TUTORIAL SHEET 1: - EME 602
(Submitted by Achintya Mehrotra, 0802740006)
Q1 Give an account of the classification of gears?
Ans: - Gears are classified into four groups:
a) Spur
b) Helical
c) Bevel
d) Worm
SPUR GEARS
1) The teeth are cut parallel to the axis of the shaft.
2) The profile of the tooth is in the shape of an involute curve and remains identical along the
entire width of the gear wheel.
3) These gears impose radial loads on the shaft.
HELICAL GEARS
1) The teeth are cut at an angle with the axis of the shaft.
2) The involute profile is similar to that of the spur gear.
3) The magnitude of the helix angle of pinion and gear is same however the hand of helix is
opposite, i.e. a right hand pinion meshes with a left hand gear and vice versa.
4) These gears impose radial and tangential loads on the shaft.
5) A special type of helical gear known as Herringbone gear consists of two helical gears with
opposite hand of helix resulting in equal and opposite thrust reactions.
BEVEL GEARS
1) These gears are used for shafts which are at right angles to each other.
2) The tooth can be spiral or straight.
3) It imposes radial and thrust load on the shaft.
WORM GEAR
1) It consists of a worm and worm wheel. The worm is in the form of a threaded screw which
meshes with the matching wheel.
2) The threads on the worm can be single start or multi start and usually have a small lead.
3) Worm gears are used for shafts which are perpendicular but do not intersect.
4) The worm imposes high thrust load, while worm wheel imposes high radial loads on the shaft.
5) Worm gear drives are characterized by high speed reduction ratio.
Q2 What are the assumptions made in the force analysis of gears?
Ans: - The following assumptions are made in the force analysis of gears:-
1) As the point of contact moves, the magnitude of resultant forces changes. However this
effect is neglected.
2) It is assumed that only one pair of teeth takes the entire load.
3) The analysis is valid under static conditions, i.e. when the gears are running at very low
speeds.
4) The effect of dynamic forces is neglected.
Q3 What are the assumptions made in the Lewis Beam equation?
Ans: - The following assumptions are made in the Lewis beam equation:-
1) The effect of radial component which induces compressive stresses is neglected.
2) The tangential component is uniformly distributed over the face width of the gear. This is
possible when the gears are rigid and accurately machined.
3) Effect of stress concentration is neglected.
4) At any time only one pair of teeth is in contact and takes the total load.
Q4 Compare involute and cycloidal profile of gear tooth.
Ans:-
Advantages of involute gears Advantages of cycloidal gears
The centre distance for a pair of involute gears Since cycloidal teeth have wider flanks, thus they are
can be varied within limits without changing the stronger than the involute gears for the same pitch.
velocity ratio. However in cycloidal gears the
exact centre distance needs to be maintained.
The face and flank of the involute teeth are The contact takes place between a convex flank and concave
generated by a single curve whereas in cycloidal surface, whereas in involute gears, convex surfaces are in
gears, double curves are required for face and contact. This results in less wear in cycloidal gears.
flank respectively.
The pressure angle from the start of the Interference does not occur at all.
engagement of the teeth to the end of the
engagement remains constant. This result in
smooth running and less wear of gears. But in
cycloidal gears, the pressure angle is maximum
at the beginning of the engagement, reduces to
zero at the pitch point, starts increasing and
again becomes maximum at the end of
engagement.
Q5 Discuss briefly the various systems of gear tooth used in gear drives.
Ans:- The following four systems of gear teeth are used:-
14.5 degree composite system
1) It is used for general purpose gears
2) Stronger but no interchangeability.
3) This profile of the tooth system has cycloidal curves at the top and bottom and involute
curve at the middle portion.
14.5 degree full depth involute system
1) The basic rack for this system is composed of straight sides except for the fillet arcs.
2) Interference occurs when number of teeth on pinion is less than 23.
3) This system is satisfactory when the number of teeth on gears is large.
20 degree full depth involute system
1) The basic rack for this system is composed of straight sides except for fillet arcs.
2) Interference occurs when number of teeth on pinion is less than 17.
3) This system is the most widely used system of gear standards.
4) It reduces the risk of undercutting and interference.
5) Due to increased pressure angle, the tooth becomes slightly broader at the root. This
increases the load carrying capacity and makes the tooth stronger.
20 degree stub involute system
1) The gears in this system have shorter addendum and shorter dedendum.
2) The interfering portion of the tooth, i.e. a part of addendum is thus removed. This reduces
undercutting.
3) The minimum number of teeth on pinion to avoid interference is 14.
4) Stub teeth are stronger than full depth teeth because of smaller moment arm of bending
force.
5) Stub system transmits very high load.
6) It also results in low cost.
S.No Particulars 14.5 degree composite or 20 degree full depth 20 degree stub
full depth involute system involute system involute system
1. Addendum 1m 1m 0.8m
2. Dedendum 1.25m 1.25m 1m
3. Working depth 2m 2m 1.6m
4. Min total depth 2.25m 2.25m 1.8m
5. Tooth thickness 1.5708m 1.5708m 1.5708m
6. Min clearance 0.25m 0.25m 0.2m
7. Fillet radius 0.4m 0.4m 0.4m
Q6 Define the following:
1. Circular pitch
2. Diametral pitch
3. Module
4. Backlash in gears
5. Tooth thickness
6. Width of space
7. Addendum
8. Dedendum
Ans:-
a) Circular pitch:- The circular pitch(p) is the distance measured along the pitch circle between
two similar points on adjacent teeth
b) Diametral pitch: - The diametral pitch (P) is the ratio of the number of teeth to the pitch
circle diameter.
c) Module: - It is defined as the inverse of the diametral pitch.
d) Backlash: - It is defined as the amount by which the width of the tooth space exceeds the
thickness of the engaging tooth measured along the pitch circle.
e) Tooth thickness: - The length of the arc on the pitch circle subtending a single gear tooth is
called circular tooth thickness.
f) Width of space: - The width of the space between two adjacent teeth measured along the
pitch circle is called tooth space.
g) Addendum: - It is the radial distance between pitch and the addendum circle. It indicates the
height of tooth above the pitch circle.
h) Dedendum: - It is the radial distance between the pitch and the dedendum circle. It indicates
the depth of tooth below the pitch circle.
Q7 Prove the fundamental law of gearing.
Ans: - Fundamental Law of Gear-Tooth Action
The figure shows two mating gear teeth, in which
Tooth profile 1 drives tooth profile 2 by acting at the instantaneous contact point K.
N1N2 is the common normal of the two profiles.
N1 is the foot of the perpendicular from O1 to N1N2
N2 is the foot of the perpendicular from O2 to N1N2.
Although the two profiles have different velocities V1 and V2 at point K, their velocities
along N1N2 are equal in both magnitude and direction. Otherwise the two tooth profiles would
separate from each other. Therefore, we have
We notice that the intersection of the tangency N1N2 and the line of centre O1O2 is point P, and
(7-3)
Thus, the relationship between the angular velocities of the driving gear to the driven gear,
or velocity ratio, of a pair of mating teeth is
(7-4)
Point P is very important to the velocity ratio, and it is called the pitch point. Pitch point divides the
line between the line of centres and its position decides the velocity ratio of the two teeth. The
above expression is the fundamental law of gear-tooth action.
7.2.2 Constant Velocity Ratio
For a constant velocity ratio, the position of P should remain unchanged. In this case, the motion
transmission between two gears is equivalent to the motion transmission between two imagined
slipless cylinders with radius R1 and R2 or diameter D1 and D2. We can get two circles whose centre
are at O1 and O2, and through pitch point P. These two circles are termed pitch circles. The velocity
ratio is equal to the inverse ratio of the diameters of pitch circles. This is the fundamental law of
gear-tooth action.
The fundamental law of gear-tooth action may now also be stated as follow (for gears with fixed
centre distance) The common normal to the tooth profiles at the point of contact must always pass
through a fixed point (the pitch point) on the line of centres (to get a constant velocity ratio).
Q8 Discuss in brief the involute profile and its important characteristics.
Ans:-
The curve most commonly used for gear-tooth profiles is the involute of a circle. This involute
curve is the path traced by a point on a line as the line rolls without slipping on the circumference of
a circle. It may also be defined as a path traced by the end of a string which is originally wrapped on
a circle when the string is unwrapped from the circle. The circle from which the involute is derived is
called the base circle.
In the figure, let line MN roll in the counter clockwise direction on the circumference of a circle
without slipping. When the line has reached the position M'N', its original point of tangent A has
reached the position K, having traced the involute curve AK during the motion. As the motion
continues, the point A will trace the involute curve AKC.
Properties of Involute Curves
1. The distance BK is equal to the arc AB, because link MN rolls without slipping on the circle.
2. For any instant, the instantaneous centre of the motion of the line is its point of tangent with
the circle.
Note: We have not defined the term instantaneous centre previously. The instantaneous
centre or instant centre is defined in two ways
1. When two bodies have planar relative motion, the instant centre is a point on one
body about which the other rotates at the instant considered.
2. When two bodies have planar relative motion, the instant centre is the point at
which the bodies are relatively at rest at the instant considered.
3. The normal at any point of an involute is tangent to the base circle. Because of the property
(2) of the involute curve, the motion of the point that is tracing the involute is perpendicular
to the line at any instant, and hence the curve traced will also be perpendicular to the line at
any instant.
4. There is no involute curve within the base circle.
Q9 What is interference, explain with a neat diagram. And discuss briefly the
various methods to prevent interference.
Ans:-
1) The gear tooth has involute profile only outside the base circle. In some cases the dedendum
is so large that it extends below this base circle. In such situations, the portion of the tooth
below the base circle is not involute.
2) The tip of the tooth on the mating gear, which is involute, interferes with the non-involute
portion of dedendum. This phenomenon of tooth profiles overlapping and cutting into
each other is called interference.
3) Interference is non conjugate action and results in excessive wear, vibrations and jamming.
4) It is maximum when the smallest pinion is in mesh with the largest gear.
Methods to prevent interference
1) Undercutting: - When the gears are generated by involute rack cutters, this interference is
automatically eliminated because the cutting tool removes the interfering portion of the
flank. This is called undercutting. However, undercut tooth is considerably weaker. Also, the
loss of involute profile may cause a serious reduction in the length of contact.
2) Increase in pressure angle: - This results in smaller base circle so that more portion of the
tooth profile becomes involute.
3) Increase number of teeth on pinion: - However, this increases the size of gearbox and also
the pitch line velocity.
4) Use long and short addendum gearing: - The addendum of pinion is made longer than the
standard addendum. Also, the addendum of mating gear is made shorter than the standard
addendum. However, this results in non-standard and non-interchangeable gears.
Q10 What do you understand by conjugate action of teeth. Justify that involute
teeth do not fulfil the conjugate action.
Ans: -
Conjugate tooth action
The shape of teeth necessary for the speed ratio to
remain constant during an increment of rotation;
this behaviour of the contacting surfaces (i.e. the
teeth flanks) is known as conjugate action.
Consider the two rigid bodies 1 and 2 which rotate
about fixed centres, O, with angular velocities ω.
The bodies touch at the contact point, C, through
which the common tangent and normal are drawn.
The absolute velocity v of the contact point
reckoned as a point on either body, is perpendicular to the radius from that body's centre O to the
contact point. For the bodies to remain in contact, there must be no component of relative motion
along the common normal, so that from the velocity triangles :-
v2 cosθ2 = v1 cosθ1 where v1 = ω1 . O1C ; v2 = ω2 . O2C
Note that the tangential components of velocity are generally different, so sliding must occur. For
the speed ratio to be constant therefore, from the above and similar triangles :-
( 3 ) ω2 /ω1 = v2 . O1C/v1 . O2C = O1C.cosθ1 /O2C.cosθ2
= O1 C1 /O2 C2 = O1 P / O2 P ie. this ratio also must be constant.
This indicates that, since the centres are fixed, the point P is fixed too.
In general therefore, whatever the shapes of the bodies, the contact point C will move along some
locus as rotation proceeds; but if the action is to be conjugate then the body geometry must be such
that the common normal at the contact point passes always through one unique point lying on the
line of centres - this point is the pitch point referred to above, and the pitch circles' radii are O 1 P and
O2 P.
There exists a host of shapes which ensure conjugacy - indeed it is possible, within certain
restrictions, to arbitrarily choose the shape of one body then determine the shape of the second
necessary for conjugacy. But by far the most common gear geometry which satisfies conjugacy is
based on the involute, in which case both gears are similar in form, and the contact point's locus is a
simple straight line - the line of action.
Q11 Write short notes on
a) Modes of gear tooth failure
b) Gear materials
c) Gear manufacturing methods
Ans: - Modes of gear tooth failure
1) Bending failure: - Every gear acts as a cantilever. If the total repetitive dynamic load acting
on the gear tooth is greater than the beam strength of the gear tooth, then the gear tooth
will fail in bending.
2) Pitting: - It is the surface fatigue failure which occurs due to many repetitions of hertz
contact stresses. The failure occurs when the contact stresses are higher than the endurance
limit of the material. The failure starts with the formation of pits which continue to grow
resulting in the rupture of tooth surface.
In order to avoid pitting, the dynamic load between the gear teeth should be less than the
wear strength of the gear tooth.
3) Scoring: - The excessive heat is generated when there is an excessive surface pressure, high
speed or supply of lubricant fails. It is a stick-slip phenomenon in which alternate shearing
and welding takes place rapidly at high spots.
This type of failure can be avoided by properly designing the parameters such as speed,
pressure and proper flow of lubricant.
4) Abrasive wear: - Foreign particles in the lubricant such as dirt, dust or burr enter between
the tooth and damage the form of tooth. It can be avoided by providing filters for the
lubricating oil or by using high viscosity lubricant oil which enables the formation of
thicker oil film and hence permits easy passage of such particles without damaging the
gear surface.
5) Corrosive wear: - The corrosion of the tooth surfaces is mainly caused due to the presence
of corrosive elements such as additives present in the lubricating oil.
Gear materials
The desirable properties of gear materials are as follows:-
1) The gear material should have sufficient strength to resist failure due to breakage of tooth.
When the gear is subjected to fluctuating forces, then the endurance strength of the tooth is
the deciding factor.
2) The gear material should have sufficient surface endurance strength to avoid failure due to
destructive pitting.
3) For high speed transmissions, the sliding velocities are high and the material should have a
low coefficient of friction to avoid failure due to scoring.
The various materials used for gear manufacture are cast iron, steel, bronze, wood, rawhide
and synthetic resins.
1) Large size gears are made of cast iron of grades FG 200, FG 260 or FG 350. They are cheap
and generate less noise compared with steel gears. However, their main drawback is poor
strength.
2) Case hardened steel gears offer the best combination of a wear-resisting hard surface
together with a ductile and shock absorbing core.
3) Plain carbon steels are used for medium duty applications such as 50C8, 45C8, 50C4.
4) For heavy duty applications, alloy steels 40Cr1, 30Ni4Cr1 and 40Ni3Cr65mo55 are used.
5) Bronze is mainly used for worm wheels due to its low coefficient of friction and excellent
conformability.
