track (Run around • Yard Lead
Track) • Wye Track
• Spur Track

CP Alberta Service Area

Laggan Subdivision
Naming & Mileage Conventions
• Division & Subdivision • Stations
• Direction of traffic • Industrial Lead
• Identification of Main Tracks • Interlocking (Plant)
• Mileage identification
CN Eastern Division
Oakville Subdivision
Operating Time Table &
Diagram
Time Table
Information
• Time Table # & Date
• Name of Subdivision
• Direction of Traffic
• Station names & location
• Number of Maintracks
• Junction points with other
Subdivisions
• Method of control
• Radio communication information
• Zone Speeds
• Passenger & Freight Speeds
• Permanent slow orders (PSO)
Operating Diagram
• Track network • Mileage of features • Road crossings & type
• Stations • Customer track ID • Signal locations
• Interlocking • Track Speed & Profile • Switch type

CN Eastern Division
Oakville Subdivision
Track Speed
Track speed by track type
• Maintrack Train speed identified in time table
• Maintrack Train speed managed by Control System (CTC, OCS)
• Other than maintrack Train speed by rule &/or Bulletin
• Track Speed for non trains (Hi Rail, Work equipment, Etc) by Rule
• Permanent & temporary slow orders (PSO & TSO) found in
Time Table, Divisional Data, GBO, Monthly Operating bulletin,
DOB, TGBO
•
CN Eastern Division
Oakville Subdivision
GENERAL DESIGN PRINCIPALS
Standards, Guidelines, and Reference
Materials
What standards do we use?
• Railway Standards: Standard
Practice Circulars (SPC’s), Track
Standards (TS’s), Recommended
Methods (RM’s)
• Government Standards:
Transport Canada, US State,
Federal Railroad Administration
(FRA)
• AREMA: American Railway
Engineering and Maintenance
Association
• Various Tools Developed by
AECOM
 Track Spacing (also known as Track
Centres)
• Track spacing is standardized by
each Railroad.
• In Canada the typical minimum
centres are:
14’ [4.27m] Mainlines & Sidings
14’ [4.27m] yard tracks
18’ [5.49m ] parallel ladder
tracks
18’ [5.49m] for a pole-line
28’ [8.53m] for a one-way road
• In the US the standards tend to
vary by state and railroad.
• Yard track centres do increase
depending on the use.
CLEARANCES
Clearances - General
• Minimum clearances are
defined by the Government
• The Railroads develop their
own standards, defined by
an “envelope” or diagram
• A sub-standard
clearance is called a
“Restricted Clearance”
which requires special
approvals,
documentation, and
signage.
Clearances – Actual Clearance vs.
Clearance Envelope
Clearances – Allowance for Curve and
Superelevation
• The dimensions of the
clearance envelope should
be adjusted to account for
curvature and
superelevation, although
not all railroads require it
• The railroads usually have
formulas to approximate the
values, or you can calculate
the geometry directly.
 Clearances – Industrial Tracks Inside
Buildings
• Use Standard
Clearances unless
otherwise required by
the Railroad
• Common
Warehouses Cross-
Docks have special
requirements.
• Platforms must be set
to match the floor
height of the car, and
to minimize the offset
from the dock to the
car (usually 43” or
1.09m)
CURVES
 Horizontal Curves – What is a Degree
of Curve
• Freight Railways do not
use radii. They use
“Degree of Curve” (100’
chord definition)
• Mainline curve radii are
selected by Speed, typically
ranging from 6º to 0º-15’
• Yard and Industrial Track
curve radii are selected by
equipment and track use,
typically ranging from
14º to 6º.
Horizontal Curves – Reverse Curves #1
• Reverse Curves must always
have a tangent between them.
If not, then there is an abrupt
change in direction. On the
tangent (in the absence of
curve forces) the wheels will re-
centre between the rails
• For Mainlines the minimum
tangent length is typically 100’
[30.5m], with some Railroads
allowing a minimum of 78’
• For Yards the tangent
requirement is based on
curvature, refer to the table
 Horizontal Curves – Reverse Curves #2
• Turnouts have the same
effects as curves. Provide
tangents between reverses
in the same manner
(discussed further in Part
E)
Horizontal Curves – Widening
• Track Centres must be widened on curves
to account for Train-Car-Overhang
• Essentially… a train gets wider when it
travels over a curve, we must move the
tracks apart accordingly
Gradients and Vertical Curves
 Gradients & Vertical Curves - General
• Gradients vary from 0% to 2% max. for all running tracks
• Mainline gradients are limited by the “Ruling Grade” (see Part B)
• Grades should always be the minimum practical
• Freight Railway vertical curves are Parabolic (not Circular)
• Most Railways use the AREMA Formula for Vertical Curves
 Gradients & Vertical Curves – Minimum
Curve Lengths
• The AREMA curve formula generally works for
train speeds of 30mph or Higher.
• For slow speed curves in yards or industrial tracks
use the Rate of Change method where LVC (ft) =
(Gc / RC) x100, maximum acceptable rates of
change are typically 2.0 for Crest curves and 1.0
for Sag curves
• Vertical Curves should have a minimum length of
100’ [30m]. In special circumstances in yards and
industrial tracks you may reduce this to as little as
75’ [23m]
 Gradients & Vertical Curves – Yard
Gradients
• When practical, a yard grade should always slope into the
yard. Cars should not be able to roll out of the yard.
• Yard grades usually vary between 0.0% and 0.6%
depending on the use of the yard.
Gradients & Vertical Curves – Other
There are two other noteworthy items:
• Horizontal curvature introduces rolling resistance. For design
purposes we consider all such resistances Grades. The so called
“Compensated Grade” = actual grade + (0.04% per degree of
curve). Example: you have a 1% grade on a 12-degree curve =
1.0% + (12*0.04%) = 1.48%. Client standards for maximum grade
always refer to Compensated Grades.
• The “Neutral Grade” is the grade on which a rolling train will
neither accelerate nor decelerate. The value is theoretically
between 0.07% and 0.12%, and depends on the train-car and the
track condition. Neutral grades are often used on yard tracks
when the railroad requires the track be ‘flat’ but where a flat track
is impractical.
Introduction to Design Speeds
Speeds
• Speeds are governed by Curvature
• Mainline speeds, curves, and superlevation will be discussed in Part D
• Yard speeds are always 15mph or slower
• Acceptable curvature for
yard speeds vary from
14º to 6º or flatter
• Turnouts have limited
speeds. Speeds through
turnouts are limited by
the geometry of the
turnout, which is
essentially a curve.
• Turnout sizes and speeds
will be discussed in Part
E
MAINLINE TRACK DESIGN
Superelevation – General
• The Superelevation on a track is the amount by
which the outer rail of a curved track is raised above
the inner rail to resist the centrifugal force of moving
trains and to facilitate higher railway speeds
• Equilibrium speed on a
curve is the speed at which
the resultant force of the
weight and the centrifugal
force is perpendicular to the
plane of the track
Superelevation – Balance and
Imbalance
• Ideally the amount of “Balanced” superelevation
(Eb) would result in equal forces on both rails.
• A balanced solution tends to be impractical, as
average train speeds tend to be lower than the
maximum permissible speed
• “Unbalanced” superelevation (Eu) is generally
permitted up to 2” for freight trains and 3” for
passenger trains
• Overbalance superelevation is not permitted
• The maximum amount of superelevation is limited
to 5”
• Using unbalance also permits higher train speeds
Superelevation - Formula
• Balanced Superelevation is calculated using the
formula Eb = 0.0007 x Dc x V2 where:
• Eb = Amount of Superelevation (inches)
• Dc = Degree of Curve (decimal format)
• V = Maximum Train Speed (mph)
o Eb=Ea+Eu
Spirals - General
• A spiral provides the smooth
transition between tangent
track and curved track
• At the tangent end of a spiral
the radius is infinite (i.e.
tangent)
• At the Curve end of a spiral
the radius is equal to the
adjacent circular curve
Spirals - Formulas
• There are two formulas used to calculate the length
of a railway spiral:
• Passenger Comfort Formula Ls = 1.63 x Eu x V
• Train Dynamics Formula Ls = 62 Ea
o Ls = Length of Spiral (feet)
o Eu = Unbalanced Superelevation (inches)
o V = Maximum Train speed (mph)
o Ea = Actual Superelevation (inches)
o When determining superelevation you must
calculate the spiral length using both formulas, then
use the result which provides the longest spiral
Superelevation & Spirals - Tables
• Each railroad publishes tables which describe the maximum train
speed for any given superelevation (Ea). They will also include
provision for various Unbalance scenarios. Here is a sample for 2”
unbalance that applies for freight:
Mainline Design - General
• A tangent must be provided between reverse
curves. The tangent should be 100’ in length.
Some railways will permit tangent lengths as
short as 78’.
• Turnouts are treated similar to curves, and must
be provided with tangents accordingly.
• Excel Design Tools Developed in-house
YARD & INDUSTRIAL TRACK
DESIGN
Curve - Selection
• Curves in Yards are selected in In general, curve radii are selected as
the same manner as turnouts, follows:
based on: • Curves around turnouts should
Desired Speed match the “average curvature” of the
Traffic Volume and Weight turnout (example: a No.8 turnout has
an average curve of 11º-52’ so we
use a 12º curve)
• Curves in yards are usually 9º
(beyond 9º coupling can be problem)
• Curves in industrial tracks should be
9º, but can be increased up to a
maximum of 14º
• Curves in the body of a yard should
be limited to 6º
Turnout – Definition of Sizes
• The size of the turnout is described as a “Number”
• The number of a turnout indicates angle of the
turnout, expressed as a ratio (example a No.8
turnout diverges at a rate of 8:1)
Turnouts – Review of Terms
Turnout - Selection
• When selecting the size of In general, turnouts are selected as
turnout consider: follows:
Desired Speed • Mainline Passing Tracks and
Traffic Volume and Weight Crossovers #20, #16, #15
Mainline or Other • Mainline Slow-Speed crossovers
and Sidings #15, #12
• Yard or Industrial Turnouts
connecting to the main #11, #12
• Yard or Industrial Track Turnouts
#9, #8
• Primary Yard Turnouts #11, #10
• Yard Crossovers #10, #9
Turnouts – Basic Layout
• On our engineering plans, tracks and turnouts are drawn as a single line
(along the theoretical centreline). The point-of-switch is the main
reference point and is indicated with a symbol.
• The curve which follows the turnout will have the same radius as the
turnout curvature, rounded to the nearest 30’
Turnouts - Yard
Turnouts – Space between Turnouts #1 (HF-PS)
Turnouts – Space between Turnouts #2 (PS-PS)
Turnouts – Ladder Arrangements (sample No.10)
Turnouts – Geometry (CN Sample)
Turnouts – Geometry (CP Sample)
 Reverse Curves - Review
• Turnouts have the same
effects as curves. Provide
tangents between reverses
in the same manner
(discussed further in Part
E)
Relationship of Curves, Turnouts, and Grades #1

The basic guidelines:

• A turnout may be on a grade
• A turnout should not be installed on a vertical
curve
• Both legs of the turnout must have the same
profile from Point of Switch (PS) to the Last
Long Tie (LLT or LST)
• A turnout acts like a curve, avoid reverse curves
• Whenever possible provide tangents before the
PS and after the HF
Relationship of Curves, Turnouts, and Grades #2
• Here are some
examples of Turnout
Placement Do’s and
Dont’s:
Determining Track Capacity
• “Track Capacity” describes the length of train that
will fit on a track, without “fouling” a turnout.
• Fouling is defined as blocking a track, turnout, or
signal