NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

COURSE CODE: EDU823

COURSE TITLE: Educational Research Methods

EDU823

COURSE
GUIDE

EDU823
EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH METHODS

Course Team Dr. Olufunmilayo I. Oloyede (Writer/Developer) -NOUN

Prof. Nduka Okon (Editor) - NOUN
Dr. I. O. Salawu (Programme Leader)-NOUN
Dr. C A Okonkwo (Coordinator)-NOUN

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EDU823

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

iii
EDU823

National Open University of Nigeria

Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island
Lagos

Abuja Office
No. 5 Dar es Salaam Street
Off Aminu Kano Crescent
Wuse II, Abuja
Nigeria

e-mail: [email protected]
URL: www.nou.edu.ng

Published By:
National Open University of Nigeria

First Printed 2011

ISBN: 978-058-657-1

All Rights Reserved

iv
EDU823

CONTENTS PAGE

Introduction……………………………………………...............….. 1
What You Will Learn in this Course…….……………………..…… 1
Course Aims...………………………………………………………. 2
Course Objectives…………………………………………………… 2
Working through this Course……………………………………….. 3
Course Materials…………………………………………………….. 3
Study Units………………………………………………………….. 4
Assignment File……….…………………………………………….. 5
Assessments…………………………………………………………. 5
Tutor-Marked Assignments (TMA).………………………………… 5
Final Examination and Grading…………………..………………….. 6
Presentation Schedule……………………………………………….. 5
Course Making Scheme…………………………………….…..……. 6
Course Overview………………………………………….……….… 6
How to Get the Best from this Course…………………….………… 7
Facilitators/Tutors and Tutorials.………………… ………………… 9
Summary…………………..…………………………………………10

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EDU823 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH METHODS

Introduction
EDU823: Educational Research Methods is a 3 credit course for all
Masters Degree students in Education.

The course consists of 21 units divided into 7 modules at 3 units per

module. The course material has been developed to suit graduate
students in Education at the National Open University of Nigeria
(NOUN) by adopting an approach that highlights the key areas of
Educational Research.

After you have successfully completed this course you would have
developed a positive attitude to research. You would be able to initiate
research work, develop it and successfully execute it. You would be
able to write and publish research reports. You would be able to write
research proposals for grants and criticise all types of research reports
with confidence. You are required to avail yourself the opportunities
that abound in modern libraries such as the Internet, CD-ROM, E-mail
and some current collections of research and statistics textbooks.

There are no compulsory prerequisites for this course. However, you

are expected to have done some basic courses in research methods and
written a project at the undergraduate level. The course however
demands that you be computer literate enough to search for information
from the Internet and other accessories such as the CD-ROM.

The Course Guide tells you briefly what the course is about, what course
materials you will be using and how you can work your way through
these materials. It suggests some general guidelines for the amount of
time you are likely to spend on each unit of the course in order to
complete it successfully. It also gives you some guidance on your
Tutor-Marked Assignments.

What You Will Learn in this Course

This course will introduce you to the major aspects of research methods
in education. During the course, you will learn about what research is
all about: parts of research that deal with the identification and
development of the problem; the search and use of review of literature;
the different methodologies in research development; and the various
techniques for the collection, writing research proposal and reports. The
recent approach for referencing based on the American Psychological
Association (APA) format will also be discussed.

The importance of research in a world faced with myriads of problems

need no emphasis. Research deals with identifying problems and

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EDU823 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH METHODS

searching for solutions for them. The problem is compounded by the

fact that we are in a world that is finite which is accommodating a
population both in land and sea that is doubling fast. The world will
collapse if researchers in the various fields of endeavour do not seek for
solutions arising from their fields. Education and science education in
particular, is an area where the problems seem to defy solution: only
well thought out and well executed research studies might provide
panacea to these problems. On the other hand, if you are within the
academic community, you have no choice but to master the techniques
of research if you must climb the ladder of progress, success and
greatness, and also to reach the peak of your career.

As you go through the course, you will discover that the different
aspects of research are like the human body, if any part is left out, the
research work and its product cannot be complete. To be an expert in
research, you must endeavour to master very meticulously all aspects of
research work.

Course Aims
This course aims to give you an understanding of the techniques of
research and how they are used in conjunction with statistics and a good
command of English language to initiate, develop and execute research
work and produce quality research reports.

Course Objectives
To achieve the aims listed above, the course sets overall objectives. In
addition, each unit also has specific objectives. The units’ objectives are
also included at the beginning of each unit; you should read them before
you start working through the unit. You may want to refer to them
during your study of the unit to check on your progress. You should
always look at the unit objectives after completing a unit, in this way,
you can be sure that you have done what is required of you.

Below are the overall objectives of the course. By meeting these

objectives, you would have achieved the aims of the course as a whole.
On successful completion of the course, you should be able to:

• explain what research is;

• select, shape and define research problems;
• relate theories and concepts to hypotheses formulation;
• write components of the problems;
• carry out feasibility report of a research problem;
• review related literature;
• explain constructs and variables;
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EDU823 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH METHODS

• differentiate between quantitative and qualitative research;

• describe the different types of research;
• carry out a research;
• select appropriate methodology for a specific research;
• define population and sample;
• select sample from a target population;
• utilise the different sampling techniques;
• design an instrument;
use the appropriate instrument for data collection;
•
determine the validity and reliability of an instrument;
•
produce a research proposal; and
•
write a research report.
•

Working through this Course

To complete this course, you are required to read the study units, read
set books and read other materials provided by the National Open
University of Nigeria (NOUN). You will also need to undertake
practical exercises for which you need access to a personal computer
running Windows 95. Each unit contains Self-Assessment Exercises,
and at certain points during the course, you will be expected to submit
assignments. At the end of the course is a final examination. The
course should take you about a total 42 weeks to complete. Below are
the components of the course, what you have to do, and how you should
allocate your time to each unit in order to complete the course
successfully on time.

Course Materials
Major components of the course are:

• Course Guide
• Study Units
• Textbooks
• Assignment File will be available from the web CT OLE in due
course
• Presentation Schedule.

In addition, you must obtain the set books and the Pspice computer
software. There are copies of the Pspice computer student version
available on the internet for download or you may also purchase your
own copy of Pspice on a CD-ROM. You are advised to use version 8.0
because different versions may have different screen layouts. You may
contact your tutor if you have problems in obtaining the Pspice.

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EDU823 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH METHODS

Study Units
The study units in this course are as follows:

Module 1

Unit 1 What is Research?

Unit 2 Problem, Selection, Shaping and Refining
Unit 3 Theories, Concepts and Hypotheses Formulation

Module 2

Unit 1 Components of the Problem and Feasibility of a study

Unit 2 Review of Literature
Unit 3 Constructs and Variables

Module 3

Unit 1 Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches

Unit 2 Action Research, Case Study and Observation Research
Unit 3 Ethnography, Phenomenology, Grounded Theory and
Correlation Studies

Module 4

Unit 1 Historical Research

Unit 2 Survey Research
Unit 3 Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Research I

Module 5

Unit 1 Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Research II

Unit 2 Ex-Post Facto Research and Evaluation Research
Unit 3 Population and Sample

Module 6

Unit 1 Sampling Techniques

Unit 2 Designing Questionnaire
Unit 3 Interview and Observations

Module 7

Unit 1 Level of Measurement, Validity and Reliability

Unit 2 Research Proposal
Unit 3 Writing a Research Report

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EDU823 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH METHODS

Assignment File
The assignment file will be posted on the Web CT OLE in due course.
In this course, you will find all the details of the work you must submit
to your tutor for marking. The marks you obtain for these assignments
will count towards the final mark you obtain for this course. Further
information on assignments will be found in the assignment file itself
and later in the section on assessment in this course guide. There are 21
Tutor-Marked Assignments in this course; the student should do at most
4. There are also two compulsory assignments of which one is to write a
research proposal.

Presentation Schedule
The Presentation Schedule included in your course materials gives you
the important dates for this year for the completion of Tutor-Marked
Assignments (TMA) and attending tutorials. Remember, you are
required to submit all your assignments by the due date. You should
guard against falling behind in your work.

Assessments
There are two aspects to the assessment of the course: first are the Tutor-
Marked Assignments; and second is a written examination.

In tackling the assignments, you are expected to apply information,

knowledge and techniques gathered during the course. The assignments
must be submitted to your tutor for formal assessment in accordance
with the deadlines stated in the Presentation Schedule and the
Assignment File. The work you submitted to your tutor will count for
50% of your total course mark.

At the end of the course, you are required to sit for a final written
examination of ‘3 hours’ duration. This examination will also count for
50% of your total course mark.

Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMA)

There are 21 Tutor-Marked Assignments in this course and you are
advised to attempt all. Aside from the course material provided, you are
advised to read and research widely using other references which will
give you a broader viewpoint and may provide a deeper understanding
of the subject. Ensure all completed assignments are submitted on
schedule before the set deadlines. If for any reasons, you cannot
complete your work on time, contact your tutor before the assignment is

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EDU823 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH METHODS

due to discuss the possibility of an extension. Unless in exceptional

circumstances, extensions may not be granted after the due date.

Final Examination and Grading

The final examination for this course will be of 3 hours’ duration and
have a value of 50% of the total course grade. All areas of the course
will be assessed and the examination will consist of questions, which
reflect the type of self-testing, practice exercises and Tutor-Marked
Assignment you have previously encountered.
Utilise the time between the conclusion of the last study unit and sitting
for the examination to revise the entire course. You may find it useful to
review your self-tests, Tutor-Marked Assignments and comments on
them before the examination.

Course Marking Scheme

The work you submit will count for 50% of your total course mark. At
the end of the course, you will be required to sit for a final examination,
which will also count for 50 percent of your total mark. The table below
shows how the actual course marking is broken down.

Table 1 Course Marking Scheme

Assessment Marks
Assignment 6 (TMA) 6 assignments, best 5 will be
used for C.A = 10 x 5 = 50%
Final Examination 50% of overall course marks
Total 100% of course marks

Course Overview
This table brings together the units and the number of weeks you should
take to complete them and the assignment that follow them.

Unit Title of Work Weeks Assessment

Activity (end of unit)
Course Guide
Module 1
1 What is Research?
2 Problem Selection, Shaping and
Refining
3 Theories, Concepts and Hypotheses
Module 2
1 Components of Setting and
Feasibility of a Study

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EDU823 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH METHODS

2 Review of Literature
3 Constructs and Variables
Module 3
1 Quantitative and Qualitative
Research
2 Action Research, Case Study and
Observation Research
3 Ethnography, Phenomenology
Ground Theory and Correlational
Studies
Module 4
1 Historical Research
2 Survey Research
3 Experimental and Quasi
Experimental Research I
Module 5
1 Experimental and Quasi
Experimental Research II
2 Ex-Post Facto Research and
Evaluation Research
3 Population and Sample
Module 6
1 Sampling Techniques
2 Designing Questionnaire
3 Interviews and Observations
Module 7
1 Level of Measurement, Validity and
Reliability
2 Research Proposal
3 Writing a Research Report
Revision
Total

How to Get the Best from this Course

In distance learning, the study units are specially developed and
designed to replace the university lecturer. Hence, you can work
through these materials at your own pace, and at a time and place that
suits you best. Visualise it as reading the lecture instead of listening to a
lecturer.

Each of the study units follows a common format. The first item is an
introduction to the subject matter of the unit, and how a particular unit is
integrated with the other units and the course as a whole. Next is a set
of learning objectives. These objectives let you know what you should

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EDU823 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH METHODS

be able to do by the time you have completed the unit. You should use
these objectives to guide your study. When you have finished the unit,
you must go back and check whether you have achieved the objectives.
If you make a habit of doing this, you will significantly improve
your
chances of passing the course.

The main body of the unit guides you through the required reading from
other sources. This will usually be either from your set books or from a
list of References/Further Reading. You will be directed when you
need to use a computer and also the tasks you must do. The purpose of
the computing work is two-fold. First, it will enhance your
understanding of the material in the unit. Second, it will give you
practical experiences of using programmes which you could well
encounter in your work outside your studies. In any event, most of the
techniques you will study are applicable on computers in normal
working practice, so it is important you encounter them during your
studies.

Activities are interspersed throughout the units, and answers are given at
the end of the units. Working through these tests will help you to
achieve the objectives of the units and prepare you for the assignments
and the examinations. You should do each activity as you come to it in
the study unit. There are also numerous examples given in the study
units, work through these when you come to them, too.

The following is a practical strategy for working through the course. If

you run into any problem, telephone your facilitator or post the
questions on the Web CT OLE’s discussion board. Remember that your
facilitator’s job is to help you. When you need help, do not hesitate to
call your tutor to. In summary,

• Read this Course Guide.

• Organise a study schedule. Refer to the course overview for
more details. Note the time you are expected to spend on each
unit and how the assignments relate to the unit. Important
information e.g. details of your tutorials, and the date of the first
day of the semester is available from the Web CT OLE. You
need to gather together all this information in one place, such as
your diary or a wall calendar. Whatever method you choose, you
should decide on and write in your own dates for working on
each unit.
• Once you have created your own study schedule, do everything
you can to stick to it. The major reason that students fail is that
they get behind with their coursework. If you get into difficulties
with your schedule, please let your facilitator know before it is
too late for help.

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EDU823 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH METHODS

• Turn to unit 1 and read the introduction and the objectives for the
unit.
• Assemble the study materials. Information about what you need
for a unit is given in the ‘Overview’ at the beginning of each unit.
You will always need both the study unit you are working on and
one of your set books, on your desk at the same time.

• Work through the unit. The content of the unit itself has been
arranged to provide a sequence for you to follow. As you work
through this unit, you will be instructed to read sections from
your set books or other articles. Use the unit to guide your
reading.
• Keep an eye on the Web CT OLE. Up-to-date course information
will be continuously posted there.
• Well before the relevant due dates (about 4 weeks before the
dates) access the Assignment file on the Web CT OLE and
download your next required assignment. Keep in mind that you
will learn a lot by doing the assignments carefully. They have
been designed to help you meet the objectives of the course and,
therefore, will help you pass the examination. Submit all
assignments not later than the due dates.
• Review the objectives for each study unit and confirm that you
have achieved them. If you feel unsure about any of the
objectives, review the study material or consult your tutor.
• When you are confident that you have achieved a unit’s
objectives, you can then start on the next unit. Proceed unit by
unit through the course and try to pace your study so that you
keep yourself on schedule.
• When you have submitted an assignment to your tutor for
marking, do not wait for its return before starting on the next unit.
Keep to your schedule. When the assignment is returned, pay
particular attention to your facilitator’s comments. Consult your
tutor as soon as possible if you have any questions or problems.
• After completing the last unit, review the course and prepare
yourself for the final examination. Check that you have achieved
the unit objectives and the course objectives.

Facilitators/Tutors and Tutorials

There are 20 hours of tutorials provided in support of this course. You
will be notified of the dates, times and location of these tutorials,
together with the names and phone number of your tutor, as soon as you
are allocated a tutorial group.

Your tutor will mark and comment on your assignments, keep a close
watch on your progress and on any difficulties you might encounter as

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EDU823 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH METHODS

they would provide assistance to you during the course. You must mail
your Tutor-Marked Assignments to your tutor well before the due date
(at least two working days are required). They will be marked by your
tutor and returned to you as soon as possible. Do not hesitate to contact
your tutor by telephone, e-mail, or discussion board if you need help.
The following might be circumstances in which you would find help
necessary when:

• you do not understand any part of the study units or the assigned
readings.
• you have difficulty with the self-tests or exercises.
• you have a question or problem with an assignment, with your
tutor’s comment on an assignment, or with the grading of an
assignment.

You should try your best to attend the tutorials. This is the only chance
to have face-to-face contact with your tutor and to ask questions which
are answered instantly. You can raise any problem encountered in the
course of your study. To gain the maximum benefit from course
tutorials, prepare a question list before attending them. You will learn a
lot from participations in discussions.

Summary

EDU823: Educational Research Methods intends to expose you to

research techniques. Upon completing the course, you will be equipped
with the knowledge required to produce a good research work. You will
be able to answer questions such as:

• What does research mean?

• How does one identify research problems?
• What is the role of literature?
• What are the qualities of a good research proposal?
• At what level of significance will I reject this hypothesis, etc?

We wish you every success in the future.

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EDU823 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH METHODS

Course Code EDU823

Course Guide Educational Research Methods

Course Team Dr. Olufunmilayo I. Oloyede (Writer/Developer) -NOUN

Prof. Nduka Okon (Editor) - NOUN
Dr. I. O. Salawu (Programme Leader)-NOUN
Dr. C A Okonkwo (Coordinator)-NOUN

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

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EDU823 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH METHODS

National Open University of Nigeria

Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island
Lagos

Abuja Office
No. 5 Dar es Salaam Street
Off Aminu Kano Crescent
Wuse II, Abuja
Nigeria

e-mail: [email protected]
URL: www.nou.edu.ng

Published By:
National Open University of Nigeria

First Printed 2011

ISBN: 978-058-657-1

All Rights Reserved

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EDU823 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH METHODS

CONTENTS PAGE

Module 1 Basic Issues in Research Methods ………………… 1

Unit 1 What is Research?.......................................................... 1

Unit 2 Problem, Selection, Shaping and Refining..................... 8
Unit 3 Theories, Concepts and Hypotheses Formulation.......... 16

Module 2 Stating Problems, Literature Review and Variables 26

Unit 1 Components of the Problem and Feasibility of a Study 26

Unit 2 Review of Literature....................................................... 34
Unit 3 Constructs and Variables................................................ 45

Module 3 Types of Research Approaches …………………… 52

Unit 1 Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches...................... 52

Unit 2 Action Research, Case Study and Observation
Research…………………….…………………………. 59
Unit 3 Ethnography, Phenomenology, Grounded Theory and
Correlation Studies………...………………………….. 67

Module 4 Types of Researches ………………………………… 76

Unit 1 Historical Research…………………………………… 76

Unit 2 Survey Research…………………………………….… 85
Unit 3 Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Research I….... 93

Module 5 Types of Researches II, Population and Sample ….105

Unit 1 Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Research II…..105

Unit 2 Ex-Post Facto Research and Evaluation Research……113
Unit 3 Population and Sample………………………………..123

Module 6 Sampling and Data Collection Techniques ……… 131

Unit 1 Sampling Techniques……………………………….. 131

Unit 2 Designing Questionnaire………………………….… 141
Unit 3 Interview and Observations………………………… 150

Module 7 Writing the Research Report ……………………. 161

Unit 1 Level of Measurement, Validity and Reliability…... 161

Unit 2 Research Proposal………………………………….. 170
Unit 3 Writing a Research Report………………………… 184

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EDU823 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH METHODS

MODULE 1 BASIC ISSUES IN RESEARCH METHODS

Unit 1 What is Research?
Unit 2 Problem Selection, Shaping and Refining
Unit 3 Theories, Concepts and Hypotheses Formulation

UNIT 1 WHAT IS RESEARCH?

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of Research
3.2 Classification of Educational Research
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Research has become such a prevailing phenomenon of our civilisation
that all of us are impacted by it. Scholars and practitioners of various
academic disciplines and professions engage in research. Students do
not progress very far in our formal education system without
encountering the necessity to do some type of research. Research is
conducted in many settings, laboratories, classrooms, libraries, the city
streets, and foreign cultures, just to mention a few. A lot of research is
now done by computer.

Graduate students may find it difficult, at least early in a graduate

programme to identify with research situations and to key into a process
of conducting research. It may be that the only motivation for taking a
research methods course and for engaging in research at all is that they
are required in the graduate programme. Expertise and experience for
conducting research are limited, so the necessity for this course.
No course, no matter how well designed can be expected to confer
research competence, nor can any book, present all relevant information.
Research skills and understanding are achieved only through the
combination of a course like this and experience.

This course aims at providing you with tools to do research, to help you
to avoid some of the pitfalls and time-wasting trails, to establish good
research habits and to take you from the stage of selecting a topic

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EDU823 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH METHODS

through to the production of a well-planned, methodologically sound

and well-written final report or dissertation. Specifically, in this unit you
will find the answer to the question “what is research?”

2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• explain what research is;

• state the characteristics of a research;
• list the goals of research;
• explain the role of theory in research; and
• name the different types of educational research.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition of Research

The term “Research” is used to cover a broad spectrum of meaning in
everyday speech; this makes it a confusing word for the students –
especially those who must learn to use the word in its specialised
denotation.

When it comes to matter of research, the situation of the average

consumer – primary or secondary school teacher, counsellor or
administrator is not much different from that of the graduate student. In
fact, a considerable portion of the graduate student population is often
made up of school personnel pursuing graduate degrees on a part-time
basis. But regardless of degree requirements, research is done for the
purpose of explaining and predicting phenomena, and in the case of
educational research, those that impact upon teaching and learning and
the operation of the schools. There is an inherent assumption that
educational research, by providing a better understanding of the
education process will lead to the improvement of educational practice.
Decision making in the schools is based on a combination of experience,
expert opinion and research results, and the professional educator should
be knowledgeable about research methodology and results.

Often the students who spend the whole day in the library making notes
from textbooks and other publications or the one who visits many
websites in the computer or another who manages through available
sources to retrieve some information all claim to be doing research.
Research has been defined by many scholars, science educators and
others. Some of the definitions are stated below:

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EDU823 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH METHODS

Leedy (1997) defines research as the systematic process of collecting

and analysing information (data) in order to increase our understanding
of the phenomenon with which we are concerned or interested. Leedy
goes on to state what research is not. Research is not mere:

i. information gathering;
ii. transformation of facts from one location to the other;
iii. rummaging for information; and
iv. catchword to get information.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

1. State two operational terms in Leedy’s definition of research.

2. Give two examples of what research is not.

According to Leedy, research is an activity or process through which we

attempt to systematically and with the support of data, give an answer to
a question, the resolution of a problem or a greater understanding of a
phenomenon. This process is called research methodology.

According to Leedy, the process has the following eight characteristics:

(i) Research originates with a question or problem: The world is

filled with many unanswered questions and unresolved problems.
Everywhere we turn, there are things that make us wonder or ask
questions. And by asking questions, we strike the first spark
igniting a chain reaction that terminates in the research process.
An inquisitive mind is the beginning of research. He asserts that
the hope of mitigating our ignorance lies in the question we ask
and the information we gather in whose collective meaning we
may find insight.

(ii) Researchers require a clear articulation of a goal: a clear

unambiguous statement of the problem is critical. This statement
means that ambiguity must be avoided in research and goals must
be stated clearly and precisely.

(iii) Research requires a specific plan of procedure: Research is

not an excursion into happy expectation of fondly hoping that the
data necessary to solve the problem will magically turn up.
Rather it requires a carefully planned attack, a search and
discovery mission, properly planned in advance. Researchers
plan their overall research design and specific research methods
in a purposeful way – i.e. to yield data relevant to their particular
research problem. The research design and methods to be used
depend on the specific research question.

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EDU823 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH METHODS

(iv) Research usually divides the principal problems into more

manageable sub-problems: The whole is composed of some of
its parts. That is, a universal natural law, that is also a good
precept to observe in thinking about one’s principal goal in
research. Principal problems are broken down much more
frequently than is realised. Definitely, most researchers do not
take time or the trouble to isolate the lesser problems within the
major problem and consequently their research projects become
cumbersome and unwieldy.

(v) Researchers are guided by specific research problems;

question or hypothesis: A hypothesis is a logical supposition, a
reasonable guess, an educated conjecture. It may direct your
thinking to the possible source of information that will aid in
resolving the research problem through the resolution of
attendant sub-problems. Hypotheses are constant recurring
features of everyday life. They present the natural working of the
human mind. Each of these hypotheses provides a direction for
exploration to locate the information that may resolve the
problem of malfunction. It is noteworthy that hypotheses are
never proved; they are either rejected or accepted. After the
hypotheses come data. The data either support or fail to support
the hypotheses. Many of the greatest discoveries in science have
begun as hypotheses.

(vi) Research accepts certain critical assumption: In research,

assumptions are equivalent to axioms in geometry i.e. self-
evident truths, the sine qua non of research. The assumptions
must be valid or else the research cannot proceed. For this
reason, careful researchers – certainly in academic research – set
forth a statement of the assumption as the bedrock upon which
their study must rest. In your research, therefore, it is important
that others know what you assume with respect to your study.
Note, that an assumption is a condition that is taken for granted,
without which the result situation would be impossible. For the
beginning researcher, you need to state your assumptions, for it is
better to be over explicit than to take too much for granted.

(vii) Research requires the collection and interpretation of data in

attempting to resolve the problem that initiated the research:
Having isolated the problem, divided it into appropriate sub-
problems, posited reasonable questions or hypotheses and
recognised the assumptions that are basic to the entire effort, the
next step is to collect whatever data that seem appropriate and to
organise them in meaningful ways so that they can be interpreted.
Data, events, happenings and observations are of themselves only

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EDU823 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH METHODS

data, events and observations – nothing more. The significance

of the data depends on the way the human mind interprets the
information from those data. In research, unprocessed data are
worthless.

(viii) Research is by its nature, cyclical or more exactly helical: The

research process follows a cycle and begins simply. It follows
logical developmental steps.

What however, seems like a neat circle may never be conclusive. In

exploring an area, one comes across additional problems that need to be
resolved. Research begets research. To view research this way is to
invest it with a dynamic quality i.e. its true nature which is different
from the conventional view, which sees research as static, self-contained
and an end in itself. Every researcher eventually learns that genuine
research creates more problems than it resolves. Such is the nature of
the discovery of knowledge. You will note that all this while, we have
been discussing Leedy’s definition of research and his eight distinct
characteristics of research methodology.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Explain why research requires a specific plan of procedure.

Best and Khan (1995) define research as the systematic and objective
analysis and recording of controlled observations that may lead to the
development of generalisations, principles or theories, resulting in
prediction and possibly ultimate control of events. Due to the abstract
nature of this definition, they stated a summary of characteristics of
research which according to Best and Khan (1995) may help to clarify
its meaning. The characteristics are summarised below.
Research:

• emphasises the development of generalisations, principles or

theories that will be helpful in predicting future occurrences;
• is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence;
• involves gathering of new data from primary or first-hand sources
or using existing data for a new purpose;
• is often characterised by carefully designed procedures that apply
rigorous analysis;
• requires expertise;
• strives to be objective and logical, applying every possible test to
validate the procedures employed, the data collected and the
conclusions reached;
• involves the quest for answers to unresolved problems;

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EDU823 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH METHODS

• is characterised by patient and unhurried activity;

• is carefully recorded and reported; and
• sometimes requires courage.

Best and Khan believe that a researcher should be a scholarly

imaginative person, with a high integrity, who is willing to spend long
hours painstakingly seeking truth. They noted that researchers are
human beings, and ideals that have been listed are never completely
realised. Like righteousness, their goals to strive for it are not at all
achieved by every research.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

Mention three similarities and two differences between Leedy’s and

Best and Khan’s characteristics of research.

3.2 Classification of Educational Research

There are many ways to classify educational research studies, and
authors use classification systems of varying degrees of complexity.
Essentially, classification systems are valuable to the extent that they are
useful for enhancing the effectiveness and efficiency by which research
is conducted. Three systems are described here, the first based on the
goal or purpose of the research; second is the qualitative – quantitative
dichotomy that represents two distinct orientations to phenomenon being
studied. The third system is a classification of general methods used in
educational research. All of the three systems will be discussed in
greater details in this course. However, below are listed the different
types of research based on the three systems discussed above:

i. Basic and applied research;

ii. Qualitative and quantitative research;
iii. Experimental research;
iv. Quasi-experimental research;
v. Non-experimental quantitative research;
vi. Historical research; and
vii. Ethnographic research.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4

State the three systems of classifying research.

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4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have learnt the:

• different definitions and characteristics of research;

• goals of research; and
• different types of research.

5.0 SUMMARY
You have been introduced into research methods by discussing its
definitions, characteristics and types. In the next unit, we shall discuss
the steps to be taken in conducting a research.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Discuss why there is no single definition of research.
2. In your own opinion, why do we have different classifications for
educational research?

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Best, J. W. & Khan, J.V. (1995). Research in Education (7th Edition).
New Delhi: Prentice Hall. PP 20-23.

Leedy, P. D. (1997). Practical Research: Planning and Design

th
(6 Edition). New Jersey: Morill, PP103 – 110.

William, W. & Stephen, G.S. (2005). Research Methods in Education.

(8th Edition). Boston: Allyn & Bacon, PP 1 – 18.

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EDU823 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH METHODS

UNIT 2 PROBLEM SELECTION, SHAPING AND

REFINING
CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Selecting a Research Topic
3.2 Likely Sources for Suitable Research Topic
3.3 The Political Context of Problem Selection
3.4 Consultation with Supervisor
3.5 Shaping and Refining a Research Problem
3.5.1 Conceptual Development and Literature Review
3.5.2 Units of Analysis and Reactivity
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we shall discuss how to select a research topic. In most
cases, you are expected to select your research topic by yourself, though
occasionally, your supervisor may suggest a topic for you. Note that the
supervisor can only suggest as the final choice of a research topic is that
of the researcher. However, both the supervisor and the student must
necessarily agree on the topic to be researched into. Selection of an
appropriate research topic for investigation is the first hurdle to be
crossed by a researcher. In this unit, you will learn how to go about
selecting a topic for investigation.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• select a research topic for investigation;

• identify the various sources of materials for choosing a topic;
• shape and refine a research problem;
• recognise that personal interest plays a role in selecting a research
topic;
• narrow a wide research topic to workable size.

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EDU823 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH METHODS

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Selecting a Research Topic

This is the first activity in the research process and it is often the most
difficult especially for beginners. The problem must be identified with
adequate specificity. It is at this point in many studies that hypotheses –
tentative “guesses” or conjectures about whatever is being studied are
generated. Variables must be identified and defined adequately for their
use in the context of the study so that necessary data can be identified in
preparation for data collection. This is done on the basis of existing
knowledge. The literature is reviewed for information related to the
research problem and to the possible methods for conducting the
research, basically to determine what others have done and have
discovered that might be useful.

One fact a beginner should bear in mind, is that research is often tasking,
slow and rarely spectacular. It should be realised that the search for
truth and the solution to important problems take a great deal of time
and energy and intensive application of logical thinking. In the search
for a topic for study of investigation, the definition and characteristics of
research must be borne in mind.

3.2 Likely Sources for Suitable Research Topic

Many of the problems confronted in the classroom, the school or the
community lend themselves to investigation. Also, technological
changes and curricula developments are constantly bringing forth new
problems and opportunities for research. For example, the impact of
Universal Basic Education programme (UBE) on such things as primary
school enrolment, production and sale of primary science instructional
materials, the state’s concern for primary science etc. The whole area of
computer education provides avenue for a good number of research
topics through CD-ROM and Websites. Also, through international
abstracts typed for computer process. , classroom lectures, class
discussions, seminar reports and out of class exchange of ideas with
fellow students and lecturers could suggest many stimulating problems
for solution. Reading assignments, particularly journals and current
textbooks, research reports, term papers often suggest additional areas of
needed research.

The selection of an appropriate problem is a matter of asking good

questions – that is, questions that are relevant and important in the
educational context. There are different ways by which research
problems are selected, not all of them are due to the internal motivation
of the researcher, desirable as that may seem. Graduate students seeking

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EDU823 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH METHODS

research problems in order to complete the requirements for a graduate

degree typically zero in on a research problem in one or two ways. They
associate themselves closely with the research efforts of one or more
professors serving as their mentors, and identify a related problem or
one that comprises a subset of that research effort. The assumption is
that the reason students are studying with specific professors is because
of mutual interest. The second way is through discussions with other
graduate students, some of whom are farther along in the graduate
programme and can provide insight into the selection process.

Although the selection of a research problem may seem to be somewhat

of a “broad” process as described above, there are certain factors that
facilitate the process. The research problem should be of interest to the
researcher, and to at least some recognised segment of the education
profession. Its place in the context of education should be assured,
especially if the research topic is being selected for a thesis, but a
completely original research idea is rare. It is more likely that the
research will be an extension of some already completed project. The
extent of duplication or replication that is desirable in such studies
depends on the specific area and the conditions of the research.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

What is the most reliable factor to be considered in choosing a research

topic?

Another factor is the significance of the research problem for education

from either a practical or theoretical viewpoint. Trivial problems – for
example the proportions of elementary students who wear canvas or
leather shoes and the relationship of this choice of footwear to
achievement – can be researched procedurally. Many research problems
can be identified relative to the effects of school reform. A research
problem should add to the existing knowledge or contribute to the
educational process in a meaningful way.

Also, previous research can lead to new research if there is reason to

doubt or question the findings of the original study. If you have a
reason to suspect research findings, then you have a ready-made topic
on which to conduct a research yourself.

Evaluation in the form of programme evaluation and practice

effectiveness evaluation has become an increasingly important activity
in science educators’ agencies or organisations that fund science
education programme these days demand that evaluation study be
conducted if funding is to be granted or continued. Such research

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EDU823 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH METHODS

developed for various practical reasons can take many forms often such
studies are commissioned by the funding agency.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Why do funding agencies demand evaluation of project?

3.3 The Political Context of Problem Selection

The impression one might have from the preceding discussions is that
the problem selection process is largely a matter of personal preferences.
But problem selection, like most other types of human activity, cannot
be explained solely in such individual terms. In fact, many students
chose their research topics based on some theoretical orientation or
practical interest; some selection were guided by such factors as: my
supervisor had much information on the topic, so I hope studying might
help me get a better grade, or I got financial assistance to work on the
topic, etc.

This means issues in political efficacy can influence problem selection.

In the world of professional research, the situation is like that of the
student. Although the number of problems to be studied may be infinite,
the resources society can allocate to them are not. Research is a major
societal enterprise in which universities, non-governmental
organisations, private research corporations and independent researchers
compete with each other for limited resources. At the same time, there
are forces working in the society, to make sure that the concerns of the
vested interest groups receive attention from the research community. If
you select a good topic for your study, you could attract some external
sponsorship. The above discussion shows that problem selection for
grant aided research is very much a political issue.

3.4 Consultation with Supervisor

The major focus of this unit is how to select a research topic. A lot of
students waste much time searching for a topic, some even abandon the
course midway because of inability to select a topic acceptable to the
supervisor. It becomes highly frustrating when almost all the topics
presented to the supervisor are not feasible. However, the student must
be determined, patient and persistent on his/her search.

However, consultation with your supervisor is helpful. Although, the

student should not expect research problems to be assigned, consultation
with supervisors or departmental lecturers in the department is very
desirable. Most students feel insecure as they approach the choice of a
research problem. They wonder if the problem they may have in mind

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EDU823 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH METHODS

is significant enough, feasible and reasonably free of unknown

constraints. To expect a student to arrive at the supervisor’s office with
a complete acceptable problem is quite unrealistic. One of the most
important functions of the supervisor is to help student clarify their
thinking, achieve a sense of focus, and develop a manageable problem
from one that may be top, vague and complex.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

Explain reasons why some students abandon their graduate work?

3.5 Shaping and Refining a Research Problem

Not all problems in education are researchable. Some are philosophical
in nature and can be discussed but not researched. An example is a
question such as, “should the history requirement in the senior high
school be one or two courses?” Chances are that if the requirement is
two courses, the students will learn more history, but the question
remains whether it is important that they have two courses. Answers to
such questions are mostly based on value judgements. If additional
conditions are not stipulated, the questions are not researchable. Even if
problems are researchable, doing the research may not be feasible. The
necessary data for the study may be excessive or may be too difficult to
obtain. Ethical considerations may be an invasion of the individual’s
privacy. Necessary resources such as laboratory facilities and funds
may not be available. Many of these kinds of conditions can make it
impractical to research a specific problem. Sometimes, the research
topic is so broad and encompassing that by itself, it offers little guidance
in terms of how to proceed. An example is, “Policy development in
higher education in Nigeria”. This is a broad topic that lacks focus. The
next step is the research process which is translating a general topical
interest into a precise researchable problem. The scope of the problem
needs to be narrowed to manageable proportions. Refining, narrowing
and focusing a research problem do not occur at once but rather from a
continuous process involving a number of procedures, such as
conceptual development, review of literature, unit of analysis and
reactivity.

3.5.1 Conceptual Development and Literature Review

A key step in refining a research problem is conceptual development,
which entails identifying and defining the concepts that will be the focus
of the study. In exploratory studies of a course, we are entering areas
where there is little conceptual development and a major purpose of the
research itself may be to identify and define concepts. In cases where
there is an existing theory and research to rely on however, some

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EDU823 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH METHODS

conceptual development occurs as a part of formulating a research

programme. One important part of the process is to narrow the focus of
the concept so that it encompasses something that is feasible to research
in a single study. For example, study on “policy development in higher
education in Nigeria” could be reduced to Gender in Science Education
in a specified zone of the state or country. Once the key concepts have
been clearly defined, the next consideration is their measurability. As a
rule, only concepts that are in some way measurable can be used in the
research process. Eventually, concepts will have to be measured
(defining how effective are the concepts) so that any concept that is not
readily measurable will be dropped.

With concepts measurable and deemed to be measurable, the next step is

the review of related literatures on the topic. This is done to familiarize
the researcher with the current state of knowledge in this area and to
learn how others described similar problems. It is unlikely that a
researcher will formulate his/her problem like any of the previous
researchers, except in a replication study. Through review of literature,
the focus of the research project could be narrowed to ensure that what
others have done are not unnecessarily duplicated. The researcher is
also likely to avoid pitfalls by learning from the experience of others. It
might be, for example, that one or more specific approaches to a topic
have proved unproductive i.e. several studies have failed to find
significance results or strong relationships. Unless there is good reason
to believe that there were methodological weaknesses in these earlier
studies, using the same approach is likely to lead once again to failure.
Research is likely to be more productive, if it focuses on studies that
have achieved some positive results.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4

Discuss the importance of literature review in reshaping a research

problem.

3.5.2 Units of Analysis and Reactivity

Units of analysis are the specific objects or elements whose
characteristics are to be described and explained and about which data
will be collected. Although there are many units of analysis, five
commonly used in humanities are: individuals, groups, organisations,
programmes and artifacts.

Much of survey research focuses on the individual as the unit of

analysis. The typical survey, for example, obtains information from
individuals about their opinions, attitudes or behaviours. Anytime you
define a population of inquiry with reference to some personal status,

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EDU823 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH METHODS

then you are operating at the individual level of analysis. If you identify
your unit of analysis as an individual, it is important to recognise that
the entire analysis will remain at that level. At times, the study may
focus on groups such as teachers as the unit of analysis and data are
collected on group characteristics or behaviour. Also, studies in
humanities could deal with organisations such as teachers, schools,
unions, governments, and corporations. Research in humanities can
focus on programmes as the basic unit of analysis. The programme may
provide services for and it may exist as part of an organisation, but it is
still a separate unit of analysis about which data can be collected.

Another unit of analysis is the social artifacts which are simply any
material products produced by people. Examples are many, such as
books, magazines, automobiles etc. Clearly specifying the unit of
analysis in research is very important in order to avoid an illegitimate
shift in the analysis from one unit to another. Shifting from one level to
another can result in drawing erroneous conclusions. An example of this
kind of error is called ecological fallacy which is inferring something
about individuals based on data collected about groups. A clear
awareness of the unit of analysis which a researcher is dealing with can
help ensure that no illegitimate shifts are made.

Another point to consider in refining and shaping a problem is the issue

of reactivity. This term refers to the fact that people can react to being
studied and may behave differently from when they do not know they
are being studied i.e. the data collected from people who know they are
objects of study might be different from that collected from the same
people if they did not know. Therefore, a reactive research technique
changes the very thing that is being studied. Suppose you are a teacher,
and a researcher comes to observe the teaching and classroom
interaction, definitely the reaction of the teacher and the pupils would be
such that would provide the best possible classroom environment and
interaction.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 5

Summarise the two units of analysis commonly used in humanities

studies.

4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have learnt that several factors should be considered
when choosing a research topic. Information on suitable topics on
research could be obtained from a variety of sources including libraries,
journals, CD-ROM, websites etc. An identified general research topic
must be narrowed and focused into a precise researchable problem. The

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EDU823 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH METHODS

shaping and refining of a research problem involves: conceptual

development, review of literature, units of analysis and reactivity.

5.0 SUMMARY
You have studied how to select, refine and reshape a research problem.
In the next unit, you will learn concepts theories and formation of
hypotheses.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Discuss the various ways through which you can select a research
problem.
2. Explain the influence of the following on a research topic:

Literature review

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Best, J.W. & Khan, J.V. (1995). Research in Education (7th Edition).
New Delhi: Prentice Hall. PP 20 – 23.

Leedy, P.D. (1997). Practical Research: Planning and Design (6th

Edition). New Jersey: Morill, PP 103 – 110.

William, W. & Stephen, G.S. (2005). Research Methods in Education

(8th Edition) Boston: Allyn & Bacon. PP 1 – 18.

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EDU823 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH METHODS

UNIT 3 THEORIES, CONCEPTS AND HYPOTHESES

FORMULATION
CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 What is a Theory?
3.2 The Functions of Theories
3.3 Concepts and Hypotheses
3.3.1 Defining Concepts
3.3.2 Developing Hypotheses
3.3.3 The Research Problem
3.3.4 Developing Hypotheses
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the last unit, we discovered that a well articulated research topic
provides a focus for the entire study. This unit will explain how to
formulate hypotheses, concepts and theories which are all components
of scientific knowledge. A good research follows the scientific
approach in its execution. According to Kerlinger (1973), a scientific
approach is a special organised form of all reflective thinking and
inquiry and he views the formulation of a problem thus – “the scientist
will usually experience an obstacle to understanding a vague unrest
about observed and unobserved phenomena, a curiosity as to why same
is as it is. His first and most important step is to get the idea out in the
open, to express the problem in some reasonably manageable form.
Rarely will the problem spring full blown at this state. The formulation
of a good research problem requires time, reflection and examination of
all possible components.
In this unit, you are going to study about theory and concept and the role
they play in hypotheses formulation.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• define a theory
• define a concept
• explain the relationship between concept and theory
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EDU823 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH METHODS

• discover the role played by concept and theory in the formulation

of a research problem
• write statement of the problem for a chosen research topic.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 What is a Theory?

The term “theory” is used often in educational research: for example, we
talk about curriculum theory or learning theory. Kerlinger and Lee
(1999) define a theory as “a set of interrelated constructs (concepts),
definitions and propositions that present a systematic view of
phenomena by specifying relations among variables with the purpose of
explaining and predicting the phenomena” (p. 11).

Brodbeck (1963) includes many of the same ideas in her discussion of

theory, adding that a theory is a set of laws and that all statements in a
theory, both explained and explaining are generalisations. The laws
doing the explaining are the axioms; the generalisations explained are
the theorems. Theories can range from a single, simple generalisation to
a complex formulation of laws. She thus summarises that “a theory is a
generalisation or series of generations by which we attempt to explain
some phenomena in a systematic manner”.

In comprehending theories and the role they play, it is helpful to realise

that “theories are used in our everyday lives, although they may not be
called theories or people may not be aware of using them. Nonetheless,
our decisions and behaviour are based on our past experience and what
we have learned from others. From these experiences, you can
generalise that certain physical, psychological and social processes are
operative and will continue to be important in the future with predictable
consequences. This is our “common sense” theory about how the world
operates and forms the basis for our decisions.

Unlike common sense theories, theories in research are precise, detailed

and explicit. It is however important to recognise that a theory is always
tentative in nature. By conducting research, scientists gather evidence
that either supports or fails to support a theoretical explanation or
practice intervention. No theory stands or falls on the basis of one trial.
Theories are tested over a long period of time by many investigations.
Only with the accumulation of research outcomes can you begin to have
confidence concerning the validity of a theory.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Define a theory.

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EDU823 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH METHODS

3.2 The Functions of Theories

Basically, theory helps provide a framework by serving as the point of
departure for the pursuit of a research problem. Theory identifies the
crucial factors. It provides a guide for organising and connecting the
various facets of the research. However, besides providing the
systematic view of the factors under study, the theory may also very
well identify gaps, weak points, and inconsistencies that indicate the
need for additional research. Also, the development of the theory may
light the way for continued research on the phenomena under study. In
educational research, theory serves as synthesising function, combining
ideas and individual bits of empirical information into a set of constructs
that provides for deeper understanding, broader meaning and wider
application. In a sense, a theory attaches meaning to facts and places
them in proper perspective. Through this process, the theory aids in
defining the research problem; that is, it helps to identify the proper
questions to be asked in the context of the specific project.

As indicated in Kerlinger and Leeds (1999) definition, a theory also

serves the purposes of explaining and predicting. It suggests an
explanation of observed phenomena and it can also predict as yet
unobserved or undiscovered factors by indicating their presence.
Operating under the assumption that the theory is consistent, the
researcher is then tipped off: in terms of what to look for. Another
function of theory is to provide one or more generalisations that can be
tested and then used in practical applications and further research. This
development of generalisations is based on the assumption that
generalisations do exist in education (or in any area under study) and
that individual observations are special cases of such generalisations.

3.2.1 Characteristics of a Good Theory

Conditions under which research is conducted and data are obtained
within and across studies tend to be more valuable when incorporated
into a meaningful unit: standing alone, they may not mean much. As the
facts of the research study, the data derive significance from the theory
or theories which they fit. Conversely, the theories become acceptable
to the extent that they enhance the meaning of the data. Through this
process, more adequate theories and unobstructed facts are secured;
theory stimulates research and conversely, research stimulates theory
development and theory testing.

The criterion by which we judge a theory is not its truth or falsity, but
rather its usefulness. Theories sometimes decrease in usefulness in the
light of new knowledge, and they are combined, replaced and refined as
more knowledge is made available.

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EDU823 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH METHODS

A good theory is developed in such a way that the generalisations can be

tested. The theory must be compatible with the observations made
relative to it and with already existing knowledge. It must adequately
explain the events or phenomena under study. The greater the
generalisability of the theory the more useful it will be because of its
wider applicability.

Another characteristic of a good theory is reflected in the law of

parsimony, which holds that a theory should be stated in the simplest
form that adequately explains the phenomena. This does not mean that
all theories should be simple statements; rather, they should be stated
succinctly and precisely, avoiding ambiguities and unnecessary
complexity. Important factors must not be overlooked, and the
comprehensives of the theory must be adequate for its purpose.

3.3 Concepts and Hypotheses

3.3.1 Defining Concepts

An important part of theories are concepts. These are mental constructs
or images developed to symbolise ideas, persons, things or events.
Concepts are the “elements of theories discussed earlier, they are the
building blocks that are interrelated in propositions that form the
explanatory statements of a theory. Scientific concepts, like worlds in
everyday language, are also symbols that can refer to an extremely
broad range or referents. They may refer to something concrete like
mass or something highly abstract like cohesion and adhesion.

Monnete et al (1994) state that scientific analysis involves two types of

definitions of concepts – each functioning at a different level of analysis
and serving different purposes. At the theoretical or abstract level,
concepts are given nominal definitions, verbal definitions in which
scientists agree that one set of words or symbols will be used to stand
for another set of words or symbols. Nominal definitions are directly
analogous to the dictionary definitions of ordinary words in which a
phrase is designed to give meaning to the word or concept being defined
(Cohen and Nagel, 1934).

An important step in moving from the abstract level of theory to the

concrete level of research is to give concepts operational definition:
definitions that indicate the precise procedures or operations, to be
followed in measuring a concept. The process of moving from nominal
to operational definitions can be complex because concepts are more
general than abstract, and controversy often arises over exactly what
they refer to. So it should be evident that operationalising concepts can
be difficult, complex and sometimes, controversial. The process of

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moving from the nominal to the operational level is called measurement

and will be treated in this course.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Explain why we should be cautious of operationalising concepts.

3.3.2 Developing Hypotheses

Any attempt to include all specific information in the statement of the
problem would make the statement cumbersome and unmanageable, so
hypotheses may be developed to provide more specificity and direction.
Hypotheses may be derived directly from the statement of the problem.
They may be based on the research literature, or in some cases, they may
be generated from data collection and analysis. A hypothesis is a
conjecture or a guess at the solution to a problem or the status of the
situation. In a general sense, hypothesis take on some of the
characteristics of a theory, which is usually considered a larger set of
generalisations about a certain phenomenon. Thus, a theory might
include several hypotheses. Logically, the approach is to proceed so that
a decision can be made about whether or not the hypotheses are tenable.
This is called testing the hypothesis; the results of such a test either
support or refute the hypothesis.

What are the characteristics of hypothesis?

There should be a definite reason for the hypothesis either from a theory
or from some evidence that it is a useful and valuable hypothesis.
Typically, a hypothesis states a relationship or effect between variables
and this should be done in a straightforward and clear manner. Finally,
a hypothesis should be testable; indeed much of research is directed
towards testing hypothesis. A weakness of many hypotheses is that they
are too broad to pinpoint the specific problem under study – as for
example, in the following hypothesis, “Bright students have good
attitudes towards school.”

The term bright, good and attitudes represent types of broad, undefined
generalities. Some type of vague relationship between brightness and
good attitude is implied, but little direction for research is provided. To
convert the statement into an acceptable hypothesis, it might be changed
to read:

“A positive relationship exists between the scores on the (specific) IQ

test and the (specific) attitude inventory for students aged nine through
eleven”.

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This new statement of the hypothesis includes expected relationship and

it is testable. It contains the operational definitions of the statements
involved: academic aptitude (brightness) and attitude towards school.
These variables are defined by scores on a specific test and a specific
inventory.

Developing hypotheses from theories is a creative process that depends

in part on the insight of the investigator. Because hypotheses link
theories to particular concrete settings, the researcher’s insight is often
the trigger to making such connections. Also, researches combine two
or more theories to develop hypotheses that neither theory alone is
capable of generating.

3.3.3 The Research Problem

The heart of the research project is the problem. The first important
state in a research is to articulate an acceptable problem. Whatever you
do should have one purpose: to formulate a problem that is carefully
phrased and represents the single goal of the research efforts. The
selection of an appropriate research problem is a matter of asking good
questions …. that is questions that are important and relevant in the
educational context. Successful researchers at every step in the
investigation ask themselves; “what am I doing, and for what purpose
am I doing it?”

Selection of a research problem does not necessarily mean it is

adequately stated. Usually, a problem requires some modification to get
it into a suitable form for the study to proceed effectively. A problem
may be stated broadly and then systematically restricted through a
review of the literature in the initial stages of the research effort. It is
better to work in this direction than to begin with a problem that is too
narrow and then attach pieces to expand it.

Research problems may be stated in a declarative or descriptive manner

or in question form. Many researchers, possibly the majority, prefer the
question form, but either form is acceptable. The question form may aid
in focusing the problem, and it is especially effective when sub-
problems, are included within the larger research problem. The most
important characteristic of the problem statement is that it must provide
adequate focus and direction for the research.

At this point, it might be useful to give an example of satisfactory and

unsatisfactory problem statements. A term such as “the elementary
school curriculum” is far too broad to serve as a problem statement: in
fact, it really contains no problem. A satisfactory statement might be:
“A study of the effects of elementary school curriculum practices on the

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EDU823 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH METHODS

reading achievement of primary six pupils in Lagos State”. Or in

question form, we might have “What are the effects of elementary
school curriculum practices on primary six pupils in Lagos state?”

A good statement of the problem should provide the researcher with

direction in pursuing the research. The basic directive for the statement
of the problem is: Always state the problem in a complete grammatical
sentence in as few words as possible.

A problem could be: “A survey of the level of understanding of

chemistry textbooks by Nigerian Secondary School students”.

This is a problem. The next stage will be to state the purpose of the
problem. This may include to:

i. determine the difficulty level of the textbooks;

ii. find if all the books treat all topics in the syllabus sequentially;
iii. compare the understanding of the books between students in
public schools with those in private schools; and
iv. find out if students in rural areas understand the books as much as
those in urban areas.

Having stated the purpose, the next will be the research questions. Once
the research objectives are stated, both the research questions and
hypotheses will be easier to state. Research questions based on the topic
could be:

i. Do Nigerian students understand the chemistry textbooks

available in the country?
ii. Do all the chemistry books treat all the topics in the syllabus
sequentially?
iii. Do urban students understand the chemistry textbooks better than
the rural students?
iv. Do public schools students understand the chemistry text books
better than private school students?

More questions and objectives could be raised.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

What will be the meaning of the variable “understanding” in the study

above?

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EDU823 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH METHODS

3.3.4 Developing Hypotheses

The wide and controversial nature of this topic is deliberate as it will be
used in discussing other aspects of this course. Hypotheses can be stated
in two different forms either in a directional manner or in a ‘null’ form.
Examples of directional hypotheses are:

i. Urban students understand the chemistry textbooks better than

rural students.
ii. Public school students do not understand the chemistry textbooks
better than the private school students.

Null Form:

a. There is no significant difference in the understanding of the

chemistry textbooks between urban and rural school students.
b. There is no significant difference in the understanding of the
chemistry textbooks between public and private school students.

Hypotheses could also be stated in a correlational manner, such as:

“There is no relationship between the understanding of the physics

textbooks by urban and rural students”

The concise title of the problem, the research objectives, the research
questions and the hypotheses constitute the very important part of the
research known as the research problem. If there is no problem, there
will be no research because research is all about solving the identified
problem.

Stating the Hypotheses and/or Research Questions

Hypotheses as discussed earlier in this unit are tentative, intelligent

guesses posited to direct one’s thinking toward the solution of the
problem. Research questions provide another means for guiding and
directing researchers thinking and are more common in non-quantitative
studies. Hypotheses and questions are helpful because the researchers
need some points around which to orient the research in searching for
relevant data and in establishing a tentative goal against which to project
the data.

You should note that hypotheses are neither proved nor disproved. They
are tentative propositions set forth as possible explanations for an
occurrence or a provisional conjecture to assist in guiding the
investigation of a problem.

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EDU823 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH METHODS

The Null Hypothesis (H0)

The null hypothesis relates to a statistical method of interpreting

conclusions about population’s characteristics that are inferred from the
variable relationships observed in samples. The null hypotheses assert
that observed differences or relationships merely results from chance
errors inherent in the sampling process. This will be discussed further in
this course.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4

Name the various ways by which hypotheses can be stated.

4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have learnt that:

• a theory is a set of interrelated constructs; and,

• guide for research and integration of multiple observations;
• concepts are building blocks and operationalising concepts are
difficult;
• hypotheses link theories to particular concrete settings;
• the heart of the research project is the problem;
• hypotheses can be stated in the directional and null forms;
• the concise topic, objectives, questions and hypotheses constitute
the statement of the problem; and
• null hypothesis asserts that observed differences or relationships
merely result from chance errors inherent in the sampling
process.

5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, the role of theory and concept in the formulation of
hypotheses were discussed. Also, how to state the statement of the
problem involving the topic, objectives, questions and hypotheses were
also discussed. In the next unit, components of a problem feasibility of
a study will be discussed.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Explain what is meant by a theory?
2. Discuss the role of concepts in formulating hypotheses.
3. Write one each of research questions, objectives and hypotheses
on the topic: “The effect of Remedial Mathematics on students’
performance in chemistry”.

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EDU823 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH METHODS

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Best, J.W. & Khan, J.V. (1995). Research in Education (7th Edition).
New Delhi: Prentice Hall. PP 20 – 23.

Cresswell, J.W. (1994). “Research Design: Quantitative and Qualitative

Approaches” Thousand Oaks C.A.: Sagem PP 105 – 107.

William, W. & Stephen, G.S. (2005). Research Methods in Education

(8th Edition). Boston: Allyn & Bacon, PP 1 – 18.

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EDU823 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH METHODS

MODULE 2 STATING PROBLEMS, LITERATURE

REVIEW AND VARIABLES
Unit 1 Components of Setting a Problem and
Feasibility of a Study
Unit 2 Review of Literature
Unit 3 Constructs and Variables

UNIT 1 COMPONENTS OF SETTING A PROBLEM

AND FEASIBILITY OF A STUDY
CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Components of Setting a Problem
3.1.1 Delimitation
3.1.2 Assumptions
3.1.3 Significance
3.1.4 Definition of Terms
3.2 Feasibility of a Research Problem
3.2.1 Time Constraints
3.3 Anticipating and Avoiding Problems
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
In unit three, you learnt about the major components of the research
problem – objectives, research questions and hypotheses. The statement
of the problem establishes the main objectives of the research project.
The sub-problem provides ways of managing the study for focus and
scope. Other components of the research that will be discussed in this
unit are delimiting the research, stating the assumption, discussing the
significance and definition of terms. By the time you have selected,
shaped and refined a research problem, the discussion of the feasibility
of the study becomes important. Often, practical considerations of what
can be reasonably accomplished given the time and resources available
can force the researchers sometimes painfully to reduce the scale of a
project. A careful and honest appraisal of the time and money required
to accomplish a project will be useful in determining the feasibility of
the project as planned and show if a modification is necessary. Time

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EDU823 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH METHODS

and money are two important issues when considering a research,

particularly those for fulfilling a requirement for the award of a degree
like you are doing now. This unit will address the components of setting
the problem as well as the feasibility of the study.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• delimit a research
• state the assumptions of a study
• describe significance of a study
• define terms that may assume specific meanings in a study
• carry out a feasibility on the researchability of a study.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Components of Setting a Problem

As mentioned in the introduction, there are components of the setting of
the problem, which help in shaping and refining the problem and
provide a focus and manageable scope for it. They also help the
researcher to quicken the pace of the study and the reader in
understanding it. Each component is discussed below.

3.1.1 Delimitation
These are the boundaries of the study. For example, a study on
“Attitude of students towards integrated science” may be concerned with
Junior Secondary School (JSS) II students with a defined location such
as state, local government or a school or schools in a community. Often,
conclusions are not to be extended beyond this population sampled
unless the researcher can justify beyond reasonable doubt that the
additional groups have the same characteristics. Also, this aspect of the
study should provide full information of what the researcher intends to
do and not to do. For example, in choosing the subjects for the study,
the researcher may decide not to include all students who transferred
from other schools and those who attend science classes irregularly.

The problem of delimitation often arises because of large area that might
be covered by the statement of the problem. For example, the researcher
might discover that students from upper or middle class have all the
recommended textbooks and other instructional materials. She may
decide later to classify the students into high and low income groups in
order to find out the attitude of groups towards science. This raises a
problem to the researcher thus: Should the new issue be included into
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EDU823 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH METHODS

the problem? Is there any issue that could be deleted to make room for
the new one? Does the inclusion still leave the study with a critical mass
of the problem? All these are questions that are associated with the
delimitation of the problem.

The discussion shows that only a researcher who thinks carefully about
the problem will distinguish between what is relevant and what is not
relevant to the problem. All variables and issues considered irrelevant
by the researcher must be firmly ruled out in the statement of
delimitation. For a beginner, this is one of the areas where consultation
with the supervisor or advisor is necessary. Most beginners tend to
write statement of the problem that they could hardly manage. Best and
Khan (1995) provided some distinction between limitations and
delimitations. Limitations are those conditions beyond the control of a
researcher that may place restrictions on the conclusions of the study
and their applications to other situations, such as administrative policies
that do not allow the use of more than one class in an experiment, an
instrument that has not been validated or due to some reasons, inability
to randomly select and assign subjects to experimental and control
groups.
Delimitations on the other hand are the boundaries of the study.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Explain the terms “limitations” and “delimitations”.

3.1.2 Assumptions
Assumptions are statements of what the researcher believes to be facts
but cannot verify. A basic assumption in studies that involve the
completion of questionnaires is that the respondents will complete the
questionnaires providing to the best of their abilities, honest and reliable
information without any biases. Suppose the researcher wants to
determine by means of experimental method (to be discussed later)
whether the treatment produced the result hypothesised, the researcher
must assume that the test is valid, and if the treatment is a class test or
examination, that it is within the capability of the examinees.

Assumptions are what the researcher takes for granted. If the

assumptions of a researcher are known, that makes it easier to evaluate
the conclusions of that result from such assumptions. You should note
that in research, you do not leave anything to chance; therefore, all
assumptions that have bearing on a problem must be clearly and
unreservedly spelt out. According to Leedy (1997), to discover
assumptions, you have to ask yourself “what am I taking for granted

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EDU823 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH METHODS

with respect to the problem?” The answer to this question will bring
your assumptions into view.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

With the aid of an example, explain the meaning of the term

“assumption” in a research.

3.1.3 Significance
Part of setting the problem is for the researcher to state clearly the
reasons for undertaking the study. To address this aspect of the study,
you must ask yourself such questions as, of what use is the study? For
educational studies, the beneficiaries of the findings are mostly the
pupils/students, teachers, educators, ministry of education and its
various organs, parents, the public, examination bodies etc. It is
therefore necessary to state how the study will be useful to some, if not
all the groups. For example, a study on “causes of poor performance of
pupils in secondary school physics examinations” will be useful to:

i. teachers to assist them perhaps in their approaches to physics

teaching;
ii. examination bodies – to improve their techniques of setting
questions and ascertain the pupils’ views as to the difficulty level
of the questions and such other related issues as the time
allocated to the questions;
iii. parents, in terms of the type of support they should provide for
their children/wards to ensure better performance and
iv. curriculum developers, to assist in curriculum review of
programme etc.

In writing the significance of the problem, attention should be

concentrated on each of the hypothesis/research questions.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

In not more than five sentences, write the significance of the topic: “The
effects of teacher competence on students’ performance in integrated
science”.

3.1.4 Definition of Terms

It is important to define all unusual terms that could be misinterpreted.
This definition helps to establish the frame of reference with which the
researcher approaches the problem. The variables to be defined as
mentioned earlier in unit three of this course should be defined in

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EDU823 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH METHODS

operational terms. Such expressions/terms as academic performance,

difficulty, level, ‘understanding’ when used in special contexts within a
study, must be operationally defined. Academic grades assigned by
teachers or scores on standardised achievements are operational
definitions.

You should know that without knowing explicitly what a term means,
you cannot evaluate the research or determine whether the researcher
has carried out what, in the problem, was mentioned as the major
objectives of the study. The definitions must interpret the term as it is
employed in relation to the study, e.g. a study on students’
understanding of “matter” – the terms “understanding” and “matter”
must be operationally defined. You should bear in mind that in defining
a term in your study, you determine whatever you wish the term to mean
within the context of the problem or its sub-problems.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4

In the study “effects of teachers’ competence in a chemistry course”,

define the term competence operationally.

3.2 Feasibility of a Research Problem

By the time researchers have selected, shaped and refined a research
problem, the problem should be sufficiently clear that a consideration of
practical issues involving its feasibility is in order. Practical
considerations of what can reasonably be accomplished given the time
and resources available can force researchers sometimes painfully to
reduce the scale of a project. A careful and honest appraisal of the time
and money required to accomplish a study will be useful in determining
the feasibility and reveal if a change in aims and objectives is necessary.
The appraisal aspects of a project’s feasibility centre primarily on two
related issues – time and money. Also, other issues of importance
include special aptitude of the researcher to the problem, availability of
data and special equipment, etc. A checklist will be provided as part of
this discussion.

3.2.1 Time Constraints

In determining a research, one of the major considerations is whether
there will be sufficient time to complete adequately what you hope to
do. This is very important particularly when you are working within a
specified time such as completing a study or dissertation for a degree.
Some of the major factors related to time in a study are:

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 EDU823 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH METHODS

i. Population: If the population has characteristics that are fairly

widespread, then a sufficient number of people will be readily
available from which to collect data. If however a study focuses
on people with special characteristics (e.g. first class degree
holders in physics and mathematics) that are somewhat rare, then
data collection might be problematic and time consuming.

ii. Proper Development of Measuring Instrument: All techniques

for gathering data should be tested before the actual study is
conducted. This surely is time consuming. If a study involves a
host of pre-tests, then it means that a lot of time will be consumed
in modification and administration of the test as well as analysis
of data collected.

iii. Time Required for Data Collection: The time required may
range from a short period of less than one hour to years
depending on the type of study. Due to the variability of the time
required for data collection, time should be properly looked into
when considering the feasibility of a study.

iv. Time for Analysis of Data: Generally, the less structured a

questionnaire is, the more time the analysis consumes. Just like
the time for data collection, the time for data analysis should also
be the concern of the researcher.

3.2.2 Financial Constraints

The financial expenditures associated with a study is another constraint
on feasibility. The major areas that involve finance are:

i. Production of questionnaire;
ii. Allowance(s) to research Assistant(s);
iii. Transportation cost;
iv. Cost of Analysis of Data
v. Office supplies and equipment.
vi. Use of computer.

In recent times, respondents to questionnaires demand some repository.

Some costs are at times difficult to quantify hence you put all together
under “miscellaneous”. Most funding bodies demand a proposed budget
for a study. In that case, all possible sources of expenditure must be
clearly spelt out. It is also advisable to estimate how much your thesis
would cost you. This will help you scout for the money in time. Lack
of money and efforts to get some could delay a well thought out research
for some time.

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EDU823 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH METHODS

3.3 Anticipating and Avoiding Problems

Problems related to time and financial considerations arise virtually in
all research studies, but their impact on the outcome of the research can
be minimised if they can be anticipated as much as possible, especially
during the planning stage, when the details of the study are easier to
change. A knowledgeable researcher may be able to identify trouble
spots in his/her proposal and suggest modifications to avoid them. It is
also necessary to obtain whatever permissions or consents that may be
needed early in the planning stage of the study.

Also, it is necessary to conduct a pilot study, which is a preliminary run-

through of all the procedures that surface during the main study. Any
problems that surface during the pilot study can then be dealt with
before the main study. If inadequate time or money is the problem,
perhaps the project can be scaled down. It is possible to reduce the
sample size, or the number of hypotheses, mail questionnaires instead of
personal distribution of questionnaires. It is advisable not to abandon a
project until all efforts to make it feasible have been investigated.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 5

Elaborate on two major constraints to address when considering the

feasibility of a study.

4.0 CONCLUSION
This unit discussed that in setting up a research, the following terms
need to be addressed: limitation, delimitation and significance of the
study. Also, assumptions and operational definitions of some terms and
expressions need attention. Time and money are also two major
constraints to a study. How to conduct a feasibility study was also
discussed. This unit ends with identification of problems and how to
remediate them.

5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have studied the important aspects of setting up a
problem. You found that time and money are two major constraints in a
study. You also discovered that identification of possible problems
helps to strengthen the study by reviewing it. The next unit will discuss
how to read, study and understand literature review for a given problem.

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EDU823 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH METHODS

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Choose a research topic, identify the major problems you envisage and
suggest ways to solve them.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

th
Best, J.W. & Khan, J.V. (1995). Research in Education (7 Edition).
New Delhi: Prentice Hall. PP 20 – 23.

Cresswell, J.W. (1994). “Research Design: Quantitative and Qualitative

Approaches” Thousand Oaks C.A.: Sagem PP 105 – 107.

Leedy, P.D. (1997). Practical Research: Planning and Design (6th

Edition). New Jersey: Morill, PP 103 – 110.

Monette, D.R.; Sullivan, T.S. & Dejong, R.D. (1994). Applied Social
Research: Tool for the Human Services (3rd Edition) Chicago:
Harcourt Brace College Publishers, PP 3- 8.

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EDU823 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH METHODS

UNIT 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Purpose of the Review of Literature
3.1.1 The Activities of the Review of the Literature
3.1.2 Sources of Information
3.2 Online Computer Searches: Database Access to Literature
3.3 Analytical and Theoretical Frameworks
3.4 How to Write on the Related Literature
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
One of the early activities in the research process is the review of the
research literature – the body of research. Information will be needed
about the problem; so, it can be put in the proper context and the
research can proceed effectively. Most researchers probably begin their
literature search on the internet. This can be a frustrating and
overwhelming experience because of the sheer volume of information.
A search using Yahoo, Google or another search engine will produce
more sources than can be used in a lifetime.

With the amount of information available from a variety of sources, the

review of the literature is by no means a trivial task. It is a systematic
process that requires careful and perceptive reading and attention to
detail. In the review of literature, researcher attempts to gather
information relevant to the research problem at hand. The process
centres on three questions:

1. Where is the information found?

2. What should be done with information after it has been found?
3. What is made of the information?

The first question deals with the specific sources, both electronic and
hard copy. For most students, these sources can be found in or obtained
through the library and the internet. Finding the information often
involves using reference works such as indexes of periodical, literature.
Computer searches of databases are very helpful in focusing the search
and speeding up the process of sorting through the literature and

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EDU823 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH METHODS

identifying the potentially most useful sources. The sheer volume of

available information on most topics makes searching through a
computer almost imperative for any extensive review.

The second question deals with how information is assembled and

summarised. Assuming the content of a report is relevant to the research
problem under study, the information must be retained in a useable
manner.

Answering the third question requires a critical analysis of the reports

reviewed about analytical and theoretical frameworks, purpose of
reviews, how to search for related literatures, defining the scope and
indicating the source of the related literature etc.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of the unit, you should be able to:

• state the purpose of the review of literature;

• explain how to begin a search for related literature;
• discover how to organise the related literature; and
• write analytical and theoretical frameworks.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Purpose of Literature Review

According to Leedy (1997), review of literature has several purposes.
Primarily, it is to assist you in confronting your research problem.
In
any study, your own problem is central. Everything you embark upon is
because it helps you to resolve your own problem or answer your
research questions. When you know what others have done, you will be
in a position to investigate your chosen problem with deeper insight and
complete knowledge. Other benefits of literature review are:

i. Informing the researcher of what has already been done in the

area.
ii. More specifically, limiting and identifying the research problem
and possible hypotheses.
iii. Providing possible research design and methodological
procedures that may be used in the research study.
iv. Providing suggestions for possible modifications in the research
to avoid unanticipated difficulties.
v. Identifying possible gaps in the research.
vi. Providing a backdrop for interpreting the results of the research
study.
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EDU823 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH METHODS

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

State two benefits of’ literature review in a study.

3.1.1 The Activities of the Review of the Literature

As indicated in figure 1 below, the existing body of knowledge relative
to the research problem provides information for identifying the
problem. As shown below, the general activities of conducting a
research study were ordered in their most likely sequence of occurrence.
The review of the literature itself consists of several specific activities
that, to a large extent, also take place in a sequence. These activities
shown in the flowchart in Figure 1 are initiated after the research
problem has been identified, at least tentatively. The order of activities
follows the flow of the arrows in the figure.

Figure 1: Flowchart of Activities in the Review of Literature

Identify descriptors Identify source such as

(Keywords or phrases) an appropriate index or
relevant to the problem retrieval system

Identify titles of potentially

relevant reports

Locate copies of reports to

be reviewed

Delete non-
relevant reports
Separate the reports in
order or into categories of
relevance or importance Prepare abstracts or summaries
for the reports containing
relevant information

Prepare a complete
bibliography
Write the review of the
literature

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EDU823 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH METHODS

Like most activities or steps in a process, there are efficient and

inefficient ways to review the literature. Rather than going to the library
or the internet and haphazardly beginning to take notes, the researcher
should follow a systematic process, as represented by the activities in
the flowchart. Although even this process may involve some
inefficiency in locating sources and reports, efficiency will be enhanced
by following the process. Another important procedural point in
conducting activities is, for each activity, to do as complete and accurate
an initial job as possible. For example, when a relevant report is located
and an abstract is prepared, a complete bibliographic entry for the report
should be included and page numbers of potential quotations should be
noted. If a report is relevant enough to include in the review, sufficient
information should be obtained from it so that there is no confusion later
about what was done (conditions, procedures, individuals involved etc.)
or about the results. Doing the review of literature in this suggested
manner, will not only reduces frustration but also saves time.

3.1.2 Sources of Information

There is no scarcity of reports of research studies related to education.
Studies are published in books, periodicals, technical reports, conference
proceedings and academic theses. Most of the recent reports are
available in electronic form and can be accessed at your institution’s
library.

The Library

Over the years, the library has had some basic functions as a repository
of writings, books and manuscripts; a kind of literary museum where
manuscripts and books are kept and added as the slow advance in
knowledge become available.

In the 20th Century and especially in the latter half of the century – the
role of the library changed. An explosion of information, and
knowledge occurred. Research altered old ideas in almost every domain
of human interest. The availability of new knowledge caught many
libraries unprepared. Most are struggling to revamp their original
purpose of providing a repository of written thought and factual
information. Libraries have come to grip with two important facts.

First, they can no longer hold all the information written within their
walls. With the vast amount of information being produced daily, it is
unfeasible to hold a majority of it in any one location. The space cannot
be afforded, nor can the ever increasing purchasing cost.

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EDU823 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH METHODS

Secondly, and perhaps more importantly, library patrons are becoming

more sophisticated in their wants and desires. Ease and speed of access
are two important priorities. New ways of storing vast amount of
information (e.g. CD-ROM) are replacing and augmenting the shelves of
books and periodicals that line up the walls of the library. Surely, in the
future, the library must continue to evolve. With advances in
telecommunications, libraries may exist literally without limits. Now if
you want to browse the shelves for related works, you can, if you want
to access quickly a specific bit of information, you can search the entire
collection in a matter of seconds. All these capabilities are currently
available. As a powerful tool for the researcher, the library continues to
evolve.

In well organised libraries, in place of card catalog, you have computer

terminals and keyboards. These are standard equipment for most
college libraries. With this, the researcher can access vast amount of
information, search countless online databases and manipulate factual
information with a facility that saves time, increase accuracy and
boggles the mind at its efficiency (this is more in the developed world).

Research has become less disciplinary and more global in both problems
and it’s methodology. This change has created demands that libraries
had never faced before. In recent times, most college libraries have
replaced the card-catalog with an electronic database containing the total
resources in the library. Now, you can sit before a keyboard and type in
the area of knowledge or the title of the book. With a flick of a finger,
the information about the book will be instantaneously displayed on the
monitor screen. There is no more need to paw through long trays of
individual cards in a catalogue file and no more searching through heavy
index volumes for a periodical article that may turn out to be irrelevant
to your needs. These days, the principal publishers of indexes are
encoding their information electronically. The use of the computer
facilities for information gathering is just at its gestation stage in most
libraries in Nigeria. It is hoped that within the next few years, the
situation will improve.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

State two modifications that have taken place in the role of the library as
a source of literature for research.

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3.2 Online Computer Searches: Database Access to

Literature
You have been told about CD-ROM journal indexes as a valuable tool in
identifying and locating different references for the researcher. In most
cases, the CD-ROM searches are carried out by the end-user and they
pertain to one specific database. Just like CD-ROM database searches,
online searches involve a computer looking for a specific keyword by
reading the text of a journal article title, abstract, as well as all other
words in the record.

“Reviewing all the abstracts over many years would be utterly

impossible for a human being but it is easy for a computer” (Krathwol,
1993). A major difference between the two types of searches relates to
the scale of the search. Whereas the CD-ROM search usually focuses
on a single database, the online search can have access to approximately
4,000 databases. The database provides access to literally billions of
records.

Advantages of online computer search are:

• access to large number of record of the world’s published

literature;
• reduced time required in comparison with a manual search;
• frequent update that narrows the gap between publication of
documents and user access.
• search requests tailored to use needs immense breadth of search
topic that could not be performed manually; and
• fast turnaround from request to results.

Limitations of online computer search are:

• Possibility of unavailability of cited documents, some charges for

access to various databases; and
• No guarantee that human input of indexed materials and
keywords will provide complete retrieval relevant records;

- Databases documentation that varies in quality and coverage;

- Some training required by user.
- Turn around time dependent on system availability and
competency of the searcher.

As mentioned earlier, most libraries in Nigeria are yet to embark on

computerised service to the public. The write up is to sensitise you on
what to expect in the near future particularly as the Federal Ministry of

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Education through the National Universities Commission is to hasten

the use of CD-ROM, ON-LINE service, etc. soonest (Leedy, 1997).

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

State two advantages and two disadvantages of the online search for
literature.

3.3 Analytical and Theoretical Frameworks

Reading as much as time permits about your topic may give you ideas
about approach and methods which had not occurred to you, and may
also give you ideas about how you might classify and present your own
data. It may help you to devise a theoretical framework as a basis for
the analysis and interpretation of data. It is not enough to collect facts
and to describe what it is. All researchers collect facts but must organise
and classify them into a coherent pattern. Verma and Beard (1998)
suggest that researchers need to:

Identify and explain relevant relationship between the facts. In other

words, the researcher must produce a concept or build a theoretical
structure that can explain facts and the relation between them……The
importance of theory is to help the investigator summarise previous
information and guide his future course of action. Sometime the
formulation of theory may indicate missing ideas or links and the kind of
additional data required. Thus, a theory is an essential tool of research
in stimulating the advancement of knowledge still further.

As you read previous studies, get into the habit of examining how
authors classify their findings, how they explore relationship between
facts and how facts and relationship are explained. Methods used by
others may be unsuitable for your purposes, but they may give you ideas
about how you might categorise your own data, and ways in which you
may be able to draw on the work of other researchers to support or
refute your own argument and conclusions. You will recall that the role
of theories in research work particularly in the formulation of
hypotheses had been discussed earlier in Unit 3. You may like to review
that section of the unit to enable you understand this section properly.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4

Discuss two issues you should take special note of while reading
previous studies.

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3.4 How to Write on the Related Literature

As you begin to collect information, articles, etc. about your study, you
will need some type of structure to organise your information. Nothing
is more aggravating than returning to the library to locate an article you
know you already possess but currently cannot find. One easy way to
organise is to set up a database that includes records of each article and
book you possess. These records can include fields containing the title,
author, date, journal reference, special keyboard, an identification
number, as well as notes you have taken while studying the item. These
items can be filled or neatly packed together. When any is needed, a
quick search of the database should reveal where they are located.

• Computerise as much as possible. If you have a personal

computer, open a file and computerise your data as much as
possible. You can always work out the format of presentation e.g
in an alphabetical order.

• Be systematic and thorough: In research, you should “make

haste slowly” be careful not to make careless, half complete notes
that, when consulted later – are either entirely unintelligible or so
lacking in essential information that they are practically useless.
The original time spent seeking out the item can be wasted, it
would be much better to take care and do the job right in the first
place. Little is gained by rushing so that you fail to get adequate
or correct information the first time around and cannot read it
when referring to it later. After you have amassed an impressive
literature, you will need to arrange your information in some
order.

• Get the proper psychological orientation: Be clear in your

mind what you are trying to do. The review of literature is
a
discussion of previous publications that bear directly on the topic
you are investigating. Consider the review of related literature to
be a review with someone about what others have written in
relation to what you plan to do. Viewing the literature section in
this way, will help you develop the proper psychological
perspectives and will help you see your own effort in relation to
other researchers.
•
Have a Plan: Writing a review of literature takes planning and
organisation. This effort requires structure, unity and coherence;
perhaps a careful consideration of the problem should suggest
relevant areas for discussion and indicate the direction that the
discussion of the related literature should take.

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• Emphasis relatedness: Keep your reader constantly aware of

how the literature you are discussing is related to your problems.
Point out precisely what that relationship is. Remember that you
are writing a review of the related literature. Literature review
should not create a chain of pointless, isolated summaries of the
writing of others. Jegede says ………. Okebukola says ………..
Oloyede says ………. Olarinoye says …….. This is not a
discussion of related literature as no attempt is made to
demonstrate the relatedness of the literature to the present
problem. Whenever you cite a study, account for it in terms of
the problem you are investigating. Specifically explain precisely
what the relationship is. Unless you can establish such a
relationship, you may consider whether there is need to include
the study at all.

• Review the literature, do not reproduce it: A sound discussion

shows the relationship of the problem to the broad environment
of similar studies done by others. This is the sole purpose of the
literature discussion. To show the connection between the
discussion of the literatures that others have produced and the
investigation you are carrying out, Leedy (1997) has made the
following recommendations:

a. Write out your problems at the top of the page where you cannot
lose sight of it. By this, it will continue to remind you of the
central axis on which the entire study revolves.
b. Divide the problem by numbering its various parts.
c. Cite each specific study separately.
d. Gather together all citations that refer to a particular subdivision
of the problem and the rationale for inclusion in the review of
literature.
e. Gather together all the citations that refer to a particular
subdivision of the problem that you have as many group as you
have subdivisions of your main problem.
f. Study these groups in relation to each other.
g. Write the review, label each section with a heading whose
wording contains the identical words found in the statement of
the problem.
h. Summarise what you have said. A summary is necessary, in
which you gather up all that has been said and set forth in
importance in terms of the research problem. Summary should
epitomise the discussion and show its direct relationship to the
problem under study.

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SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 5

Explain the purpose of literature review in a research work.

4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, the meaning of literature review and its purpose, such as
relation of source of extra data, how to begin a search for a related
literature – the library, CD-ROM, Online, etc. how to provide analytical
and theoretical framework to the study by identifying and explaining the
relevant relationship between the facts, have been established. The
systematic procedure for writing the review of literature vis: getting the
proper psychological orientation, have a plan, emphasise relatedness,
review do not reproduce and summarise, were discussed.

5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have studied how the literature could be gathered,
organised and reported. It has also been emphasised that the success of
the literature review is the ability to show the relatedness of the various
aspects of quested prior studies to the present. In the next unit, you are
going to study the two major types of research approaches in the
longitudinal researches.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Choose any topic of interest to you and write the sub-topics of the
areas you will review.
2. Write a literature review of not more than three pages of foolscap
sheets on your chosen topic.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Leedy, P.D. (1997). Practical Research: Planning and Design (6th
Edition). New Jersey: Morill, PP 103 – 110.

Krathwool, D.R. (1993). Method of Educational Social Science

Research: An Integrated Approach, new York: Longman. PP 120
– 138.

Monette, D.R.; Sullivan, T.S. Dejong, R.D. (1994). Applied Social

Research: Tool for the Human Services (3rd Edition). Chicago:
Harcourt Brace College Publishers, PP 3 – 8.

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Verma, G.K. & Beard, R.M. (1981). What is Educational Research:

Perspectives on Techniques of Research? Aldershot: Gower, PP
18 – 35.

William, W. & Stephen, G.S. (2005). Research Methods in Education

(8th Edition) Boston: Allyn & Boston, PP 1 – 18.

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UNIT 3 CONSTRUCTS AND VARIABLES

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Constructs
3.2 Variables
3.2.1 Independent and Dependent Variables
3.2.2 Discrete and Continuous Variables
3.2.3 Constructs, Observables and Intervening Variables
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 3, you studied hypotheses and how to formulate and state them.
You also learnt about theories and concepts. You were taught that
theories serve to guide and direct research. Also, theories serve to
integrate and explain the many observations made in diverse settings by
researchers, while concepts are seen as important part of theories.

Concepts were defined ideas, persons, things, or events. Concepts are

often given both nominal definitions which explain their meaning and
operational definitions that indicate how they are measured. Constructs
and variables are to be discussed in this unit.

The behavioural sciences have been limited by a lack of adequate

definition. Accurate operational definitions are essential to the
development of a sophisticated science. Such traits as intelligence,
anxiety or motivation are not directly observable and are generally
referred to as constructs; implying that they are mere constructions of
the scientist imagination. Constructs cannot be seen, heard or felt. They
can only be inferred by phenomena such as test scores or by observed
hostile or aggressive acts, rules, rates or persistence at a task. Scientific
methods must be applied with great vigour and imagination to the
behaviour aspects of our culture. The development of the behavioural
science and their application to education and other human affairs
present some of our greatest challenges.

On the other hand, variables are conditions or characteristics that the

researcher manipulates, controls or observes. Scientist, somewhat
loosely call the constructs they study “variables”. Examples of some

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important variables in sociology, psychology and education are sex,

income, education, social class, organisational productivity,
occupational mobility, verbal aptitude, anxiety, strength, intelligence,
achievement and authoritarianism to mention but a few. It can be said
that a variable is a property which takes on different values or as
Kerlinger (1977) puts it, a variable is something that varies. In this unit,
you are going to read about constructs and variables and their
importance, in research.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• define what constructs are

• explain how constructs are used in explaining research work
• give example of construct
• define variables
• state the different types of variables
• explain the different types of variables and how they are used in
research work.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Constructs
As mentioned in the introduction, construct cannot be seen, heard or felt.
They can only be inferred by phenomena such as test scores or by
observed hostile or aggressive acts, skin responses, pulse rates, or
persistence at a task. A construct is a concept. But it has the added
meaning of having been deliberately and consciously invented or
adopted for a specific purpose. For example, “Intelligence” is a concept,
an abstraction from the observation of presumably intelligent and
unintelligent behaviours. But as a scientific construct, intelligence
means both more or less than it may mean as a concept. This means that
scientists use it in different ways i.e. school achievement is in part a
function of intelligence and motivation. Also, intelligence is so defined
that it can be observed and measured. The intelligence of children can
be observed by administering an intelligence test to them while teachers
can estimate the relative degrees of intelligence of their pupils.

3.2 Variables
Scientists somewhat loosely, call the constructs of properties they study
variables. Kerlinger (1977) defines a variable as a symbol to which we
assign numerical values. For example, if a researcher is interested in the

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effects of two teaching methods on the science achievement of JSS three

students. After the different teaching methods have been implemented,
the JSS three students involved would be measured with a science
achievement test. It is very unlikely that all of the JSS three students
would receive the same score on this test, so the score on the science
achievement test becomes a variable, because different individuals will
have different scores. Therefore, the score on the science achievement
test is a variable.

There is another variable in the example above – the teaching

method.
In contrast to the science achievement test score, which undoubtedly
would be a scale with many possible values, teaching method is a
categorical variable consisting of only two categories, the two methods.
So we have different kinds of variables and different names or
classifications for them. There are many classification systems given in
the literature; so many that there is a considerable overlap and
opportunity for confusion. The names we use are descriptive, they play
a role in research study. The variables described below by no means
exhaust the different systems and names that exist, but they are the most
useful for communicating about educational research.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

3.2.1 Independent and Dependent Variables

Variables can be categorised as independent and dependent variables.
This categorisation is very important in research. An independent
variable is the presumed cause of the dependent variable i.e. the
presumed effect. According to Kerlinger (1977), the independent
variable is the antecedent and the dependent is the consequent. The
independent variable is the variable manipulated by the research. If a
researcher decides to study the effects of teaching methods on students’
performance in chemistry, you will then manipulate the method, the
independent variable, by using different methods.

The dependent variables (Y) are the presumed effect which varies
concomitantly with changes or variations in the independent variable
(X). It is the variable that is not manipulated. Rather, it is observed for
variation as a presumed result of variation in the independent variable.
You could notice from the discussion that there are two types of
independent variables, viz: Treatment and Organismic or Attribute
variables.

Treatment variables are those factors that the researcher manipulates and
to which he or she assigns subjects. Attribute variables are those
characteristics that cannot be altered by the researcher. Examples are:

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sex, age, race or tribe and already determined intelligence level.

However, the researcher can decide to include or remove them as
variables to be studied.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

1. Underline the dependent variables in these two topics:

a. The effect of understanding scientific terms on students scores in

comprehension exercise.
b. The study of the relationship between sex and attitude towards
science.

2. Give three examples of attribute variables.

3.2.2 Discrete and Continuous Variables

Discrete variables are variables with a finite number of distinct and
separate values e.g. sex, race, family size, number of days present. All
these are discrete variables because they can be measured only in a
discrete set of units such as 2, 3, etc. No meaningful measurement
values lies between these distinct and separate values.

Continuous variables are those that at least theoretically can take an

infinite array of values. Age is normally measured in years, but it can
also be measured in months, days, hours, minutes and seconds. There is
no theoretical limit to how precise the measurement of age might be.
For most educated research purposes, the measurement of age in terms
of years is quite satisfactory, but age is nonetheless a continuous
variable.

Nominal variables are by definition, discrete in that they consist of

mutually exclusive or discrete categories. Ordinal variables are also
discrete. The mutually exclusive categories of an ordinal variable may
be ranked from low to high, but there cannot be a partial rank. For
example, in a study of the military, rank might be ordered 1 = private, 2
= corporal, etc, but you cannot talk of 1.5 or 2.4 etc.

Family size, number of counts, etc. can only be whole numbers or

discrete intervals. A continuous variable can take an ordered set of
values within a certain range. It is important to recognise that a variable
is continuous or discrete by its very nature and the researcher cannot
change that. It is however possible to measure a continuous variable by
specifying a number of discreet categories as it was explained for age,
but this does not change the nature of the variable itself.

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You should note that the nature of variable, discrete or continuous,

determines how it is used in data analysis (to be discussed in details later
in this course). Sometimes discrete data are treated as continuous in
order to use statistical models, but care must be taken to assure that the
results will be meaningful (Hanushek and Jackson, 1977).

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

Give three examples each of discrete and continuous variables.

3.2.3 Constructs, Observables and Intervening Variables

The explanations provided earlier in this unit shows that there is a clear
difference between constructs and observable variables. Constructs are
non-observable and variables, when operationally defined are
observable. This is important because if you are not aware of the level
of discussion you are when talking about variable, you can hardly be
clear about what you are doing.

Constructs are called intervening variables. Intervening variable is a

term invented to account for internal and directly unobservable
psychological processes that in turn account for behaviour. Intervening
variable is an “in the head” variable. It cannot be seen, heard or felt. It
is inferred from behaviour e.g. learning is inferred from among other
things – improved performance. Anxiety is inferred from test scores,
skin responses and from heartbeat, etc.

The researcher using such terms should be aware that he or she is using
invented ‘constructs’ the reality of which has been inferred from
behaviour. For example, motivation can only be judged by observing
behaviour. But it cannot be measured directly because it is on “in-the-
head” variable, an intervening variable, an unobservable entity. This
means that, to judge ‘motivation’, you have to measure the presumed
indicants of motivation and not motivation itself. You must in other
words always measure some kind of behaviour, be it marks on paper,
spoken words etc. and then make inferences about presumed
characteristics.

This explains why it is always important to have operational definition

of these constructs to be sure that the investigation you are embarking
upon is quite clear to you and the consumers will be able to follow and
understand your report.

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SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4

Provide operational definitions for any three constructs you have

identified.

4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, we discussed the definition of construct, as a concept
adopted for a specific purpose. A variable is a symbol to which we can
assign numerical values. Independent variables are variables the
researcher could manipulate and dependent variables vary concomitantly
with changes in the independent variable. Discrete variables are
variables that can take finite numbers while continuous variables can
take an infinite number of values. While the knowledge of data is
important for meaningful analysis and interpretation of data, constructs,
observable and intervening variables are important in that they explain
why you should define your terms clearly and operationally for
meaningful evaluation and understanding of your research.

5.0 SUMMARY
So far, you have been studying some of the basic tools for research.
From the next unit, you are going to start the study of types and
approaches to research methods. You will look at quantitative and
qualitative studies as well as longitudinal studies. This unit has given
you an overview of the different types of research, while subsequent
units will take on specific research approaches.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Write short notes on each of the following:

i. Constructs
ii. Variables
iii. Dependent and Independent variables
iv. Discrete and Continuous variables

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7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Best, J.W. & Khan, J.V. (1995). Research in Education (7th Edition).
New Delhi: Prentice Hall. PP 20 – 23.

Cresswell, J.W. (1994). “Research Design: Quantitative and Qualitative

Approaches” Thousand Oaks, C.A.: Sagem PP 105 – 107.

Leedy, P.D. (1997). Practical Research: Planning and Design (6th

Edition). New Jersey: Morill, PP 103 – 110.

Monette, D.R., Sullivan, T.S. and Dejong, R.D. (1994). Applied Social
Research: Tool for the Human Services (3rd Edition) Chicago:
Harcourt Brace College Publishers, 3 – 8.

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MODULE 3 TYPES OF RESEARCH APPROACHES

Unit 1 Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches
Unit 2 Action Research, Case Study and Observation
Methodology
Unit 3 Ethnography, Phenomenology, Grounded Theory and
Correlational Studies

UNIT 1 QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE

APPROACHES
CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Qualitative Approaches
3.2 Quantitative Approaches
3.3 Longitudinal Research
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
The terms qualitative and quantitative are often used to identify different
approaches to answering research question. In any study, different
questions provide different types of information. Also, depending on
the types of questions you wish to answer, different designs and
methods may be used.

Methodology is merely an operational framework within which the data

are placed so that their meaning may be seen more clearly. The entire
research methodologies can be classified into two major approaches,
namely: qualitative and quantitative approach. Whereas the quantitative
approach is typically used to answer questions about the relationships
among measured variables with the purpose of explaining, predicting
and controlling phenomena; the qualitative is used to answer questions
about the nature of phenomena with the purpose of describing and
understanding the phenomena from the participants’ points of view. In
different research methods textbooks, the quantitative approach is
sometimes referred to as the traditional, the positivist, the experimental
or the empiricist approach. The qualitative on the other hand is referred
to as the interpretative, the naturalistic, the constructivist or the

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postpositive approach. However, most authors chose to refer to them

simply as the qualitative and quantitative approaches. It should be noted
that within these two main approaches, a number of research
methodologies are used to gather data for answering different research
questions (Leedy, 1997).

Longitudinal research involves gathering data over an extended period

which might span months, years or in some few cases, decades. The
decision to use a longitudinal approach is often determined by both the
nature of the research problem and by practical considerations. In this
unit therefore, you will study qualitative and quantitative methodologies,
also you will learn about cross-sectional and longitudinal research.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• explain the meaning of qualitative approach

• identify some studies that could be classified as qualitative
studies
• state the general characteristics of qualitative studies
• explain the meaning of quantitative methodology
• identify studies that could be classified as quantitative studies
• state the general characteristics of quantitative studies
• distinguish between qualitative and quantitative studies
• explain the meanings of cross-sectional and longitudinal studies
describe the characteristics of cross-sectional and longitudinal
studies.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Qualitative Approaches

Qualitative approach is research that describes phenomena in numbers
and measures (Krathwol, 1993). Qualitative approach has its origin in
descriptive analysis, and is essentially an inductive process, reasoning
from the specific situation to a general conclusion. As Lancy (1993)
points out, qualitative research is typically thought of as a method with a
set of procedures for conducting research. Qualitative research in its
purest sense follows the naturalist paradigm, i.e. that research should be
conducted in the natural setting and that the meanings derived from
research are specific to that setting and its conditions. The qualitative
approach is sometimes referred to as interpretative, the naturalistic, the
constructivist or the post-positivist approach. The common qualitative
research designs are case study research design. These will be discussed

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in more details later in this course. Cresswell (1994) defines qualitative

study as “inquiry process of understanding a social or human problem
based on building a complex holistic picture formed with words,
reporting detailed views of informants and conducted in a natural
setting.

Most of the time, qualitative researchers often start a study with general
questions, collect an extensive amount of verbal data from a smaller
number of participants and present their findings with words or
descriptions that are intended to accurately reflect the situation under
study. A qualitative study may conclude with tentative answers on
hypotheses about what was observed. These tentative hypotheses may
then form the basis of the future quantitative studies designed to test the
proposed hypotheses.

Qualitative research involves data in the form of words, pictures,

descriptions or narratives. Qualitative researchers tend to adopt an
attitude of discovery or exploration that lead to discovering, building or
enhancing theory as opposed to testing it. For example, an investigation
of the teaching and learning of integrated science in Junior Secondary
School One (JSS.1) at Government College, Ikorodu, where the
researcher spends six months asking questions transpires within the
period. Qualitative researchers remain detached from their subjects in
order to make unbiased, universal and context-free generalisations.
Qualitative research is very holistic and emergent with specific focus,
design, interview instruments and interpretations developing and
changing along the way. Researchers interact with their participants,
categories emerge from the data leading to “context bound” information
patterns and/or theories that help in explaining a phenomena.

Qualitative researchers operate under the assumption that reality is

“socially constructed” complex and ever-changing” (Glesue and
Peshkin, 1992) so the “qualities” these researchers study are not easily
divided into discrete, measurable variables. Rather qualitative
researchers sample a large number of people with the hope of making
generalisations; they tend to select participants “purposefully” to learn
about the range of behaviour related to the research focus in order to
gain understanding of the complex phenomena in question. For
example, a study on “parents” views about what the quality of science
education is all about, can effectively provide the required information
and not mere selection of just any parent. Both verbal (Interview
comments, documents, field-notes) and non-verbal (drawings,
photographs, videotapes) data that represent the social environment are
collected.

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Qualitative studies tend to use an inductive form of analysis whereby

observations of particular cases may be generalised to a class of cases.
Inductive reasoning emphasises after-the-fact explanation; theory
emerges from a careful consideration of the evidence (data). By
observing the specifics of a situation, qualitative researchers believe
they can increase their understanding of the phenomena of which the
situation is an instance. For example, the study of the teaching and
learning of Integrated Science at JSS.1 at Government College, Ikorodu
could be used as a basis for generalising about the quality of integrated
science teaching in secondary schools within Ikorodu Local Government
Area. Qualitative researchers construct interpretative narratives from the
data and employ a literary style. The language used is often descriptive
and personal emphasising the participants’ language and including their
unique assigned ‘meanings’. It is noteworthy that qualitative studies are
not usually regarded as having high predictive value; rather, the
knowledge gained is closely tied to the specific situation that was
studied.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Name two examples of qualitative research.

3.2 Quantitative Approaches

As earlier indicated, the quantitative approach is typically used to
answer questions about the relationship among measured variables with
the purpose of explaining, predicting and controlling phenomena. The
quantitative approach is sometimes referred to as the traditional, the
positivist, the experimental or the empiricist approach. Cresswell (1994)
defines a quantitative research as “an inquiry into a social or human
problem, based on testing a theory composed of variables, measured
with numbers and analysed with statistical procedure, in order to
determine whether the predictive generalisations of the theory hold
true”.

The quantitative researchers usually start with a preformed hypothesis to

be tested. The relevant variables are isolated, extraneous variables are
controlled, standardised data are collected from a sizeable number of
participants and the data are analysed in such a manner that the original
hypotheses can be rejected or not rejected and conditions that can be
generalised are stated. Often quantitative researchers seek explanations
and predictions that can be generalised.

The objective is to establish, confirm or validate relationships and to

develop generalisations that contribute to theory. Careful guidelines
exist for conducting quantitative studies. Concepts, variables and

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hypotheses are often defined before the study begins and remain fixed
throughout. For quantitative studies, methods are chosen by the
researchers so that they can objectively measure the variables of interest.
It is important that researchers remain detached from their ‘subjects’ in
order to make unbiased, universal, context-free generalisations.

Quantitative researchers often use experimental or correlational designs

to reduce error, bias and extraneous variables. They believe there is a
relatively stable reality ‘out there’ that can be measured by well
designed questionnaires or instruments. In all cases, generalisations
receive greater acceptance if the instruments are valid and reliable. Data
are normally collected from whole population or sample that is
representative of the population. Quantitative researchers are always
interested in describing the norm of the population sampled.

Quantitative studies tend to rely on deductive form of analysis. This type

of analysis moves from general to specific i.e. from an existing premise
(theory, hypothesis) to a logical conclusion. Quantitative researchers
reduce their data to numbers, which they then present as the result of
statistical tests. You are advised not to worry about individual scores,
since the power of interpretation rests in the large number of scores that
depict the norm of group performance. The statistical results are
presented in a report that employs a formal scientific style, using passive
voice and impersonal language. Concepts and variables are always
operationally defined. In quantitative research, the observed results are
more easily attributable to the conditions imposed by the researcher and
can be described more precisely in terms of the strength of observed
relationships. The control enables the quantitative researcher to predict
the possible status of similar populations and situations. You should be
aware of the fact that all studies could be classified as either qualitative
or quantitative. It is therefore advisable that you master the
characteristics of each type so that you could easily relate them to the
appropriate research methodologies that will be discussed starting from
the next unit.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Mention three characteristics of a quantitative research.

3.3 Longitudinal Research

According to Gall et. al. (1996), a longitudinal study is one that involves
“collecting data from a sample at different points in time in order to
study changes or continuity in the sample characteristics. Thus,
“secondary school students’ attitude to science” might be started in their
first year i.e. JSS.1 and end in their final year, i.e. SSS.3, which means

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the study will last for a period of six years. In such a study, data are
collected at different times of the period of study.

According to Leedy (1997), though longitudinal studies are difficult to

implement, they are however essential for exploring developmental
issues. It is only longitudinal studies that can determine the different
experiences of individuals over time. One disadvantage of longitudinal
studies is that they can be reactive. People responses or behaviour at
one time may be influenced by the fact that they have been observed
earlier. Another disadvantage is that people who participated earlier
may not want to or be able to participate later. People die, move away,
become uninterested or in other ways, become unavailable. This loss of
participants can adversely affect the validity of the research findings.
The major disadvantage of all longitudinal studies is that they are
difficult and expensive to conduct, especially if they span a long period
of time. Longitudinal studies may or may not use survey methods to
gather data. Its most distinguishing characteristics, unlike most research
designs, is not related to how data are collected and analysed, but to the
time period in which data are collected.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What is the major aim in a longitudinal study?

4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have learnt that all research methodologies could also
be called interpretative, naturalistic etc. Quantitative could be called
traditional, positivist, etc. Quantitative is used to confirm, validate and
test a theory, it is focused, has established guidelines, static design,
context-free and detached view, adopts a deductive approach to analysis,
and report is communicated through numbers, statistics aggregate data
and in scientific style.

Qualitative is to describe, explain, explore, interpret and build theory. It

is process-oriented and holistic, context-bound and personal view. Data
are collected using observations, interviews and inductive analysis of
data is adopted. Findings are narrated using words, narrative and
individual quotes and literary style. Longitudinal studies are based on
data collected over a period of time and are particularly useful for
studying trends or behavioural changes.

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5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt that qualitative and quantitative
methodologies are the two broad classifications of research
methodology. Each classification has a number of other methods under
it. Most of these methods share major common characteristics. In the
next three to four units, you will study other research methodologies that
are subsets to these two broad ones. To understand these other methods,
you have to understand the characteristics of these two major
characteristics very appropriately.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Define qualitative and quantitative methodologies of research.
2. What is a longitudinal research?

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Best, J.W. & Khan, J.V. (1995). Research in Education (7th Edition).
New Delhi: Prentice Hall. PP 20 – 23.

Cresswell, J.W. (1994). “Research Design: Quantitative and Qualitative

Approaches” Thousand Oaks, C.A.: Sagem PP 105 – 107.

Gall, M.D.; Borg, W.R. & Gall, G.R. (1996). Educational Research: An
Introduction (6th Edition). White Plains, NY: Longmans, PP 376
– 380.

Leedy, P.D. (1997). Practical Research: Planning and Design (6th

Edition). New Jersey: Morill, PP 103 – 110.

Monette, D.R.; Sullivan, T.S. Dejong, R.D. (1994). Applied Social

Research: Tool for the Human Services (Third Edition) Chicago:
Harcourt Brace College Publishers.

Verma, G.K. & Beard, R.M. (1981). What is Educational Research?:

Perspectives on Techniques of Research. Aldershot: Gower.

William, W. & Stephen, G.J. (2005). Research Methods in Education

(8th Edition). Pearson Education Inc.

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UNIT 2 ACTION RESEARCH, CASE STUDY AND

OBSERVATION METHODOLOGY
CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Action Research
3.2 Case Study
3.3 Observation Research
3.3.1 Steps in Participant Observer Research
3.3.2 Non-Participant Forms of Observation
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the preceding unit, you learnt about two main categories of research.
You were informed that each category has its characteristics which run
through all the methodologies within the group.
Classifying an approach as quantitative or qualitative, ethnographic
survey, action research and so on does not mean that once an approach
has been selected the researcher may not move from the methods
normally associated with that style.

Each approach has its strength and weakness and each is particularly
suitable for a particular context. The approach adopted and the methods
of data collection selected will depend on the nature of the inquiry and
the type of information required.
In this unit, we shall discuss about action research, case studies and
observations.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• explain the meaning of action research

• use action research methodology to carry out some investigations
• describe a case study
• apply case study approach in educational research
• explain what observation entails in research
• describe the different forms of observation methodology.
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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Action Research

Cohen and Manion (1989) describe action research as essentially an on-
the-spot procedure designed to deal with a concrete problem located in
an immediate situation. This means that the step-by-step process is
constantly monitored over varying periods of time and by a variety of
mechanism (questionnaires, diaries, interviews, for example) so that the
feedback may be translated into modifications, adjustments, directional
changes, redefinitions as necessary, in order to bring about lasting
benefit to the on-going process itself.

While Leedy (1997) describes action research as a type of applied

research that focuses on finding a solution to a local problem in a local
setting. For example a teacher investigates whether a new spelling
programme he/she has adopted leads to improvement in the students’
achievement scores. As can be deduced from the definitions, an
important feature of action research is that the task is not finished when
the project ends. The participants continue to review, evaluate and
improve practice. Brown and Melntyre (1981) emphasise on the going
nature of action research thus:

The research questions arise from an analysis of the problems of the

practitioners in the situation and the immediate aim then becomes that of
understanding those problems. The researcher/actor, at an early stage,
formulates speculative, tentative general principles in relation to the
problem that have been identified from these principles, hypotheses may
then be generated about what action is likely to lead to the desired
improvements in practice. Such action will then be tried out and data on
its effect collected; these data are used to revise earlier hypotheses and
identify more appropriate action that reflects a modification of the
general principles. Collection of data on the effects of this new action
may then generate further hypotheses and modified principles, and so
on, as we move towards a greater understanding and improvement of
practice. This implies a continuous process of research and the worth of
the work is judged by the understanding of a desirable change in the
practice that is achieved.

One unique feature of action research is that the practitioners operate as

the researcher for instance, in the educational area, the teacher as the
researcher. This research approach encourages the teacher to identify
problems in his/her classroom and try to solve them. This includes
problems of pupil’s inability to report their findings in a science class or
poor mastery of science concepts etc. From the discussion, so far, you

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as the researcher are expected to continue a series of studies to improve

the identified problem.

Generally, action research is not limited to projects carried out by

teachers as in the educational teaching. It is appropriate in any context
where specific knowledge is required for a specific problem in a specific
situation or when new approach is to be grafted to an existing one; such
as using a new teaching method to teach primary science, integrated
science or basic science. The teacher uses a series of studies to ensure
success. Action research should be planned in a systematic way. Like
any other research and method(s), action research is not a method or
technique; it is an approach which has proved to be particularly
attractive to education because of its practical problem solving
emphasis, because practitioners carry out the research and the research is
directed towards greater understanding and improvement of practice
over a period of time.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Identify a problem in your science class and write down five sentences
on how you would use action research to solve it.

3.2 Case Study

The case study is a way of organising social data for the purpose of
viewing social reality. It examines a social unit as a whole. The unit
may be a person, a family, a social group, a social institution or a
community. The purpose is to understand the life cycle as an important
part of the life of that unit. The case study probes deeply and analyses
interactions between the factors that explains present status or that
influence change or growth. It is a longitudinal approach, showing
development over a period of time. According to Leedy (1997), a case
study is conducted to shed light on a phenomenon, be it a process, event,
person or an object of interest to the researcher. A case study constitutes
a single instance of the phenomena. Data may be gathered by a wide
variety of methods including:

• observation by the researcher or his/her assistants on physical

characteristics, social qualities or behaviour;
• interviews with the subject(s) relatives, friends, teachers,
counsellors and others;
• questionnaire, opinionnaires, psychological tests and inventories;
and
• recorded data from newspapers, school, courts, clinics,
government agencies, classroom, laboratory and other sources
(Best and Khan, 1995).

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A single case study emphasises analysis in depth. But if the objective

analysis leads researchers to consistent observations of significant
variable relationships, hypotheses may be confirmed, leading to valid
generalisations. Often a substantial amount of data is gathered from a
wide variety of sources to present a description of the phenomena or
expensive from the perspective of the participants. Gall et. al. (1996)
describes the process as “watching people in their own territory and
interacting with them in their own language, on their own terms”.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

State one method of data gathering process in a case study.

According to Gall et. al. (1996), there are three approaches to analysing
case study data: interpretational, structural and reflective analyses.
Interpretational analysis refers to examining the data for constructs,
themes and patterns that can be used to describe and explain the
phenomenon studied. Structural analysis refers to searching the data for
patterns, inherent in discourse, text, events or other phenomena with
little or no inference made as to the meaning of the patterns. Reflective
analysis refers to using primarily intuition and judgment to portray or
evaluate the phenomena.

Although the case study is useful method or organised research

observation, certain precautions should be considered:

• The method may look deceptively simple. To use it effectively,

the researcher must be familiar with existing theoretical
knowledge of the field or inquiry, and skillful in isolating the
significant variables from many that are irrelevant.
• Subjective bias is a constant threat to objective data-gathering
and analysis.
• Effects may be wrongly attributed to factors that are merely
associated and rather than cause and effect related.

A case study final report takes the form of a rich descriptive narrative
that attempts to reconstruct the participants’ reality. Adler and Adler
(1994) recommend that case study researchers use a “style of writing
that draws the reader so closely into subject’s worlds that these can be
really felt”. Case study researchers who have used interpretational or
structural analysis methods tend to use an objective writing style and
make effective use of tables, figures and matrices to display their
findings.

An important criterion for judging the merit of a case study is the extent
to which details are sufficient and appropriate for a teacher working in a

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similar situation to relate his/her decision making to that described in the

case study. The reliability of a case study is more important than its
general ability.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

What is Adler and Adler’s recommendation for reporting case studies?

3.3 Observation Research

Observation methods vary in terms of the extent to which the
investigator participates in the activities of the people being observed.
The two general possibilities are that of participant observer and that of
non-participant observer. Each technique has its unique difficulties,
advantages and disadvantages. The principal ways of getting
information are by either experiencing something directly or by having
someone tell us what happened.

Participant observation is a method in which the researcher is a part of,

and participates in the activities of the class, group, people or situation
that is being studied. In some cases, the researcher may have belonged
to the group prior to the start of the research and can use this position as
a group member to collect data. For example, a teacher in a
science
vacation course wishes to observe the reactions of his colleagues to the
different lectures, demonstrations and other activities during the course.
In many types of research, the relationship between the researcher and
those participating in the research is fairly clear-cut. In surveys, for
example, participants know who the researchers are and that they as
respondents are providing data to the researchers.

In this participant observation – the researcher – participant relationship

becomes more problematic in that it can take a number of different
forms: two major issues arise. The extent to which the observer will
change the setting that is being observed and the extent to which people
should be informed that they are being used for research purposes. The
way in which a researcher resolves these issues determines the nature of
the observer – participant relationship for a given project.

On the other hand, those who emphasise observation over participation

argue that the more fully one becomes a group member, the less
objectives he becomes. Because of this and other problems, the
observer as participant role has been less popular for conducting
research.

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SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4

Explain one major problem of a participant as observer in a research.

3.3.1 Steps in Participant Observer Research

The first step is to establish the specific goals of the research and decide
that the participant observation is the most appropriate strategy. The
second step is to decide which specific group to study. The third step is
very challenging, gaining entry into the group to be studied. The fourth
step is to develop rapport and trust with the people being studied so that
they will serve as useful and accurate sources of information. The fifth
step is to observe and record.

3.3.2 Non-Participant Forms of Observation

Some research questions call for or require the investigator to refrain
from participation in the group being investigated. The concern is that
the intrusive impact of an outsider might change the behaviour of group
members in a way detrimental to the research question. The researcher
under such conditions adopts a complete observer’s role; the observer
has no direct contact with or no substantial influence in those being
observed. One way of doing such non-participant observation is to use
an observation technique that has been called unobtrusive or non-
reactive observation and physical traces.

Hidden Observation: In some research projects, it is possible to

observe behaviour from a vantage point that is obscured from the views
of those under observation. This might be done by observing people
through a one-way mirror or by filming them with a hidden camera.
When weighing the use of such a device, investigators should consider
whether people are likely to see through the guise, if they do,
unobtrusive nature of the observation has been compounded.

Disguised Observation: With some types of behaviour, it is possible to

observe people in a natural setting, but without participating and without
revealing that one is observing them. Any setting in which one can be
present and not participate without calling attention to oneself is a
potential scene for disguised observation. Physical traces are not
discussed because it is of little relevance to educational research.

Recording Observation: The manner in which observations are carried

out may be primarily quantitative or qualitative in nature. Quantitative
observation typically calls for more structured recording of data on
coding sheets whereas qualitative observation may use less structured

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field notes. Further discussion on this will be done under methods of

collecting data.

4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, action research, case study and observation methods of
carrying out research have been discussed. Action research is directed
towards greater understanding and improvement of practice over a
period of time. The reliability of a case study is more important than its
generalisability. There are two types of observation techniques: the
participant observer and the non-participant observer. Five steps are
advanced for the execution of the participant observer while two
methods of unobtrusive observation were also discussed.

5.0 SUMMARY
In the effort to ensure greater understanding and comprehension,
different types of research methods were discussed in this unit. These
are action research, case study and observation research.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Identify a problem that could be studied by the action research
method.
2. Justify your identification and describe fully how you would
carry out the study.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Adler, P.A. & Adler, P. (1994). ‘Observational Techniques in N.K.
Denzin & Y.S. Lincoln’ (Eds.). Handbook on Qualitative
Research, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Best, J.W. & Khan, J.V. (1995). Research in Education (7th Edition).
New Delhi: Prentice Hall. PP 20 – 23.

Cohen, L. and Manion, L. (1989). Case Studies in Research Method in

Education (3rd Edition). London: Routledge, PP 20 – 35.

Cresswell, J.W. (1994). Research Design: Quantitative and Qualitative

Approaches Thousand Oaks CA: Sage Publications. PP 105 –
107.

Gull, M.D.; Borg, W.R. & Gall, G.R. (1996). Educational Research: An
Introduction (6th Edition). White Plains, NY: Longmans, PP 376
– 380.

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Leedy, P.D. (1997). Practical Research: Planning and Design (6th

Edition). New Jersey: Morill, PP103 – 110.

Monette, D.R.; Sullivan, T.S. & Dejong, R.D. (1994). Applied Social
Research: Tool for the Human Services (3rd Edition) Chicago:
Harcourt Brace College Publishers.

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UNIT 3 ETHNOGRAPHY, PHENOMENOLOGY,

GROUNDED THEORY AND
CORRELATIONAL STUDIES
CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Ethnography
3.1.1 Phenomenology
3.1.2 Grounded Theory
3.1.3 Correlation Studies
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, you are going to study three exclusively qualitative studies,
namely: ethnography, phenomenology and grounded theory. Also,
correlational studies will be briefly discussed.

The qualitative studies will be discussed in terms of the purpose,

process, procedures, data collection and analysis, and methods of
communicating findings. Examples are also provided to illustrate
various approaches.

Correlational studies which are also discussed in this unit are concerned
with the degree to which variations or differences in one variable are
related to the variations or differences in another variable. When two
variables are perfectly correlated, the coefficient equals 1 or –1.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• describe ethnography study

• give examples of ethnography studies
• use ethnography technique to investigate science education
problems
• explain phenomenology
• apply phenomenology technique in studying science education
problems

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• explain grounded theory

• use grounded theory to investigate research problems in school
science
• describe Correlational studies
• explain the significance of perfect correlation coefficient.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Ethnography
Ethnography sometimes known as cultural anthropology or more
recently a naturalistic inquiry is a method of field study observation that
became popular in the latter part of the 19th Century. It has continued to
show significant development, suggesting promising techniques for the
study of behaviour in an educational situation. In its earliest form, it
consisted of participant observation, conversation and the use of
informants to study the cultural characteristics of unique and less
sophisticated groups of people (so-called ‘primitive’ people) in Africa,
South Sea Island, and Native American Indian tribes. The groups were
small in number, geographically and culturally isolated with little
specialisation in social function and with simple economics and
technology. Such cultural features as language, marriage, family life
etc. were analysed.

The data gathered consisted of observation of patterns of action, verbal

and non-verbal interaction between members of the tribe as well as
between the subjects and the researcher, and his/her informants and the
examination of whatever records or artifacts were available. Most of the
studies were adversely criticised because the researchers spent too little
time among the people of the tribe to get more than a superficial view
and did not learn the native language and had to depend on the reports of
poorly trained informants. Later, investigative reports on this type of
studies would be invalid unless the observer:

• lived for a much extensive period of time among the tribe and
became an integrated member of the social group;
• learned the native language; or
• trained his or her informants to systematically record field data in
their own language and cultural perspective.

The refinement of participant observation resulted in more objective and

valid observation and analysis.

In recent times, many of the time-honored techniques of the ethnography

study involving integration into the group and observation are being
applied to psychology and education among others. Using the method

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of observation, the researcher observes, listens to and sometimes,

converses with the subjects in a free and natural atmosphere. The
assumption is that the most important behaviour of individuals or groups
is a dynamic process of complex interactions and this consists of more
than a set of facts, statistics or even discrete incidents. The strength of
this kind of study lies in the observation of natural behaviour in a real
life setting from the constraints of more conventional research
procedure.

Another assumption is that human behaviour is influenced by the setting

in which it occurs. The researcher must understand the setting in which
it occurs and also the nature of the social structure, its traditions, values
and norms of behaviour. It is important to observe and interpret in terms
of the subjects – how they view the situation, how they interpret their
own thoughts, words and activities as well as those of others in the
group. The researcher gets inside the minds of the subjects, while at the
same time, interpreting the behaviour from his or her own perspective.
The relationship of researchers to their subjects is based upon trust and
confidence. A position of neutrality is essential to objective participant
observation. Unlike conventional deductive quantitative research,
participant observers begin without preconceptions and hypotheses.
Using inductive logic, they build their hypotheses as they are suggested
by observations. They periodically re-evaluate their hypotheses on the
basis of new observations, modifying them when they appear to be
inconsistent with evidence. They look for negative evidence to
challenge their temporary hypotheses.

This type of research has a characteristic of a series of consecutive

studies. The interpretation is not deferred to the conclusion but it is a
constant ongoing process of testing tentative hypotheses against
additional observations in a real situation.

Ethnography methods have been used to investigate such problem as:

• students leadership role in an urban racially integrated High

School
• pupil-teacher relationship in a sub-urban Junior High School.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Discuss how ethnographers build their theses? Write down two topics
that can be studied in your area of specialisation using the ethnographic
method.

Ethnographers construct their final reports to present a holistic

description of the people they have observed and to portray the everyday

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experiences of the individuals. Their findings are often stated as

assertions – that is, broad statements of the observed or inferred
relations between culture and behaviour. These assertions are supported
by analytical vignettes, short segments of quotation data intertwined
with interpretative commentary that help the reader “see” what these
quotes mean in the given context with the given participants.

3.1.1 Phenomenology
Phenomenology refers to a person’s construction of the meaning of a
phenomenon as opposed to the phenomenon as it exists external to the
person. Phenomenologists do not assume that they know what things
mean to the people they are observing. If behaviour is being observed,
the phenomenologist does not simply note that certain behaviour has
occurred, but attempts to understand what the behaviour means to the
person being studied and this emphasises the subjective aspects of this
behaviour. “Attention to experience and intention to describe
experience are the central qualities of phenomenological research”
(Volkmann, 1992). Essentially, the phenomenological approach is
based on the concept that reality consists of the meaning of experiences
by those being studied.

Mulderij, et al. (1984) introduced their students to phenomenological

analysis. They started with topics that everyone had experience with
such as “falling asleep” and “being afraid in the dark” all the time.
Phenomenologists hope to get a better understanding of the meaning an
experience has for others as well as for themselves.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

What is the main aim of a phenomenological research?

A phenomenological researcher is expected to select a topic that is

personally meaningful as well as emotionally and intellectually
engaging. Van Manen (1990) stated that the starting of
phenomenological research is largely a matter of identifying what it is
that deeply interests you or me and of identifying this interest as a true
phenomenon, that is, as some experience some human beings live with.
For example, Volkmann (1992) states that it is the study of two science
teachers-leaders by a former science teacher. This researcher has a deep
personal interest in his topic – a characteristic more common to
phenomenological research than to other approaches.

Although phenomenology can be conducted with a single participant (or

even as an examination of the researcher’s own experience),
Phenomenologists typically involve five to ten people in their studies.

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Phenomenologists depend mainly on exclusive in depth interviews; as

such they also choose their respondents purposively. Paton (1990)
explained that purposeful sampling is done to increase the utility of
information obtained from small samples. The sample is purposively
selected to ensure that they are likely to be knowledgeable and
informative about the phenomenon being studied. The actual
implementation of a phenomenological study is as much in the
participants hands as it is in the researchers. The phenomenological
interview is not structured as a series of questions and answers as in
ethnographic study, instead the researcher and the respondents work
together to “arrive at the heart of the matter”. The researchers are
expected to take their cues from the participants’ expressions, questions
and occasional sidetracks. Such an interview is not expected to look like
a dialogue or conversation, with the participant doing much of the
talking and researcher doing most of the listening.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

What is main difference between ethnographic and phenomenological

questionnaire?

According to Barit (1986), the data analysis aims at “trying to go to the

heart of the matter by looking for themes that lie concealed in the
unexamined events of everyday life…. to find meaningful, shared
themes in different peoples descriptions of common experiences”.
Phenomenological analysis of transcribed data, though similar to other
qualitative analyses is characterised as being initially more open,
tentative and intuitive (Tesch, 1994). Whereas ethnographers focus on
“events” as the unit of analysis, Phenomenologists focus on “meaning
units” – that is, the smallest segment of text that are meaningful by
themselves. Rather than identify categories, phenomenologists describe
themes and patterns in the data.
Phenomenologists always report their findings in the form of a narrative
that describes a pattern or a theme. However, a phenomenologist
assumes a commonality among these experiences and is expected to
explore and describe “what is invariable across all manifestations of the
phenomenon”.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4

What form does a Phenomenologist’s report take?

3.1.2 Grounded Theory

Grounded theory originated from the work of two sociologists (Glasser
and Strauss, 1967) who were concerned with closing the embarrassing

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gap between theory and empirical research. Grounded theory is not

considered to be discipline bound; rather, it is a set of procedures for
analysing data that will lead to the development of theory useful to that
discipline. Grounded theory starts with broad research questions that
provide the freedom and flexibility to explore a phenomenon in depth.
The research questions identify the general focus for the study and tend
to be action and process oriented. Depending on how the question is
focused the researcher gathers different data and attends to different
aspects during analysis.

In grounded theory research, the researcher “attempts to derive a theory

by using multiple of data collection and the refinement and
interrelationships of categories of information. The theory is grounded
in that it is developed from the data, as opposed to being suggested by
the literature i.e. theory is expected from, rather than a starting point, for
the study. Thus, grounded theorists try to find answers to questions that
are important but not yet answered.

Gall, et. al (1996) define theory as “an explanation of the commonalities

and the relationships among observed phenomena in terms of the causal
structures and processes that are presumed to underlie them. Grounded
theorists like other theorists, aim to identify and describe those plausible
relationships among concepts and sets of concepts.

Data collection is flexible, characterised by openness to changing

conditions. Grounded theorists have used historical records,
interviewing and observation strategies to collect their data. Generally,
data are collected from more than one unit because grounded theorists
hope to maximise similarities and differences among information
obtained. For this reason, these studies are sometimes referred to as
multi-case studies because several teachers, nurses, communities etc. are
studied. This sampling of different units for the purpose of maximizing
information is called theoretical sampling.

Analysis in grounded theory is composed of three major types of

coding: Open coding, axial coding and selective coding. Open coding
refers to the process of breaking down, examining, comparing,
conceptualising and categorizing data. Axial coding refers to a set of
procedures whereby data are put back together in new ways after open
coding by making connections between categories. Selective coding
refers to the process of selecting the core category systematically
relating it to other categories, validating those relationships and filing in
categories that need further refinement and development. Data
collection and analysis are tightly interwoven.

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These levels of coding comprise constant comparative method of

analysis, defined as the continual process of company data segments and
data codes within and across categories. A category is an abstract name
for the meaning of similar topics. A pattern is a relationship among
categories. The relationship between two or more concepts generates a
theory. Because of the problems inherent in building theory, grounded
theorists are more interested in patterns of interaction between and
among people than in individual perspective as such.

Strauss and Corbin (1994) indicate that “the concept relationships

developed through grounded theory are stated as propositions and are
presented in discursive form. Discursive presentation captures the
conceptual density and conveys descriptively also the substantive
content of a study”.

3.1.3 Correlation Studies

Correlation is the relationship between two or paired variables or two or
more sets of data. The degree of relationship is measured and
represented by the coefficient it may be identified by either the letter (r),
the Greek letter (l) or other symbols depending upon the data
distributions and the way the coefficient has been calculated. For
example, students who have high intelligence quotients tend to receive
high scores in mathematics tests, whereas those with low IQs tend to
score low. When this type of relationship is obtained, the factors are
measured, intelligence and scores on mathematics tests are said to be
positively correlated. Sometimes, variables are negatively correlated
when a large amount of one variable is associated with a small amount
of the other. As one increases, the other tends to decrease. When
however the relationship between the two sets of variables is a pure
chance relationship, then there is no correlation. Examples of pairs that
are usually positively correlated are:

• Intelligence and Achievement

• Height and Shoe size

The degree of linear correlation can be represented quantitatively by the

coefficient. A perfect positive correlation is +1.00 white a perfect
negative correlation is – 1.00. A complete lack relationship is 0.
Rarely, if ever, are perfect coefficients of correlation +1.00 or –1.00
encountered, particularly in relationships that tend to appear fairly
consistently – there are variations or exceptions that reduce the
measured coefficient from a –1.00 to +1.00 towards zero. A definition
of perfect positive correlation specifies that for every unit increase in
one variable, there is a proportional unit increase in the other. The
perfect negative correlation specifies that for every unit increase in one

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variable, there is a proportional unit decrease in the other. That there

can be no exceptions explains why coefficients of +1.00 or –1.00 are not
encountered in relating human traits. The sign of the coefficient
indicates the direction of the relationship and the numerical value of
strength.

4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have learnt that ethnography is a method of field study
that adopts the participant observer method, focuses on naturally
occurring processes/changes, data collected through structured
interviews, artifact/document collections, data analysis by constant
comparative methods, normally reported by holistic description of
everyday events. Phenomenology describes an experience from the
participant’s point of view, studies individuals and focuses on life
experience, adopts in-depth unstructured interviews, sample size of 5 –
10 people. Phenomenology also report searches for themes and patterns
across participants report thematic narratives. Grounded theory –derives
a theory that links participants’ perspective to general theories. Studies
process and focuses on interaction, data drawn from records, interviews
and observations, analysis by constant comparative method, report by
analytical story.

Correlation deals with the relationship between two or more variables

Perfect correlation is +1.00 or –1.00. When increase in one causes
proportional increase on the other, the coefficient of correlation is +1.00,
but when one decreases and the other increases, the coefficient is –1.00.
When there is no relationship, the coefficient is zero correlation and
does not mean causation.

5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have studied types of research, you have added more
research, and you have added more research as methodologies namely:
ethnography, phenomenology, grounded theory and correlation to your
knowledge of research of methodologies. You will do well to master the
methods properly as you need them in choosing and carrying out your
study.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Choose a research topic each on ethnography and phenomenology and
describe clearly how you would carry out the study in not more than
four pages.

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7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Best, J.W. & Khan, J.V. (1995). Research in Education (7th Edition).
New Delhi: Prentice Hall. PP20 – 23.

Gall, M.D.; Borg, W.R. & Gall, G.R. (1996). Educational Research: An
Introduction (6th Edition). White Plains NY: Longmans, PP376 –
380.

Leedy, P.D. (1997). Practical Research: Planning and Design (6th

Edition). New Jersey: Morill, PP103 – 110.

Patton, M.D. (1990). Qualitative Evaluation and Research Methods

(2nd Edition). New Bury Park: Sage PP170 – 185.

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MODULE 4 TYPES OF RESEARCHES

Unit 1 Historical Research
Unit 2 Survey Research
Unit 3 Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Research I

UNIT 1 HISTORICAL RESEARCH

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Meaning of Historical Research
3.2 History and Science
3.2.1 Internal and External Evidence
3.3 Historical Hypotheses
3.3.1 Hypotheses in Educational Historical Research
3.4 Sources of Data
3.4.1 Primary Sources
3.4.2 Secondary Sources
3.5 Handling of Historical Data
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Historical research has been known a long time; possibly longer than
most other types of research. When we think of historical research, a
process of searching for, summarising and interpreting information from
the past comes to mind. The past may be any time as recent as within
the immediate preceding year or it may go back several centuries.
Historical research differs from other studies because it cannot be
classified as either quantitative or qualitative.

Historical analysis may be directed toward an individual, an idea, a

movement or an institution. However, none of these objects of historical
observation can be considered in isolation. People cannot be subjected
to historical investigation without some considerations of their
interactions with the ideas, movement and or institutions of their times.
Historical approach to research will be discussed under the following
subheadings: general explanation of historical research, sources of data,

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history and science, the historical hypothesis and problems of historical

research.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• explain the meaning of events

• describe external and internal evidence
• state the historical time
• compare historical periods
• formulate hypotheses for historical research
• identify sources of historical data
• analyse historical data
• apply historical findings in relevant classroom issues.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Meaning of Historical Research

Historical research is a systematic process of describing, analysing and
interpreting the past based on information from selected sources as they
relate to the topic under study. History is a transcript of the restless and
ever flowing stream of events and the changes in human life and its
institutions, its languages, customs, art, philosophies and the lives of
those who command the attention of their contemporaries – the great
individuals who start their hour upon the stage and are heard no more
(Leedy, 1997).

The main issue of the historical method, like other types of research, is
not the accumulation of facts, but the interpretation of the facts. The
interpretation of information is the main issue in any form of
research.
Naturally, events appear to happen without any apparent sequence, but a
study of any chain of events will reveal “patterns of rationality” that
make historical facts seem meaningful. History is always dynamic
therefore it defines the role of the historical researcher. Historical
researcher makes in-depth investigation. To establish the meaning and
relationship of events, researchers should strive to get close to the source
of the events. This researcher does this by relying on documentary
sources; also they at times study artifacts either alone or with
documentary evidence. Where possible, the researcher relies on only
the primary source of information to get to the root of the matter.

Primary data on the other hand consists of such original information

about people who made history and influenced human events as events

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they influence and that influenced them. The contemporary scene of

their days must be reconstructed as nearly as possible. The primary data
therefore consists of portraits, a record of the words they wrote and are
reported to have been spoken, the testimony of their friends and
acquaintances, the personal records they left behind, the objects they
used, the houses and towns where they worked and affected events
important in their times and significant in their lives.

According to Leedy (1997), the use of primary data tends to ensure the
integrity of the study and strength its reliability.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

1. What are the main tasks of the historical researcher?

2. Name three sources of primary data.

3.2 History and Science

According to Best and Khan (1995), opinions differ as to whether or not
the activities of the historian can be considered scientific or whether
there is such a thing as historical research. Those who contend that
historical research may have the characteristics of scientific research
activity argue as follows:

(i) The historian delimits a problem, formulates hypotheses or raises

questions to be answered, gathers and analyses primary data, tests
the hypotheses as consistent or inconsistent with evidence and
formulates generalisations or conclusions;
(ii) Although the historian may not have witnessed an event or
gathered data directly, he/she may have the testimony of a
number of witnesses who have observed the event from different
vantage points. The historian therefore rigorously subjects the
evidence to critical analysis in order to establish its authenticity,
truthfulness and accuracy;
(iii) In reaching conclusions, the historian employs the principles of
probability similar to those used by physical scientists;
(iv) Although it is true the historian cannot control the variables
directly, this limitation also characterises most behavioural
research as particularly investigations in sociology, social
psychology and economics;
(v) The observation of historians may be described in qualitative or
quantitative terms depending on the subject matter and the
approach of the historian. In general, the traditional approach is
qualitative while the reformist uses quantitative analyses. The
traditional qualitative approach in many historical studies does
not preclude the applications of scientific methodology.

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Those who take negative position advance the following reasons:

a. Although the purpose of science is prediction, the historian

cannot usually generalise on the basis of past event. Because past
events were often unplanned or did not develop as planned,
because there were so many uncontrolled factors and because the
influence of one or a few individuals was so crucial, the same
pattern of factors is not repeated;

b. The historian must depend upon the reported observation of

others, often witnesses of doubtful competence and sometimes of
doubtful objectivity;

c. The historian is much like a person trying to complete a

complicated jigsaw puzzle with many of their parts missing. On
the basis of what is often incomplete evidence, the historian must
fill in the gaps by inferring what has happened and why it
happened;’

d. History does not operate in a closed system such as may be

created in the physical science laboratory. The historian cannot
control the conditions of observation nor manipulate the
significant variables.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

From the argument for and against stated above, justify your stand on
this issue in not more than three sentences.

3.2.1 Internal and External Evidence

The information about historical research can be subjected to two types
of evaluation. You may judge whether the document is authentic, or
you may decide if indeed it is not authentic, what the document or the
statement within the document means. Historical researchers describe
the approaches to data that are concerned with these two problems as
reviewing the data to determine their internal or external evidence and
subjecting them to internal and external criticism.

Evidence is always concerned with problem from the viewpoint of the

data; criticism is concerned with the same problem from the
psychological attitude of the researcher. Therefore, evidence and
criticism are interchangeable. It is very important that a document is
genuine. Establishing the genuineness of documents is a study in itself
and involves carbon dating, handwriting analysis, identification of ink
and paper, vocabulary usage and writing style among others.

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The internal evidence of a historical research is concerned with the

genuineness of a manuscript or statement and the research asks such
question as: what does the statement or word mean? What was the
author attempting to say? What thought was the author trying to convey
and what inference or interpretations could be extracted from these?
What is the relevance or meaning of these words or statement? This is
the main concern of internal evidence.

Social scientific and educational researchers use both external and

internal criticism, but particularly internal criticism. For example, if an
author of a research report comes to an erroneous conclusion, it is
clearly the task of other researchers to correct the error.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

What are the two types of evaluation a historical research addresses?

State two questions asked to elicit information for internal evidence.

3.3 Historical Hypotheses

Research problems may be stated in a variety of ways for historical
research studies. They may or may not include specific hypotheses
and/or questions. When hypotheses are stated, they usually are not
stated in a statistical sense, although statistical information from the past
could be used to support or refute hypotheses. Rather in historical
research, hypotheses are conjectures about the characteristics, causes or
effects of the situation, issue or phenomenon under study. Nevins
(1962) illustrates the use of hypotheses in the historical research of
Edward Channing in answering the question “Why did the confederacy
collapse in April, 1865?

Channing formulated four hypotheses and tested them based on

evidence gathered from letters, diaries and official records of the army
and the government of the confederacy. He hypothesised that the
confederacy collapsed because of:

i. the military defeat of confederacy army;

ii. the dearth of military supplies;
iii. the starving condition of the confederal soldiers and the civilians;
and
iv. the disintegration of the will to continue the war.

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According to Best and Khan (1995), Channing produced evidence that

seemed to refute the first three hypotheses as follows:

• More than 200,000 well-equipped soldiers were under arms at the

time of the surrender, the effect of production of powder and
arms provided military supplies to continue the war and enough
food was available to sustain the fighting men and civilians.

• Channing concluded that hypothesis iv. the disintegration of the

will to continue the war was substantiated by the excessive
number of desertions of enlisted men and officers. This is an
example of historical study in which hypotheses were explicitly
stated.

3.3.1 Hypotheses in Educational Historical Research

Hypotheses may be formulated in historical investigations of education.
Some examples are:

• The science education innovations of the 1950s and 1960s were

based upon practices that previously had been tried and
discarded;
• The activities of social science inspectors have no significant
effect upon the improvement of facilities (men and materials) in
the 80s.

Although the hypotheses are not always explicitly stated in historical

studies, they are usually implied. The historian gathers evidence and
carefully evaluates its trustworthiness. If the evidence is compatible with
the consequences of the hypothesis, it is confirmed, if the evidence is
not compatible or negative, the hypothesis is not confirmed. It is
through such synthesis that historical generalisations are established.
The activities of the historians, when education is his/her field of
inquiry, are no different from those employed in other fields. The
sources of evidence may be concerned with schools, educational
practices and policies, movements or individuals but the historical
processes are the same.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4

Choose a historical education topic and formulate three testable

hypotheses.

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3.4 Sources of Data

The sources of historical information are commonly classified as
primary and secondary. A primary source is an original or first-hand
account of the event or experience. They are eye-witness accounts.
They are reported by an actual observer or participant in an event.
Secondary sources are accounts of an event that were not actually
witnessed by the reporter. The reporter may have talked with an actual
observer or read an account by an observer, but his or her testimony is
not that of an actual participant or observer. Secondary sources may
sometimes be used, but because of the distortion in passing on
information the historian uses them only when primary data are not
available.

3.4.1 Primary Sources

Generally, primary sources of data are of such materials as documents,
relics or remains and oral testimony. Some examples of these primary
sources as they relate to educational studies are stated below:

(a) Official Records and Other Documentary Materials

Examples of these are records and reports of legislative bodies and state
departments of public instruction; principals, vice chancellors, deans,
departmental heads, educational committee, minutes of school boards,
professionals and periodicals, bulletins, courses of study, curriculum
guides, textbooks, examination report cards, pictures of teacher and
pupils, personal files, samples of students’ work and recordings among
others.

(b) Oral Testimony

Included in this category are – interviews with administrators, teachers

and other school employees, students and relatives, school patrons, or
lay citizens and member of governing bodies.

(c) Relics

Included are buildings, furniture, teaching materials, equipment,

decorative pictures, textbooks, examination and samples of students
work.

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3.4.2 Secondary Sources

Secondary sources are the reports of a person who relates the testimony
of an actual witness of participant in an event. The writer of the
secondary source was not at the scene of the event, but merely reports
what the person who was there said or wrote. Secondary source of data
are usually of limited worth for research purposes because of the errors
that may result when information is passed from one person to another.
Most history textbooks and encyclopedia are examples of secondary
sources, for they are often several times removed from the original first-
hand accounts of events.

Some types of materials may be secondary sources for some purposes

and primary sources for another. For example, a senior secondary
school science textbook is ordinarily a secondary source of information.
But if the study is the changing phases of instructional materials in
Nigerian science secondary schools, the science textbooks would
become a primary source.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 5

State the two major sources in historical studies and give three
educationally-related examples of each of the sources.

3.5 Handling of Historical Data

You must have discovered that most of the data for historical studies are
gathered from documents and are studies in terms of hundreds and note-
cards. It is necessary for the researcher to have some means of
gathering and controlling the data. In historical research, perhaps more
than in any other type of research, the investigator can soon become lost
in morass of notes, note cards, bibliography, cards and memoranda. For
most beginners, the problem is always how to organise the information
into useful and meaningful phases for interpretation.

Historical data collection demands a systematic plan, not only for the
collection of the data but also for retrieving and analysing them. Before
beginning historical research therefore, you should have a specific plan
for the acquisition, organisation, storage and retrieval of the data.

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4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have learnt that:
• historical research deals with meaning of past events;
• the information about historical research can be subjected into
two forms of evaluation namely: internal and external evidence;
• there are diverging views on whether historical research is
scientific or can be generalised;
• hypotheses can be formulated for historical research; and
• there are primary and secondary sources of data and for historical
research, primary data are very important;
• owing to morass of information often gathered for historical
research, organisation and management of data is very important.

5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have studied the historical research in the effort to
expose you to some types of educational research. In the next unit, you
are going to learn about survey studies.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. What is historical research?
2. Is historical research scientific?
3. Describe how you would carry out a study on “Innovation in
Science Education in Nigeria in the seventies.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Best, J.W. & Khan, J.V. (1995). Research in Education (7th Edition).
New Delhi: Prentice Hall. PP 20 – 23.
Cresswell, J.W. (1994). Research Design: Quantitative and Qualitative
Approaches Thousand Oaks C.A.: Sagem PP105 – 107.
Leedy, P.D. (1997). Practical Research: Planning and Design (6th
Edition). New Jersey: Morill, PP103 – 110.
Monette, D.R.; Sullivan, T.S. & Dejong, R.D. (1994). Applied Social
Research: Tool for the Human Services (3rd Edition) Chicago:
Harcourt Brace College Publishers. PP3 – 8.
Nervins, A. (1962). The Gateway to History. Boston: Raytheon
Education Company. 25 – 38.

William, W. & Stephen, G.J. (2005). Research Methods in Education

(8th Edition). Pearson Educational Inc.

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UNIT 2 SURVEY RESEARCH

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Meaning of Survey Research
3.1.1 Characteristics of Descriptive Survey
3.1.2 Methodology of Survey
3.1.3 The Questionnaire
3.2 The Interview
3.3 Application of Survey Research
3.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Survey Research
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the last unit, you read that historical research is different from the
study of history. You were informed that historical research deals with
the meaning of historical events. In the desire to expose you to as many
types of educational research methodologies as possible, will be
discussed in this unit survey methodology will be discussed in this unit.
Practically all adults have been involved in surveys at sometime or
another. People are surveyed through attitudes, opinions and
perceptions and often, they are asked to evaluate something.

The aim of any survey is to obtain information which can be analysed

and patterns extracted and comparison made. In surveys, all
respondents are asked the same question while the same circumstances
are assumed to prevail. These surveys focus on numerous factors of
school operation, the community’s perception of the schools and how
well they are being operated.

Information, most of the time, can be gathered by means of self-

completed questionnaire, or by means of questionnaire, schedules or
checklists administered by an interviewer. Whatever method of
information gathering is selected, the aim is to obtain answers to the
same questions from a large number of individuals to enable the
researcher not only to describe, but also to compare and relate one
characteristic to another and to demonstrate that certain features exist in
certain categories.

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Surveys can provide answers to such questions as What? Where? When?

and How? But it is not so easy to find out why? Causal relationships
can rarely, if ever, be proved by survey method. The main emphasis is
on fact finding and if a survey is well-structured and piloted, it can be a
relatively cheap and a quick way of obtaining information.

In this unit, you will study survey research methodology under the
following subheadings: meaning of survey, characteristics of survey,
techniques of gathering data, types of instrumental application of survey
research, and advantages and disadvantages of survey research.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• explain the meaning of survey research

• describe the characteristics of survey
• identify the methods of gathering data for survey
• apply the results of survey studies in the classroom
• list the advantages and disadvantages of survey
• compare survey methodology with other methods of research.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Meaning of Survey Research

A survey is a data collection technique in which information is gathered
from individuals called respondents by having them respond to
questions. This is probably the most widely used research methodology.
The survey method gathers data from a relatively large number of cases
at a particular time. It is not concerned with characteristics of
individuals but as generalised statistics that result when data are
abstracted from a number of individual cases. It is essentially cross-
sectional.

Survey provides such information that each statement pictures a

prevailing condition at a particular time. The survey requires an
imaginative planning, careful analysis and interpretation of the data
gathered and logical and skillful reporting of the findings.

Generally, a survey as a descriptive research methodology, describes

and interprets what is. It is concerned with conditions or relationships
that exist, opinions that are held, processes that are ongoing, effects that
are evident or trends that are developing.

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It is primarily concerned with the present, although it often considers

past events and influences as they relate to current conditions.

The survey is included in the quantitative tradition rather than the

qualitative because descriptive researchers tend to convert their data into
numerical indices and to employ statistical analysis technique to
generalise their findings from a sample of the respondents to a
population.

The method of research that looks with intense accuracy at the

phenomena of the moment and then describes what the researcher sees is
called descriptive survey.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Explain two concerns of survey research.

3.1.1 Characteristics of Descriptive Survey

The characteristics of the descriptive survey are as indicated below:

• The principal means of collecting data is through observation

technique to ensure discreteness of the population by carefully
choosing, clearly defining and specifically delimiting to precise
parameters the population for the study;
• Data in descriptive survey research are particularly susceptible to
distortion through the introduction of bias into that research
design. Particular attention should be given to safeguarding the
data from the influence of bias.
• Although the descriptive survey method relies on observation for
the acquisition of the data, those data must then be organised and
presented systematically so that valid and accurate conclusions
can be drawn from them.
• Surveys typically involve collecting data representative of
populations too enormous to be dealt with by other methods.
Indeed, the generalisability of survey findings is another major
attraction of the method.
• All surveys, involve presenting the respondents with a series of
questions to be answered. These questions may tap matters of
facts, attitudes and opinions or future expectations. The
questions may be simple single-item measures or complex
multiple-item scales.
• In whatever form, however, survey data are basically what people
say to the investigator in response to a question; and
• Data can be collected in survey research in two basic ways-
through questionnaire or interviews.
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SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

State two characteristics of a survey research.

3.1.2 Methodology of Survey

The methodology of conducting a survey involves a series of detailed
steps, each of which should be carefully planned. The initial step is to
define the research problem and to begin developing the survey design.
The definition of the research problem should include a good
background in the variables to be studied, which of course, includes the
review of literature. Variables included in the survey must be
operationally defined and the investigator should have information about
the relationships of any sociological and psychological variables that
may be involved. This information is valuable for selecting measuring
instruments, such as tests for the survey.

The next step is the development of the sampling plan, if sampling is to

be used rather than the entire population. Various factors must be
considered. The population to be sampled must be defined and the units
must be identified for sample population. The sample must be selected
so that valid inferences can be made to the population and to any sub-
population.

Sampling procedure can be quite complex and acquiring the sample may
require considerable effort and resources; the next major step is the
preparation for data collection. For surveys involving interviews or
questionnaires, this is a major step, because the instruments must be
conducted.

3.1.3 The Questionnaire

A commonplace instrument for observing data beyond the physical
reach of the observer is the questionnaire. The questionnaire may be
sent to people thousands of kilometres away, whom the researcher may
never see. Therefore, the educational researcher who collects data with
a questionnaire and the physicists who determine the presence of
radioactive substance with Geiger Counter are just about the same
degree of remoteness from their respective sources of data. He neither
sees the source from which the data originate.

According to Leedy (1997), the questionnaire is a totally impersonal

probe. Because of the impersonality associated with the questionnaire,
four practical guidelines govern its use as a tool. The language must be
immediately clear; communication is a deceptive skill. What is crystally
clear to you may be meaningless to another person. The first guideline,

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therefore, for questionnaire construction is that the assumption

underlying the question must be spelt out clearly.

Initial drafts of a questionnaire should be “tried out” with a pilot run or

trial run. Such a try out should be done with individuals similar to the
intended respondents. The purpose of a pilot run is to check for
ambiguity, confusion and poorly prepared items. Pilot run feedbacks
can be very useful for finalise the instruments.

Questionnaire should be designed to fulfill a specific research objective.

Certainly, it is necessary to identify the specific types of data that will be
generated by the questionnaire early in the construction of the items and
it is also necessary to consider how data will be tabulated, summarised
and analysed. The procedures by which data are to be analysed should
be identified. The survey must produce data that can be used to test the
research hypotheses or answer the questions raised by the research
problem.

Questionnaires succeed as their success is planned. The letter to the

respondent should describe the potential value of the study. The letter
should emphasise the importance of the study to the addressee. Without
the benefit of common courtesy of our own demand on others, poorly
framed letter may be another reason for poor return of questionnaires.
Planning is essential for tabulating questionnaires to be developed for
mailing to large samples of participants. It is advisable, to consider how
the responses will be tabulated after their return. These issues will
be
revisited under the heading “construction” of questionnaire later in this
course.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

State two qualities of a good questionnaire.

3.2 The Interview

Clearly allied to the questionnaire is the structured interview. A
structured interview includes a series of closed form questions similar to
those used in a questionnaire. Semi-structured interviews go one step
further by following these closed form questions with probes designed
to obtain additional, clarifying information. Regardless of which form is
used, interviewing involve much more than just asking questions. The
questions for the interview should be carefully planned and the words
should be accurate as the items in the questionaire. Furthermore, it
should be pilot tested just like the questionnaire, to ensure that the
questions are clear, precise and free from bias.

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Planning is necessary for interview to ensure that the set objectives will
be achieved. If an interview schedule is used, the interview will
progress in accordance with the schedule. As needed, the interviewer
will use probes or follow up questions that are intended to elicit clearer
and more complete responses. In some cases, suggestion for probes will
be contained in the interview schedule. In less structured interviews,
interviews must be prepared to develop and use their own probes.
Probes can take the form of a pause in conversation that encourages the
respondent to elaborate, or a probe could be an explicit request to clarify
or elaborate on something. A major concern of any probe is that it does
not bias the respondent’s answer by suggesting how he or she should
answer (Fowler and Mangion, 1990).

Also, interview as a means of eliciting data will be discussed in greater

detail later in the course.

3.3 Application of Survey Research

The educators, the teachers, inspectors and researchers can learn a lot
about science within the school system, without contacting every child
and every teacher in the school system. The sampling methods
developed in survey research can be very useful. Samples are sufficient
for many purposes and such studies could provide much needed
information for positive change and development.

Interview of random samples of pupils, teachers, parents etc. could be

conducted on such issues as perception of the quality of science
education in the country, the whole area of attitudes to science. Pupils’
view about their science teachers to mention but a few could be carried
out. The fears and anxieties of parents and general public about science
in the school could be determined to alleviate such fears. The important
factor is that the survey should be properly planned and executed.

Survey research is probably best adapted to obtain personal and social

facts, beliefs and attitudes. It is significant that although, a lot of words
are spoken and written about education in general and science education
in particular, most data are not available to substantiate such statements.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4

Discuss one educational value of survey research.

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3.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Survey Research

Survey research has the advantage of wide scope: a lot of information
can be obtained from a large population. A large population or a large
school system can be studied with much less expense than that incurred
by a census. Compared with other research methodologies, survey
research is relatively economical. Also, because it uses existing
educational facilities and personnel to reduce cost, survey research data
are accurately within sampling error.

One major disadvantage is that survey information does not penetrate

very deeply below the surface. The scope of the information sought is
usually emphasised at the expenses of the depth. Survey research takes
a lot of time and money.

Interviews require skill, time and money. Also, survey research requires
a good deal of research knowledge and sophistication.

The survey investigator must be familiar with sampling question and

schedule construction, interviewing analysis of data and other technical
aspects of survey.

4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have learnt that survey is a data collection technique in
which information is gathered from individuals called respondents.

Survey has specific characteristics that distinguish it from other research

methodologies e.g. the population for the survey must be carefully
chosen, clearly defined and specifically delimited to set precise
parameter for ensuring discreteness to the population.

• Techniques for gathering data include: questionnaires, interviews

and checklists;
• Survey research is a useful tool for educational applications;

The methodology has both advantages and disadvantages, has a wide

scope and requires special skills and it takes a lot of time and money.

5.0 SUMMARY
Again, you have added another research methodology to the one you
have already studied. Note that survey is regarded as non-experimental
research. It is the first quantitative research methodology you have
studied in this course.

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6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Analyse the main focus of survey research.
2. Describe the necessary steps you would take to carryout a study
with the topic: “Attitude of Junior Secondary School students to
Integrated Science”.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Best, J.W. & Khan, J.V. (1995). Research in Education (7th Edition).
New Delhi: Prentice Hall. PP20 – 23.

Cresswell, J.W. (1994). Research Design: Quantitative and Qualitative

Approaches Thousand Oaks C.A.: Sagem PP105 – 107.

Leedy, P.D. (1997). Practical Research: Planning and Design (6th

Edition). New Jersey: Morill. PP103 – 110.

Monette, D.R.; Sullivan, T.S. & Dejong, R.D. (1994). Applied Social
Research: Tool for the Human Services (3rd Edition) Chicago:
Harcourt Brace College Publishers, PP3 – 8.

William, W. & Stephen, G.J. (2005). Research Methods in Education

(8th Edition). Pearson Educational Inc.

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UNIT 3 EXPERIMENTAL AND QUASI-

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH I
CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Characteristics of the Experimental Method
3.2 Variables – Independent and Dependent Variables
3.3 Confounding Variables
3.4 Experimental Validity
3.4.1 Threats to Experimental Validity
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
The word experiment is used quite freely in our society and therefore, it
has a broad, quite familiar meaning. We talk about experimental
programmes and experimental drugs, for example. These involve a new
approach or procedure, or new ingredients to see what the effects will be
when something is tried; we refer to this as an experiment or to the
process as experimenting.

In educational research, we use the same basic concept for an

experiment, that is, something is tried to determine its effects. That
something has one or more independent variable (s) manipulated to
determine the effects. An independent variable manipulated in an
experiment is called an experimental variable. In its simplest form, the
experimental study attempts to control the entire research situation
except for certain input variables that then become suspect as the cause
of whatever change has taken place within the investigative design.

The matter of control is so basic to the experimental study that it is

frequently referred to as the control group – experimental group design.
The study begins as far as possible with matched groups. These groups
are randomly selected and paired so that, as far as possible, within the
limits of the evaluative instruments available, each group resembles the
other on as many characteristics as possible, especially those that are
critical to the experiment.

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Experimental Group – Control Group

Though it is assumed that at the beginning of the experiment, both

groups have identical characteristics values and status, equivalence is
more theoretical than real. Because of this, the group is referred to as
“matched group”, or it could be said that the groups are matched on the
basis of X, Y and Z; when X, Y and Z are the parameters that provide
the basis for matching.

This unit will be discussed under the following subheadings:

characteristics of the experimental method, classification of
experimental designs, variables one-shot experimental case study, one
group pretest-Post-test design, pretest – Post-test control group design,
Solomon four group design, non-randomized control group – pretest,
Post-test design, time series experiment and control group time series
design.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• state the characteristics of the experimental method and recognise

the classification of experimental design
• identify the dependent and independent variables in a research
question objectives
• explain what are extraneous variables
• define the meaning of experimental validity
• state and describe the threats of internal experimental validity
• criticise experimental research reports.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Characteristics of the Experimental Method

Before specific experimental designs are introduced, some general
criteria for a well-designed experiment will be considered. Essentially,
the characteristics that make for a good research design also apply to the
design of an experiment. The criteria are listed here with a brief
comment for each criterion to explain what it means:

i. Adequate Experimental Control – This means that there are

enough constraints on the conditions of the experiment so that the
researcher can interpret the results. The experimental design is so
structured that if the experimental variable has an effect, it can be
detected. This may also mean controlling other variables through

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randomisation or by building them into the design as independent

variables.

ii. Lack of Artificiality – This criterion is especially important in

educational research if the results of the experiment are to be
generalised to a non-experimental setting – for example, a
classroom. It means that the experiment is conducted in such a
way that the results will apply to the real educational world. We
do not want the artificial or atypical characteristic of an
experiment to cause the experimental effects.

iii. Basis for Comparison – There must be some way to make a

comparison to determine whether or not there is an experimental
effect. In some experiments, a control group is used – a group
that does not receive an experimental treatment. The control
group in an instructional experiment usually consists of a group
of students taught by a traditional method. Certainly not all
experiments require control groups. Comparisons can be made
between two or more experimental treatments and on occasion
with some external criterion.

iv. Adequate Information from the Data – The data must be

adequate in order to test the hypotheses of an experiment. The
data must be such that the necessary statistics can be generated
with enough precision to make decisions about hypotheses.

v. Uncontaminated Data – the data should adequately reflect the

experimental effects. They should not be affected by poor
measurement errors in the experimental procedure. The
individuals from the various groups should not interact in such a
way as to cancel the experimental effects or to cause
misrepresentation of the experimental effects.

vi. No Confounding of Relevant Variables – This criterion is

closely related to adequate experimental control group. There
may be other variables operating that have an effect on the
dependent variable. If so, these effects must not be
misinterpreted as experimental effects. Their effects must be
separated or controlled, usually through the experimental design.

vii. Representativeness – Representativeness usually means to

generalise the experimental results to some individuals,
conditions, methods and so forth. To obtain representativeness,
experimenters commonly include some form of random selection
of subjects from the population to which they intend to
generalise.

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viii. Parsimony – The criterion of parsimony means that, with all

other characteristics equal, a simpler design is preferred to a more
complex one. Of course, a design must be complex enough for
the purposes of the experiment, but complexity is not encouraged
for its own sake. The simpler design is usually easier to
implement and possibly easier to interpret.

Experiments, like any other types of educational research, are

susceptible to technical and procedural errors. The development of an
appropriate experimental design and its adequate implementation require
a considerable and careful planning, but they provide the best safeguard
against errors. Experimental designs require simultaneous attention to a
variety of details. This planning is done prior to conducting the
experiment.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

What is a research design?

3.2 Variables – Independent and Dependent Variables

Variables are the conditions or characteristics that the experimenter
manipulates, controls or observes. They can be divided into two,
namely: independent and dependent variables.

The independent variables are the conditions or characteristics that the

experimenter manipulates or controls in his or her attempt to ascertain
their relationship to observed phenomena. The dependent variables are
the conditions or characteristics that appears, disappears or changes as
the experimenter introduces, removes or changes the independent
variables (Best and Khan, 1995).

In educational research, an independent variable may be a particular

teaching method, a type of teaching material, a reward or a period of
exposure to a particular condition or an attribute such as: sex or level of
intelligence. The dependent variable may be a test score, the number of
errors in a comprehensive exercise etc. The dependent variables are the
measured changes in pupils’ performance attributable to the influence of
the independent variable.

There are two types of independent variables: treatment and orgasmic or

attribute variables. Treatment variables are those factors that the
researcher manipulates and to which he or she assigns subjects.
Attribute variables are those characteristics that cannot be altered by the
experimenter such as: age, sex, race or intelligence quotient (IQ). The

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experimenter can decide to include them or remove them as variable to

be studied.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Identify the independent and dependent variables in a study titled “The

effect of remedial mathematics on students’ science achievement”.

3.3 Confounding Variables

Confounding variables are those aspects of a study or sample that might
influence the dependent variables (outcome measure) and whose effects
may be confused with the effect of the independent variable.
Confounding variables are of two types: extraneous variables and
intervening variables.

i. Intervening Variables

In experimental research, certain variable that cannot be controlled or

measured directly may have an important effect upon the outcome.
They intervene between the cause and the effect. In an achievement
test, the researcher may suspect that certain variable may be influencing
the student’s performance though they may not be observed directly,
such factors as anxiety, fatigue, motivation and English comprehension
ability. These are difficult to define operationally, but you cannot ignore
them, therefore, they must be controlled through the use of appropriate
designs.

ii. Extraneous Variables

Extraneous variables (i.e. variables not manipulated by the researcher)

that may have a significant influence upon the results of a study. Many
research results are questionable because of the influence of these
extraneous variables. In a study of teacher’s competence and pupils’
performance, different teachers and whole classes will be used. Such
variables as academic ability, teacher personality, age and readiness,
constitute extraneous variables that could affect the result of the study.
It should be noted that for an extraneous variable to confound the result
of a study, it must be correlated strongly enough with both the
independent and dependent variables that its influence can be mistaken
for that of the independent variables. It is almost impossible to
eliminate the influence of the extraneous variable totally, but a good
design could minimise its influence.

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iii. Controlling Variables

Confounding Variables that are of interest to the researcher can be

controlled by building them into the study as independent variable. For
example, a researcher comparing two teaching methods may wish to
control teacher capabilities by making it an independent variable.
Several variables that are not of interest to the research may be removed
or their influence minimised as follows:

• Removing the Variable: Variables may be controlled by

removing them completely. For example, teacher concerns for
the good performance of his/her pupil could be eliminated by
using a neutral teacher to supervise the examination.

• Randomisation: Randomisation involves pure chance selection

and assignment of subjects to experimental or control group.
This is a method whereby everyone selected for the study has
equal chance of being assigned to either the experimental or
control group e.g. use of tossing the coin.

• Matching Cases: Where randomisation is not feasible, selecting

pairs of individuals with identical or nearly identical
characteristics and assigning one to experimental or control
reduces the influence. Where the variables are more than one,
matching may not effectively solve the problem.

• Balancing Cases or Group Matching: Balancing cases consists

of assigning subjects to experimental and control groups in such a
way that the means and variances of the groups are as nearly
equal as possible.

• Analysis of Variances: This method permits the research to

eliminate initial differences on several variables between the
experimental and control groups by statistical methods. The use
of pretest mean scores as covariance is more effective than the
matching process. You should note that these methods of
controlling the extraneous variable need many examples to make
them meaningful and comprehensible, but owing to the scope of
this work, it is not possible to do so. You should consult research
method textbooks for more examples.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

What is the best way of controlling extraneous variables for group of

people in the experimental and control group?

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3.4 Experimental Validity

The criteria of a well-designed experiment can be summarised as the
characteristics that enhance experimental validity. Experimental
validity is used here as defined by Campbell and Stanley (1963) and
Cook and Campbell (1979), and is said to be of four types: internal,
external, construct and statistical conclusion.

Internal validity refers to the validity of the cause and effect inference
linking the independent variable and the dependent variable. It
questions whether the experimental treatment really makes a difference
in the dependent variable. To answer this question, the researcher must
be confident that factors such as extraneous variables have been
controlled and are not producing an effect that is being mistaken as an
experimental treatment effect.

External validity of an experiment deals with the generalisability of the

results of the experiment. In what populations, variables, situations and
so forth, do the results generalise? Generally, the more extensively the
results can be generalised, the more useful the research, given that there
is adequate internal validity.

Construct validity deals with the definitions of the independent and the
dependent variables in an experiment and in the ways that these
variables are operationalised in the experimental setting. The concern is
that the constructs that are investigated could be construed to be
different constructs.

Statistical conclusion validity refers to the validity of the decision that

there exist a statistically significant difference between the experimental
group and the control group. This is the first step in deciding whether
the experimental treatment has had an effect. A mistake at this point
will lead to an inaccurate conclusion about the impact of an independent
variable on the dependent variable.

3.4.1 Threats to Experimental Validity

Experimental design should enhance experimental validity, but
experimental validity does not depend on experimental design alone.
The specifics of the experiment have an influence and a number of
things can happen to threaten experimental validity both internal and
external.

Campbell and Stanley (1966) have summarised the threats to

experimental validity identifying 12 threats, eight to internal validity and
four to external validity. Table 12.1 lists and describes most of
these

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threats and provides an example on how each could occur. Because

these are experiments, all examples assume that some experimental
treatment has been administered.

Table 3.1: Threats to Experimental Validity

S/N THREATS EXAMPLES

Internal Validity

1. History – unanticipated During a relatively short

events occurring while instructional experiment, one
the group of subjects misses
experiment is in progress instruction due to a power failure
that affect the dependent at the school.
variable.
2. In a learning experiment, subject
Maturation – processes performance begins decreasing
operating within the subject after about fifty minutes due to
as a function of time. fatigue.

3. In an experiment in which
Testing – the effect of performance on a logical
taking one test on the reasoning test is the dependent
scores of a subsequent test. variable, a pretest cues the
subjects about the Post-test.

4. Instrumentation – an Two examiners in an

effect
due to inconsistent use instructional experiment
of
the measuring instruments. administered the Post-test with
different instructions and
procedures.

5. Statistical regression – an In an experiment involving

effect caused by a tendency reading instruction, subjects
for subjects selected on thegrouped because of poor pretest
basis of extreme scores reading scores show
to
regress toward an average considerably greater gains than
performance on a the average and high readers.
subsequent test.

6. Selection – an effect due to The experimental group in an

the groups of subjects instructional experiment consists
not of a high-ability class, while the
being randomly assigned to control group is an average-
groups; a selection factor is ability class.
operating such that the
groups are not equivalent.
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EDU823 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH METHODS

7. Mortality – an effect due to In a health experiment designed

subjects dropping out of the to determine the effects of
experiment on a non- various exercises, those subjects
random basis. finding exercise most difficult
stop participating.

8. Selection-maturation In a problem-solving
interaction – an effect ofexperiment, intact groups of
maturation not being junior high school students and
consistent across the groups senior high students are
because of some selection involved. The junior high
factor. students tire of the task sooner
than the older students.

External Validity

1. Interaction effect of testing In a physical performance

– pretesting interacts with experiment, the pretest cues the
the experimental treatment subjects to respond in a certain
and causes some effects way to the experimental
such that the results will treatment that would not be the
not generalise to an case if there were no pretest.
unpretested population.

2. Interaction effects of The results of an experiment in

selection biases and the which teaching method is the
experimental treatment – an experimental treatment, is
effect of some selection effective with high achievers.
factor of intact groups
interacting with the
experimental treatment
that
would not be the case if the
groups were formed
randomly.

3. Reactive effects of An experiment in remedial

experimental arrangements reading instruction has an effect
– an effect that is due to the that does not occur when the
artificial or novel remedial reading program is
experimental setting. (Noteimplemented in the regular
that this can also threaten classroom.
internal validity).

4. Multiple-treatment An experiment in remedial

interference – when the reading instruction has an effect

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same subjects receive that does not occur when the

two remedial reading program is
or more treatments (as in
a
repeated measures implemented in the regular
design)…there may be a classroom.
carryover effect between
treatments such that the
results cannot be
generalized to single
treatments.
Construct Validity

1. Inadequate preoperational Two teachers implement

explication of constructs individualized instruction in very
– different ways because they lack
insufficient definition of a precise definition of the term.
the independent and/or
dependent variables.

2. An experiment concerning the

Mono-operation bias – only
one form of the effect of feedback includes only
experimental variable is written feedback.
implemented.

3. Mono-method bias – only An experiment on reducing test

one form of the anxiety uses only a paper-and-
dependent pencil self-report of anxiety.
variable is implemented.
4. Subjects in an experimental
Hypothesis-guessing within program interact differently
experimental condition – when they know they are being
participants behave studied.
differently when they know
they are part of an
experiment. (Note that
the
behavior of subjects can
also threaten internal
validity).

5. Confounding constructs A researcher concludes that

and levels of constructs music enhances exercise
–
drawing conclusions about programs when this is only true
variables when some levels for certain kinds of music.
of the variable are absent.
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Statistical Conclusion
Validity

1. Low statistical power – A researcher concludes that two

using a sample size that instructional approaches are
is equally effective when an
too small to detect experiment with five students in
differences between each group yields no significant
groups. differences.

2. A researcher reports means and

Violated assumptions of variances of nominal scaled data
statistical tests – failing such as ethnicity.
to
meet the underlying
3. assumptions. A researcher compares two
methods on fifty dependent
Finding and the error variables and bases conclusions
rate on two significant findings.
problem – capitalizing on
4.
chance findings. A psychologist finds no
difference between boys’ and
girls’ recall of memories of
Reliability of measures – infancy.
using technically
inadequate measures.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4

What is experimental validity?

4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have learnt that the experimental study goes by various
names, such as: cause and effect method, laboratory method, pretest –
Post-test control group design. The experimental method deals with
cause and effects.

An experiment involves the comparison of the effects of a particular

treatment with that of a different treatment or no treatment. There are
two types of variables – independent and dependent variable.
Confounding variables are those that can influence the dependent
variable. Extraneous variables are those uncontrolled by removing the
variable matching, group matching and analysis of variance.
Experimental validity, is whether the instrument measures, what it
intended to measure. There are two types of validity: internal and
external validity. Threats to internal validity include: maturation,

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testing, history, selection, experimental attrition and statistical

regression.

5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have started work on experimental design which is a
very important aspect of research method in education. You have learnt
about the important issues that are very necessary for effective
understanding of experimental design. In the next unit, you will study
experimental design.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Discuss the relevance of any two variables that plays some roles
in experimental research design.
2. Explain the validity of an instrument.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Best, J.W. & Khan, J.V. (1995). Research in Education (7th Edition).
New Delhi: Prentice Hall. PP 20 – 23.

Campbell, D.T. & Stanley, J.C. (1966). Experimental and Quasi-

Experimental Design, Designs for Research. Chicago: Rand M.C.
Nally, PP60 – 75.

Cresswell, J.W. (1994). Research Design: Quantitative and Qualitative

Approaches Thousand Oaks C.A.: Sagem PP105 – 107.

Leedy, P.D. (1997). Practical Research: Planning and Design (6th

Edition). New Jersey: Morill, PP103 – 110.

Monette, D.R.; Sullivan, T.S. & Dejong, R.D. (1994). Applied Social
Research: Tool for the Human Services (3rd Edition). Chicago:
Harcourt Brace College Publishers, PP3 – 8.

William, W. & Stephen, G.J. (2005). Research Methods in Education

(8th Edition). Pearson Educational Inc.

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MODULE 5 TYPES OF RESEARCHES II,

POPULATION AND SAMPLE
Unit 1 Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Research II
Unit 2 Ex-Post Facto Research and Evaluation Research
Unit 3 Population and Sample

UNIT 1 EXPERIMENTAL AND QUASI-

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH II
CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Classification of Experimental Design
3.2 Pre-Experimental Designs
3.2.1 One Group Pretest – Post-test Design 0 x 0
3.2.2 Static Group Comparison
3.3 Time Experimental Design
3.3.1 The Pretest – Post-test Control Group
3.3.2 The Solomon Four – Group Design
3.3.3 The Pretest – Only Control Group Design
3.4 Quasi-Experimental Designs
3.4.1 The Non-Randomised Control Group Pretest-
Post-test Design
3.4.2 The Time Series Design
3/4/3 Control Group Time Series
3.5 Handling of Historical Data
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
You will note that the last unit was titled “Experimental and Quasi-
Experimental Research I”. This suggests that the present unit is part of
and a continuation of the previous unit. You are therefore, advised to
revise the last unit before you embark on studying the present unit.

Some of the facts you studied in the last unit will be mentioned here as a
preparation for the present study. At the beginning of the experiment, it
is assumed that Experimental Group is equal to (=) Control Group. An
experiment involves the comparison of the effects of a particular

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treatment with that of a different treatment or of no treatment. Also, you

were told that variables are the conditions or characteristics that the
experimenter manipulates, controls or observes.

You also learnt that variables that are not of interest to the experimenter
may be removed or their influence reduced by removing the variables,
randomisation matching, group matching or analysis of variance. For an
experiment to have internal validity, the fact that have been manipulated
should have a genuine effect on the observed consequences while
external validity deals with the generalisability of the findings and
threats to internal validity are brought about by the following factors:
maturation, history, testing, instrumentation, statistical regression,
selection and experimental attrition. You should make sure that the
facts reviewed here are quite clear to you before you proceed with this
unit.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• classify experimental designs

• identify appropriate experimental design for a chosen study
• apply the results of experimental design in the classroom
• criticise experimental research results
• describe a particular research design.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Classification of Experimental Design

There are three categories of experimental designs, namely: pre-
experimental designs, the true experimental designs and the quasi-
experimental designs. The non/quasi-experimental designs lack both the
random assignment to conditions and the control group that are such a
central part of the good experimental designs. While they are
sometimes useful, they illustrate some inherent weakness in terms of
establishing internal validity. The better designs are called true
experimental designs. The strength of experiments as research
techniques is that they are designed to enable us make inference about
the causality. The element that makes this possible is the control.

In experiments, the researcher has considerable control over determining

who participates in a study, what happens to them and under what
condition it happens. In order to appreciate the importance of this, some
of the key terms in experimental research are discussed at below.

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At the core of experimental research is the fact that the investigator

exposes the people in an experiment, commonly referred to as
experimental subjects to some conditions or variables called the
experimental stimulus. The experimental stimulus or experimental
treatment is an independent variable directly manipulated by the
experimenter in order to assess its effect on behaviour. Recall as it has
been discussed earlier and again in Unit 12 that independent variables
are those variables in a study that are hypothesised to produce changes
in another variable. The variable affected by the independent variable is
the dependent variable – so called because its value is dependent on the
value of the independent variable.

An experimental group is a group of subjects who are exposed to the

experimental stimulus. Experimental condition is the term used to
describe the group of people who receive the experimental stimulus.
The third is the quasi-experimental design. The logic underlying
experimentation is illustrated by means of a series of symbols. The
following symbols are commonly used to describe experimental designs:

O = an observation or measurement of the dependent variable;

X = exposure of the people to the experimental stimulus or
independent variable;
R = random assignment to conditions.

In addition, the symbols constituting a particular experimental design

are presented in time sequence, with those to the left occurring earlier in
the sequence than those further to the right.

If OXO is a simple experiment, it can be described thus:

In this experiment, the researcher measures the dependent variable (this

is called pretest), exposes the subjects to the independent variable and
then re-measures the dependent variable. So one major way for
assessing whether the independent variable in an experiment has had an
effect or not is to make a comparisn of the pretest scores or measures
with the Post-test. The symbols O, X, R will be used in discussing the
different types of design.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

1. Name the three classes of experimental designs.

2. What are the meaning of R, X, and O as symbols used in
experimental design?

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3.2 Pre-experimental Designs

This will be discussed under the following sub-topics.

3.2.1 One Group Pretest – Post-test Design 0 x 0

This is a type of experiment in which a single group has a pre-
experimental test, it administers the experimental treatment and is given
the same test. A science teacher wanted to find out the effect of using a
particular method in teaching his/her pupils. He/She gave them a test
before using the method. After using this method consistently for at
least six weeks; he/she varies the test items either by rearranging the
numbering or by rephrasing some of the items. The test is re-
administered. Any effect observed is attributed to the treatment which is
the new teaching method.

It is necessary to mention that there are series of weakness in this

design. With the exception of attrition and selection which are irrelevant
owing to the lack of a control group, the design is subject to the other
five threats to internal validity. If a historical event related to the
dependent variable intervenes between the pretest and the Post-test, its
effect could be confused with those of the independent variable.
Maturation pretest and the Post-test scores, if paper and pencil tests are
used, a shift of scores from pretest to Post-test could occur owing to
testing effects.

Regardless of the measurement used, instrumentation changes could

produce variations in the pretest – post-test as a result of regression
towards the mean. In all, these variations on the dependent variable
produced by one or more of these validity treats could be mistaken for
variation due to the independent variable.

3.2.2 Static Group Comparison

The static group comparison is used to determine the influence of
variable on one group and not on another.

Group I x O
Group II – O

In this case, there are two groups; the experimental group is exposed to
treatment, X, the control group is not. There is no provision for
establishing the equivalence of the experimental and control group and
this is a very serious limitation. A researcher gave homework on the
topic He/She is teaching for a period of one month to a class and gave
no homework at all to another class. At the end of one month, he

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administered the same achievement test to both classes. The major

validity threat to this design is selection.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Provide a pre-experimental design for observing the effect of regular

correction of pupils’ mistakes in mathematical problem solving.

3.3 True Experimental Design

In true experiment, the equivalence of the experimental and control
groups is provided by random assignment of subjects to experimental
and control groups. Although it is difficult to arrange a true
experimental design, particularly in school-classroom research, it is the
most effective type of design and should be used whenever possible.
Three experimental designs are discussed under this section.

3.3.1 The Pretest – Post-test Control Group

Experimental Group I RO1 XO2

Control Group II RO1 – O4
X Gain = O2 – O1
– Gain = O1 – 4
O1 x O3 pretests
O2 x O4

This design utilises a true control group, including random assignment

to equalise the comparison group, which eliminates all the threats to
external validity except perhaps experimental attrition. Because of this,
we can have considerable confidence that any difference between
experimental and control group on the dependent variable is due to the
effect of the independent variable. Most of the threats are minimised in
this design. History is removed because both groups experience the
same events except for the experimental stimulus. Because the same
amount of time passes for both groups, maturation effects can be
assumed to be equal, both groups are pretested therefore any testing
influences on the post-test should be the same. Instrumentation effects
are controlled because any unreliability in the measurement process that
could cause a shift in scores from pretest to post-test should be the same
for the groups. Randomisation controls threat of selection by making
sure that the comparison groups are equivalent. Attrition is the only
threat that is not controlled due to its nature because people die, move
away, get disinterested etc. For analysis, gain scores may be compared
and subjected to a test of the significance of the difference between
means. Pretest scores can also be used in analysis of covariance to

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statistically control any difference between the groups at the beginning

of the study.

3.3.2 The Solomon Four – Group Design

ROXO
RO–O
RXO
R–O

This combines the two group design previously discussed, the Post-test
only and the pretest-Post-test. It is therefore possible to evaluate the
effects of testing history and maturation. Analysis of variance is used to
compare the four Post-test scores and analysis of covariance to compare
the gains. The advantage of the Solomon Four Group design is that it
enables the researcher to check on possible effects of pretesting, because
some groups are pretested and others not. It is possible that pretesting
affects the Post-test score or that pretesting interacts with the
experimental treatment. That is, the effect of the experimental treatment
is not the same in pretested and non-pretested groups. Because
pretesting is not the rule in actual classroom practice, this is often an
important consideration for validity. A major difficulty in this design is
finding enough subjects to assign randomly to four equivalent groups.

3.3.3 The Pretest – Only Control Group Design

RXO
R–O

This design is one of the most effective ways in minimising the threats
to experimental validity. It differs from the static group comparison
design in that experimental and control groups are equated by
randomisation. At the conclusion of the experiment, the difference
between the mean test scores are subjected to test of statistical
significance of variance analysis with a chosen topic to provide a
paradigm for a true experimental design.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

Choose a topic in your area and provide a paradigm for a true

experimental design.

3.4 Quasi-Experimental Designs

These designs provide control of when and to whom the measurement is
applied, but because random assignment to experimental and control

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treatment has not been applied, the equivalence of the group is not
assumed.

3.4.1 The Non-Randomised Control Group Pretest-Post-test

Design
The non-randomised control group pretest – Post-test design
configuration is similar to the pretest – Post-test; true experimental
group except for randomisation.

OXO
OXO

This design is often used in classroom experiments when experimental

and control groups are such naturally assemble group as intact classes
may be similar.

3.4.2 The Time Series Design

The time series design consists of taking a series of evaluation and
introducing a variable or a new dynamic into the system after which
another series of evaluation is made. If a substantial change results in
the second series of evaluation, it may be reasonably assumed that the
cause of the difference in results was the factor introduced into the
system. In this paradigm, O, – 4 are different from O5 – O8.

3.4.3 Control Group Time Series

In control group time series, a variant of the time series design
accompanies it with a parallel set of observations, but without the
introduction of the experimental factor. This design would then take a
configuration like the following:

O→O→O→X→O→O→O→O→
O→O→O→–O→O→O→O→

Such a design tends to ensure greater control for internal validity. The
advantage of a design of this construction is that it adds one further
guarantee toward internal validity in drawing conclusion with respect to
the effect of experimental factor.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4

What is the major difference between True experimental and Quasi

experimental Design?

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4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have learnt that experimental design can be classified
into three major groups mainly: pre-experimental designs, true
experimental designs and quasi experimental designs.

Examples of the various designs are:

Pre-experimental: One group pretest – post-test design.

True experimental: Pretest – post-test control group design Solomon

four group design.

Quasi experimental: Non-randomised control group time series

experimental design control group time series design.

5.0 SUMMARY
You should note that the major difference between true experimental
design and others is the randomness of the sample. In the next unit, you
are going to study Ex-post facto and evaluation research.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Describe how you would carry out a true experimental study using any
topic of your choice (Try to use all the knowledge you have acquired in
this course so far).

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Best, J.W. & Khan, J.V. (1995). Research in Education (7th Edition).
New Delhi: Prentice Hall, PP20 – 23.

Cresswell, J.W. (1994). Research Design: Quantitative and Qualitative

Approaches Thousand Oaks C.A.: Sagem PP105 – 107.

Leedy, P.D. (1997). Practical Research: Planning and Design (6th

Edition). New Jersey: Morill, PP103 – 110.

Monette, D.R.; Sullivan, T.S. & Dejong, R.D. (1994). Applied Social
Research: Tool for the Human Services (3rd Edition) Chicago:
Harcourt Brace College Publishers, PP3 – 8.

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UNIT 2 EX-POST FACTO RESEARCH AND

EVALUATION RESEARCH
CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Correlation and Ex-Post Facto
3.1.1 Correlation Design
3.1.2 Ex-Post Facto Studies
3.2 Definition of Ex-Post Facto Design
3.2.1 Basic Difference between Experimental Research
and Ex-Post Facto Research
3.2.2 Self-Selection and Ex-Post Facto Research
3.2.3 The Limitation of Ex-Post Facto Interpretation
3.3 The Value of Ex-Post Facto Research
3.4 Descriptive Study
3.5 International Assessment and School Surveys
3.5.1 International Assessment
3.5.2 School Surveys
3.6 Programme Evaluation
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
The preceding unit dealt with experimental and quasi-experimental
studies. In educational studies, a lot of emphasis is placed on empirical
studies and the experimental method provides most of such studies.

In this unit, effort will be made to present some further explanation of

correlation studies as a research design and link it up with Ex-Post Facto
designs. Some authors describe Ex-Post Facto design as an
experimental design in a reverse direction. Generally, Ex-Post Facto
research is a sub-type of the non-experimental method. The method
observes existing conditions and searches back through the data for
plausible causal factors. It adopts the deductive approach in which the
crime is discovered and the cause or motivation for crime is sought.

Evaluation research often addresses two basic goals: formative

evaluation and summative evaluation. Though this unit will briefly
discuss assessment and evaluation in terms of descriptive research, it
will concentrate on programme evaluation.

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In this unit, therefore, you will study Ex-Post Facto facts approach under
correlation design; definition; difference between experimental research
and ex-post facto research, self-selection, evaluation limitation, and
value of ex-post facto research while under evaluation. The study will
briefly mention the assessment of school, formative and summative
evaluation and programme evaluation in particular.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• explain correlation design

• define ex-post facto research
• state self-selection
• discuss limitations and value of ex-post facto research
• explain assessment and evaluation research
• carry out programme evaluation
• apply the strategies to classroom situation.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Correlation and Ex-Post Facto

This will be discussed under the following sub-topics.

3.1.1 Correlation Design

Correlation designs are usually attempts to establish relationship
between two sets of data. The situation is often represented by this type
of diagram:

Oa = Ob

Often, researchers believe that if they show that a positive relation exists
between two factors, then it means that one factor is the cause of the
other.

Correlation does not mean causality. That one can demonstrate a

statistical positive correlation between two sets of data does not by
anyway mean any causality between them. The diagram below
illustrates the possible forms within any correlation situation.

Given two variables Ox and Oy when Ox is the independent variable,

then three conditions might be drawn with respect to these data thus:

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(i) Ox has caused Oy; Ox Oy

(ii) Oy has caused Ox; Oy Ox
(iii) Some unknown third variable is responsible for both Ox and Oy;
Ox = Oy.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Does high positive correlation mean causality? Yes / No. Explain your
answer.

3.1.2 Ex-Post Facto Studies

Ex-post facto studies are not experimental studies. Control is one
condition that is characteristic of the experimental method. But after an
event has already happened, definitely, it cannot be controlled any more.

3.2 Definition of Ex-Post Facto Design

Ex-post facto means “from a thing done afterwards” and when ex-post
facto research is done, variables are studied in retrospect in search of
possible relationships and effects. There are no variables deliberately
manipulated by the researcher. Ex-post facto research goes by different
names.

Krathwohl (1993) includes ex-post facto research as part of “after-the-

fact, natural experiments”. These are not experiments in the sense that
the researcher manipulates variables, but under natural conditions in
which there are operating independent and dependent variables. Causal-
comparative research is another term sometimes used for this type of
research. Essentially, causal-comparative research explores effects
between variables in a non-experimental setting. It is more a way of
analysing research data than a separate research method. Ex-post facto
research is systematic empirical inquiry in which the researcher does not
have direct control of independent variables because their manifestations
have already occurred or because they are inherently not manipulable.
Inferences about relations among variables are made without direct
intervention, from concomitant variation of independent and dependent
variable (Kerlinger, 1977).

3.2.1 Basic Difference between Experimental Research and

Ex-Post Facto Research
The basic structure in which the experimental scientist operates is
simple. He/She hypothesises if x increases, then y also increases.
Depending on circumstances and his/her personal predilection in
research design or measure x, he/she then observes to see if concomitant

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variation, the variation expected or predicted from the variation in x

occurs. It is noteworthy that the scientists predicts from a controlled x
to y.

In ex-post facto research, direct control is not possible. Neither

experimental manipulation nor random assignment can be used by the
researcher. For example, if you want to study “The cause of mass
failure in chemistry during the last West African Examination Council’s
examination”, the incident has already taken place and there is no way
you can control any of the possible variables, such as: studies, readiness,
teachers’ concerns, supply of necessary facilities etc.

The most important difference between experimental research and ex-

post facto research is ‘control’ or manipulation of variables. In the
experimental case, the researcher at least has manipulative control.
He/She has at least one active variable. If an experiment is a ‘true’
experiment, he/she can also exercise control by randomisation. He/She
can assign subjects to groups at random or she can assign treatment to
groups at random.

In ex-post facto research situation, this kind of control of the

independent variable is not possible. The investigator must take things
as they are and try to disentangle them.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

What are the two major differences between ex-post facto research and
experimental research?

3.2.2 Self-Selection and Ex-Post Facto Research

In any ideal social studies and humanities research world, the random
assignment of subjects to groups and the drawing of random samples of
subject, treatment to groups would always be possible. In the real
world, however, one, two or even all the three of these possibilities do
not exist. But it is not possible in ex-post facto research to assign
subjects at random. Thus, subjects can assign and select themselves to
groups, on the basis of characteristics other than those in which the
investigator may be interested. The subjects and the treatments come as
they were already assigned to the group.

Self-selection occurs when the members of the group being studied are
in the group, in part, because they differentially possess traits or
characteristics extraneous to the research problem, characteristics that
possibly influence or are otherwise related to the variable of the research
problem. There are two kinds of self-selection: into samples and into

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comparison groups. The latter occurs when subjects are selected

because they are in one group or another – science educators and non-
science educators, integrated science students and non-integrated
science students, science students that score above credit in the test and
those that did not. That is, they are selected because they possess the
dependent variable in greater or lesser degree.

Self-selection into samples occurs when subjects are selected in non-

random fashion into a sample. The usual ex-post facto study uses group
that exhibit differences in the dependent variable. But the two cases are
basically the same, since the group membership on the basis of a
variable always bring selection into the picture.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

What are the two types of self-selection?

3.2.3 The Limitation of Ex-Post Facto Interpretation

Ex-post facto research has three major weaknesses, two of which have
already been mentioned. They are:

i. the inabilities to manipulate;

ii. the lack of power to randomise, and
iii. the risk of improper interpretation, other things being equal.

Ex-post facto research lack control, this lack is the basis of the third
weaknesses: the risk of improper interpretation. One danger with ex-
post facto research is that a prediction may be quite spurious, but its
plausibility and conformity to preconception may make it easy to accept.
Ex-post facto research is conducted without hypotheses and predictions,
research in which data are just collected and then interpreted could
mislead.

3.3 The Value of Ex-Post Facto Research

Despite its weakness, much of ex-post facto research must be done
simply because many research problems in the social sciences and
education do not lend themselves to experimental inquiry. A little
reflection on some of the important variables in educational research –
intelligence, teacher personality, home background etc. will show that
they cannot be manipulated. Controlled inquiry is possible, but true
experimentation is not.

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SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4

State the greatest weakness of ex-post facto research.

3.4 Descriptive Study

A descriptive study describes and interprets what is, it is concerned with
conditions or relationships that exist, opinions that are held, processes
that are going on, effects that are evident, or trends that are developing.
It is primarily concerned with the present, although it often considers
past events and influences as they relate to current conditions. This unit
will discuss descriptive studies that use quantitative methods.

• Assessment: Assessment describes the status of a phenomenon

at a particular time. It describes without value judgement a
situation that prevails, attempts no explanation of underlying
reasons and makes no recommendations for action. It may deal
with prevailing opinion, knowledge, practices or conditions. As
it is ordinarily used in education, assessment describes the
progress students have made toward educational goals at a
particular time. It does not generally provide recommendations,
but there may be some implied judgment on the satisfactoriness
of the situation or the fulfillment of society’s expectation.

• Evaluation: Evaluation is a process used to determine what has

happened during a given activity or to an institution. The
purpose of evaluation is to see if a given programme is working,
if an institution is successful according to the goals set for it, or if
the original intent is being successfully carried out. To
assessment, evaluation adds the ingredient of value judgement of
the social utility, desirability or effectiveness of a process,
product or programme and it often includes a recommendation
for some course of action. School surveys are usually evaluation
studies; educational products and programs are examined to
determine their effectiveness in meeting the accepted objective,
with some recommendations for construction action.

The rest of this unit will concentrate on educational evaluation studies –

school surveys.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 5

What is the main objective of an educational assessment exercise?

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3.5 International Assessment and School Surveys

This will be discussed under the following sub-topics.

3.5.1 International Assessment

The International Association for the Evaluation of Educational
Achievement with headquarters in Stockholm, Sweden, has been
carrying out an assessment programme in a number of countries since
1964. The first study, the International Study of Achievement in
Mathematics (Torsten, 1967) compared achievement in twelve
countries. Short answer and multiple choice tests were administered to
13-year-olds and to students in their last year of the upper secondary
schools, prior to university entrance. More than 132,000 pupils and
5,000 schools were involved in the survey. Japanese students excelled
above all others. Although the purpose of Assessment is not to compare
school systems, the data led observers to make such comparisons. Other
assessments have been carried out and the number of participating
countries has been increased to twenty-two.

Earlier, the meaning of educational assessment was explained to you. In

addition, you have been provided with an example of educational
assessment. It is hoped you could now carryout educational assessment
with your local government area or the nation.

3.5.2 School Surveys

According to Best and Khan (1995), what has traditionally been called
school survey, is usually an assessment and evaluation study. Its
purpose is to gather detailed information to be used as a basis for
judging the effectiveness of the instructional facility, curriculum
teaching and supervisory personnel and financial resource; in terms of
best practices and standards in education.

Many city, township and country school systems have been studied by
this method for the purpose of determining status and adequacy. These
survey evaluations are sometimes carried on by an agency of a
University in the area like IEA in Ibadan. Individuals could embark on
this on a smaller scale.

3.6 Programme Evaluation

The most common use of evaluation is to determine the effectiveness of
a programme and sometimes the organisation. The school surveys
described earlier are evaluation only of the organisation.

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Programme evaluations, while often including the organisation, focus

primarily on programme effectiveness result. As Kaufman and Thomas
(1980) put it: Evaluation deals with results, intended or unintended. The
questions asked during evaluation are usually the same. Regardless, of
the context, evaluation seeks:

i. What are the goals and objectives of the organisation?

ii. What should be the goals and objectives of the organisation?
iii. What results were intended by the programme, project, activity or
organisation?
iv. What results were obtained from the programme by the
organisation?
v. What were the values and usefulness of the method and means
used to achieve the results?
vi. How well was the programme organisation administered and
managed?
vii. What, if anything, about the programme organisation should be
changed?
viii. What, if anything, about the programme organisation should be
continued?
ix. Should the organisation exist at all?

Evaluation is more than testing or measuring, it includes

asking/answering basic questions about efforts and results. In many
cases of educational programme, the major issues are: goals and
objectives of the organisation, student learning. The focus is often on,
what is being taught how it is being taught and most importantly,
whether the subject matter was learned.

Therefore, evaluations of school-based programmes are concerned with

two aspects of the evaluation process that is formative and summative
evaluations.

Summative Evaluation – is what most people think of when they

consider evaluation. Their primary purposes are to determine grades,
judge teaching competence and compare curricula.

Formative Evaluation – the main purpose of formative observation is

to determine the degree of mastery of a given task and to pinpoint the
part of the task not mastered.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 6

Explain three major issues in educational evaluation.

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4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have learnt that:

• Positive correlation does not mean causality;

• Ex-post facto studies are not experimental studies because they
lack control and randomness;
• Lack of control or manipulation is the major difference between
ex-post facto and experimental study;
• Two types of self-selection into groups and into samples were
identified;
• Ex-post facto has three limitations, namely: lack of manipulation,
lack of power to randomise and risk of improper interpretations;
and
• Assessment and evaluation could be described as descriptive
quantitative study.

5.0 SUMMARY
With the discussion on ex-post facto and evaluation research
methodologies, you have now completed studies on the types of research
methodologies. Using your knowledge of types of research, you can
now move to the next stage which deals with methodologies for carrying
out research. You will start your study in this section with population
and sample which constitute the next unit.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Describe the study on how you would evaluate the teaching of
primary science in your Local Government Area.
2. Choose any five ex-post facto research topics and write two
research questions you will use in each case (You may wish to
review the unit on research questions).

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Best, J.W. & Khan, J.V. (1995). Research in Education (7th Edition).
New Delhi: Prentice Hall. PP 20 – 23.

Cresswell, J.W. (1994). Research Design: Quantitative and Qualitative

Approaches Thousand Oaks C.A.: Sagem PP105 – 107.

Kaufman, R. and Thomas (1980). Evaluation with Fear. New York:

New Viewpoint in Best and Khan, Yorsten, H. (ed.)(1977).

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International Study of Achievement in Mathematics. New York:

John Wiley, PP10 – 15.

Monette, D.R.; Sullivan, T.S. Dejong, R.D. (1994). Applied Social

Research: Tool for the Human Services (3rd Edition) Chicago:
Harcourt Brace College Publishers, PP3 – 8.

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UNIT 3 POPULATION AND SAMPLE

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Population and Samples
3.2 The Purpose of Sampling
3.3 Types, Methods and Procedures for Sampling
3.4 Probability Samples
3.5 Non-Probability Samples
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 14, you were infomed that the discussion on types of research
has been concluded. In this unit, you are going to study population and
sample.

Population parameters and sampling techniques are of paramount

importance and are regarded as very critical factors for the success of
most educational studies. The primary purpose of research is to
discover principles that have universal application, but to study
population to arrive at generalisation is often times impracticable, if not
impossible. Some populations are so large that their characteristics
cannot be measured before the measurement could be completed, the
population itself would have changed. Imagine a study of attitude of all
Nigerian primary school teachers toward primary science. The study of
a population of this size would require the services of thousands of
researchers, the expenditure of millions of Naira and hundreds of
thousands of working hours.

Fortunately, the process of sampling makes it possible to draw valid

inferences or generalisations on the basis of careful observation of
variables within a relatively small proportion of the population.

In this unit, you are going to study the population and sample under the
following sub-topics: definition of population and characteristics of
population, sampling, sample size, kinds of sampling and sampling
frames.

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2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• define a population
• explain what a sample is
• state the reasons for sampling
• list the different types of sampling techniques.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Population and Samples

Best and Khan (1995) define population thus: “A population is any
group of individuals that have one or more characteristics in common
that are of interest to the researcher. The population may be all the
individuals of a particular type or a more restricted part of that group.
All primary school pupils, all female secondary school teachers, all
university science educators may be a population”.

A sample is a small proportion of a population selected for observation

and analysis. By the characteristics of the sample, one can make certain
inferences about the characteristics of the population from which it is
drawn. Contrary to some popular opinion, samples are not selected
haphazardly, they are chosen in a systematically random way, so that
chance or the operation of probability can be utilised.

A sample is drawn from a population which refers to all possible cases

of what one is interested in studying. In most educational studies, the
target population is often people who have some particular characteristic
in common, such as: all teachers, all vice – chancellors, all politicians
etc.

A population is not always made up of people; it could be integrated

science laboratories in Bauchi State, all chemistry textbooks used in
Nigeria etc. A sample consists of one or more elements selected from a
population. The manner in which the elements are selected for the
sample has great implications for the scientific utility of the research
based on that sample. To select a good sample, you need to define
clearly the population from which the sample is to be drawn. Failure to
define the population clearly can make generalising from the sample
observations highly ambiguous and result in drawing inaccurate
conclusions.

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SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Discuss how samples are chosen?

The definition of a population should specify four things – content, unit,

extent and time. The content of the population refers to the particular
characteristics that members of the population have in common. The
unit indicates the units of analysis. The extent of the population refers
to its special or geographic coverage. The time factor refers to the
temporal period during which a unit would have to possess the
appropriate characteristics in order to qualify for the sample.

An example of a population could be all third year junior secondary

school students in Oshodi/Isolo Local Government Area of Lagos state,
all the schools within the space covered by this area. The content is
every member of the population must study integrated science and
should be in JSS 3. Though all the students are in JSS 3, it is likely that
some students must have transferred from other schools to schools
within the Oshodi/Isolo Local Government Area. The time factor may
be a decision of the researcher to choose the sample from only those
who started their schooling in the schools within the Local Government
Area which means that, to be selected from the population, the students
should have spent some years in any of the schools within the Local
Government Area.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

List any two factors that are covered when defining a population. Are
all the factors necessary for all studies?

3.2 The Purpose of Sampling

A major reason for studying the sample rather than the entire population
is that the population often times very large and it is not feasible to study
it for example, if a study of teachers consisted of all teachers in Nigeria,
it is not really possible to study each teacher in the entire country; the
time and weight of report will be very prohibitive. Sampling allows you
to study a workable number of cases from the large group to derive
findings that are relevant to all members of the groups.

A second reason for sampling is that information drawn from an entire

group maybe too bulky and tedious to realise. For example, if the study
requires assistants, a sample will enable you to select few qualified and
committed assistants as against a large number of assistants who might
not do the work properly. Few properly paid assistants are likely to do
the work more effectively than a large number of uncommitted ones.

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Also, it offers opportunity for better control. An improperly drawn

sample renders the data collected virtually useless. An important
consideration regarding samples is how representative they are of the
population from which they are drawn. A representative sample is one
that accurately reflects the distribution of relevant variables in the target
population. You should always assess the representativeness of a
sample in order to make accurate conclusion.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

What is the most important reason for sampling in educational research?

3.3 Types, Methods and Procedures for Sampling

One basic rule holds whenever a researcher considers methodology in
relation to data. It does not matter whether the methodology concerns
sampling, statistical procedure or any other type of operation.
According to Leedy (1977), the general rule is: Look carefully at the
nature of and the quality of the data. It is noteworthy that not all data
lend themselves to sampling. It is only appropriate whenever large
populations that have outward semblance of homogeneity are to be
studied. Sampling can be divided into two major categories, namely:
probability and non-probability sampling.

Probability Sampling

In this type of sampling, the researcher can specify in advance that each
segment of the population will be represented in the sample. This is the
distinguishing characteristic or feature that sets it apart from non-
probability sampling. The composition of the sample is derived by
selecting units from those of a much larger population.

In survey studies, the way the sample units are selected is important.
Generally, the components of the sample are chosen from the larger
population by a process known as randomisation. Such a sample is
known as a random sample. Other types of probability sampling are:
systematic sampling, stratified sampling, proportionate and
disproportionate sampling and area sampling.

Non-Probability Sampling

In non-probability sampling, the researcher has no way of forecasting,

estimating or guaranteeing that each element in the population will be
represented in the sample. Non-probability sampling can be divided into
two types, namely: convenience or accidental sampling and quota
sampling.

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Convenience or Accidental Sampling

Convenience sampling makes no pretence of being representative of

population. It takes the units as they arrive on the scene or as they are
presented to the researcher by chance. No attempt is made to control
bias.

Depending on the purpose and the researcher’s awareness of the crudity

of this type of sampling, convenience sampling may be appropriate to
some less demanding kinds of data collection.

Quota Sampling

It is a variant of convenience sampling. It selects respondents in the

same ratio as they are found in the general population. For example,
supposing you want to interview 30 students of science each from two
nearby schools over an issue like: special levy for science laboratory
work.

Quota sampling demands that you just select the first available 30
students from each school. The only assumption is that the numbers of
science students in both schools are approximately equal. This is also an
unregulated type of sampling. It has no limitation except the size of
each category. You have no probability of how the 30 will arrive at
your interview site.

Other types of non-probability sampling are: Availability Sampling,

Snowball Sampling, Purposive Sampling and Dimensional Sampling.

The ultimate objective of any research is to collect data (information) so

as to provide some useful principles, theories and generalisations. The
importance of valid and reliable data in research work requires no
emphasis whatsoever. As a result of this, each of the sampling
procedures will be discussed in greater detail.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4

Using an example each, show the major difference between probability

and non-probability sampling.

3.4 Probability Samples

Every sample approach is expected to provide a representative sample.
But the concern of a researcher is to be as certain as possible that his/her
sample is a representative. Sampling approaches that make use of the
probability theory can both greatly reduce the chances of getting a non-

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representative sample and what is more important, permit the researcher

to estimate precisely the likelihood that a sample differs from the true
population by a given amount. In probability samples, each element in
the population has equal chance of being selected by the researcher. The
calculated sampling error is an estimate of the extent to which the values
of the sample differs from those of the population from which it is
drawn.

3.5 Non-Probability Samples

Probability samples are not required or even appropriate for all studies.
Some research studies, by their nature, are suited for non-probability
samples, samples in which the researcher does not know the probability
of each population being included in the sample. Although non-
probability samples can be very useful, they do have some important
limitations.

First, without the use of probability in the selection of elements for the
sample, no real claim of representative can be made. There is simply no
way to ascertain precisely what population, if any, a non-probability
sample represents. This greatly limits the ability to generalise findings
beyond the level of sample cases.

A second limitation is that the degree of sampling error remains

unknown and unknowable. With no clear population being represented
by the samples, there is nothing with which to compare it. It also means
that the techniques for estimating sample size are not applicable to non-
probability samples. The only factor impacting on sample size for non-
probability samples is that sufficient case can be selected to allow the
types of data analysis that are planned.

A third limitation of non-probability samples involves statistical test of

significance. These commonly used statistics (to be discussed later)
indicate to the researcher whether relationships found in sample data are
sufficiently strong and generalisable to the whole population. All these
tests incidentally are based on laws of probability and assume that a
random process is utilised in selecting the sample elements. Therefore,
non-probability samples do not qualify for test of significance.

All these limitations do not mean that non-probability sample have no

use whatsoever. They are very useful when the objective of the study is
to determine whether there is a relationship between independent and
dependent variable and there is no intent to generalise the results from
the sample to larger population. If generalising sample results to a
population is a major goal of a study, then non-probability samples must
be used with minimum care because they can produce very misleading

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results. It should be noted that it is not the size of the sample that makes
for accurate results, rather the procedures used for selecting elements
into the samples are.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 5

State two limitations of a non-probability sample.

4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have learnt that:

• a population is any group of individual that have one or more

characteristics in common that are of interest to the researcher;
• a sample is a small proportion of a population selected for
observation and analysis;
• four factors associated with population are: content, unit, extent
and time;
• sample is studied because population could be very large and
near impossible to study;
• carefully selected representative sample tends itself to
generalization of findings;
• there are two major sampling techniques;
• probability sampling techniques comprise: random sampling,
systematic sampling, stratified sampling, proportionate and
disproportionate sampling;
• sampling is of two types: convenience or accidental and quota.
Other major types of non-probability sampling are: availability
sampling; snowball sampling, purposive sampling and
dimensional sampling; and
• non-probability sampling has some limitations which include
level of generalisability of finding and acceptability of findings.

5.0 SUMMARY
You will notice that in this unit you have only been introduced to what
may be called the terminology for population and sample, and their
characteristics.

In the next unit, you are going to study sampling procedures, which will
deal with detailed operation of processes of each of the sampling
techniques.

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6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Define population and sample.
2. Describe the major types of sampling techniques and give three
examples of each.
3. “The non-probability sampling techniques should be used
sparingly and with caution”. Discuss this statement.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Best, J.W. & Khan, J.V. (1995). Research in Education (7th Edition).
New Delhi: Prentice Hall. PP 20 – 23.

Cresswell, J.W. (1994). Research Design: Quantitative and Qualitative

Approaches Thousand Oaks C.A.: Sagem PP105 – 107.

Kaufman, R. & Thomas (1980). Evaluation with Fear. New York: New
Viewpoint in Best and Khan, Yorsten, H. (ed.)(1977).
International Study of Achievement in Mathematics. New York:
John Wiley, PP10 – 15.

Monette, D.R.; Sullivan, T.S. Dejong, R.D. (1994). Applied Social

Research: Tool for the Human Services (3rd Edition) Chicago:
Harcourt Brace College Publishers, PP3 – 8.

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MODULE 6 SAMPLING AND DATA COLLECTION

TECHNIQUES
Unit 1 Sampling Techniques
Unit 2 Designing Questionnaire
Unit 3 Interview and Observations

UNIT 1 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Probability Sampling Techniques
3.1.1 Random Sampling
3.1.2 Systematic Sampling
3.1.3 The Stratified Random Sampling
3.1.4 The Area of Cluster Sampling
3.2 Non-Probability Sampling
3.3 The Sample Size
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the last unit, we studied population and sample types, sampling
techniques, mainly probability and non-probability sampling techniques.
Each of these techniques has a number of sampling approaches under it,
for example, probability sampling has such sampling techniques as:
systematic, stratified and area. Non-probability sampling has two major
areas: accidental or convenience and quota sampling techniques.

The limitation of non-probability sampling techniques was highlighted

thus: no real claim of representativeness can be made because the
sample does not assure each population element a known chance of
being selected. The degree of sampling error remains unknown and
unknowable and for meaningful results and acceptability of the findings
should not be generalised beyond the sample.

In this unit, you will study in greater depth the different types of
probability and non-probability sampling techniques. You will also be
exposed to sampling designs.

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2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• identify and use probability sampling techniques

• apply non-probability sampling techniques to appropriate studies
• compare the effectiveness of probability and non-probability
sampling techniques in research
• state the various stages in sampling designs
• discuss sampling techniques used in research reports.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Probability Sampling Techniques

In this section of the unit, we shall study, in details, each of the
probability sampling techniques. These are: random sampling,
systematic sampling and area sampling.

Sampling Design

All sound research begins with a careful consideration of the data. The
nature of the data is expected to determine the methodology of the
investigation. This fact is also applicable to sampling. You do not go
out to sample for the sake of sampling. Careful consideration of the
target population is most important. The researcher should select from
the general population a sample that will be both logically and
statistically defensible.

The first step in selecting any sampling design is to analyse carefully the
integral characteristic of the target population. In view of this, the
researcher could then select the sampling technique most appropriate for
the population type. To describe these sampling technique details, you
need to understand the general characteristics of a population. These
are:
• the population may be generally homogenous, the separate units
may be similar in observable characteristics;
• the population may contain definite strata but each stratum may
differ from every other stratum by a proportionate ratio of its
separate units;
• the population may consist of cluster whose characteristic are
similar, but whose units characteristics are as homogenous as
possible.

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According to Leedy (1997), in all sampling, the following three

processes are indigenous to the selection of the sample:

• the population must be identified, an analysis must be made of its

structure, and an assessment made of its characteristic;

• the process of randomisation must be outlined, and the selection

of the sample from the total population must be made in
accordance with a method of randomisation;

• the data must be extracted from the sample population.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

List two general characteristics of a population.

3.1.1 Random Sampling

The concept of randomness is fundamental to scientific observation and
research. it is based on the assumption that, while individual events
cannot be predicted with accuracy, aggregate events can. For example,
although it may not predict with great accuracy an individual’s academic
achievement, it will predict the average academic performance of a
group. Randomisation has two important applications in research:

i. to select a group of individuals for observation who are

representative of the population about which the researcher
wishes to generalise; and
ii. to equate experimental and control groups in an experiment.
Assigning individuals by random assignment is the best method
of providing for their equivalence.

It is important to note that a random sample is not necessarily an

identical representation of the population. Characteristics of successive
random sample drawn from the same population may differ to some
degree, but it is possible to estimate their variation from the each other.

The variation known as sampling error, does not suggest that a mistake
has been made in the sampling process. Rather, sampling refers to the
chance variations that occur in sampling with randomisation, these
variations are predictable and taken into account in data analysis
techniques.

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i. The Simple Random Sample

The individual observations or individuals are chosen in such a way that

each has an equal chance of being selected, and each choice is
independent of the other. If you wish to select hundred students from a
list of five thousand students in a college, all you need to do is to assign
a number to each of the students, fold their numbers and place them in a
basket, after shuffling them properly, you ask one of the students or you
do it yourself and select any hundred from the basket. You will discover
that each of the five thousand students had equal chance of being
selected.

ii. Random Numbers

The use of table of random numbers is a more convenient way of

selecting a random sample, or assigning individuals to experimental
control groups so that they are equated. Due to time and space, the table
of random numbers cannot be presented here, but it is perhaps the most
frequently used method of random selection of a sample.

You can, however, find the table of random numbers in any Standard
Educational Research Textbook. You are advised to get one and seek
assistance on how to use the Tale of Random Numbers.

3.1.2 Systematic Sampling

If a population can be accurately listed as finite, a type of systematic
selection will provide an approximate random sample. A systematic
selection consists of the selection of the nth term from a list. For
example, if a sample of one hundred people is to be selected from a list
of 100,000 people, the first name would be selected randomly from the
list. This can be done by tossing coin and decide to start with an even
number, if it is head or odd number then every thousandth number
would be selected until the desired number is selected. If the desired
number has not been selected, the count would continue from the
beginning again until the desired number is obtained. For example, if
you have a school admission register of 100,000 people, you could
select the required 100 candidates using this procedure.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

You are required to select 3,000 candidates for a study from 600,000
possible candidates:

i. Which procedure would you use?

ii. Why would you choose the particular procedure?

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3.1.3 The Stratified Random Sampling

With simple random and systematic sampling, the target population is
treated as a single unit when sampling from it. In stratified sampling,
the unit is divided into smaller subgroups called strata before drawing
the sample, and then separate random samples are drawn from each of
the strata. In this sampling procedure, you could have proportionate
stratified sampling and disproportionate sampling. Each is briefly
described below:

(a) Proportionate Sampling

In this sampling procedure, the size of the samples taken from each
stratum is proportionate to the stratum’s presence in the population. For
example, you want to study the effect of religious belief on the
performance of students in a course on evaluation. If there were 600
Christians, 400 Muslims and 200 Traditional worshippers in the class, it
means you will select the sample of 180 students based on the
proportion of each of the strata that is in the ratio of 3:2:1 and that will
be 90 Christians, 60 Muslims and 30 Traditional worshippers.

You will subsequently use a simple random sampling technique to select

the required number from each group.

(b) Disproportionate Sampling

Stratified samples could be used to enable a researcher to make

comparisons among various subgroups in the population when one or
more of the subgroups are relatively uncommon. For example, if you
want to ascertain the quality of science techniques in a local government
area and you want to compare the views of students from the local
government area. You may find that students outside the local
government area may constitute less than 10% of the students in each
school. Which means that, for every 100 students in a school, only 10
will come from outside the local government area. This number would
be far too small to make meaningful statistical comparison.

Stratifying, in this case, would allow us to draw a larger sample of the

students from outside the local government area to provide enough cases
for reliable comparison to be made. This is called disproportionate
stratified sampling because the strata are not sampled proportionately to
their presence in the population. This type of sample is different from
most probability samples where representative is achieved by giving
every element in the population an equal chance of appearing in the
sample, but the element in some strata have a better chance of appearing
in the overall sample than do the elements of other strata. The

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characteristics of the entire population together with the purposes of the

study must be carefully considered before a stratified sample is decided
upon.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

In a population of 200,000 people with Ibos, Hausas and Yorubas in the

ratio of 4:3:1, how would you select a sample of 320 people?

3.1.4 The Area of Cluster Sampling

This is a different type of population sampling from a large population
spread across a large area. Most of the time, it is not feasible to make a
list to select a sample for study through normal randomisation
procedures. Because of this, the area has to be subdivided into subunits
for effective handling. A state, for example, could be subdivided into
local governments and further to zones or wards in a series of sampling
clusters to smaller ones.

For example, if you want to seek the opinions of retired science teachers
about the status of science teaching in Nigeria, you could first use
random sampling to select five states. Then in each state, you use
random sampling to select ten local governments: from each local
government, five wards could be selected, also by simple random
sampling. This brings us to the end of the description of the different
types of probability sampling.

3.2 Non-Probability Sampling

In Unit 5, we discussed the characteristics of non-probability sampling.
You may wish to review it before you study this section. However,
some observations as the sampling relates to education are stated below:

Non-probability samples are those that use whatever subjects are

available rather than following a specific subject selection process.

Some non-probability selection procedures may produce samples that do

not accurately reflect the characteristic of a population of interest. Such
samples may lead to unwarranted generalisations and should not be used
if random selection is possible.

Educational researchers, because of administration limitations at

randomly selecting and assigning individuals to experimental and
control groups, often use available classes as samples. The status of
groups may be equated by such statistical means as the analysis of
covariance. In certain types of descriptive studies, the use of available

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samples may restrict generalisations to similar populations. For

example, using a physics teacher who uses remedial physics students for
a study, the likely thing is that the generalisation will be limited to that
group.

A sample made up of those who volunteers to participate in a study may

represent a biased sample. Volunteers are not representative of a target
population, for volunteering results in a selection of individuals who are
different and who really represent a population of volunteers. In a
sense, those who respond to a mailed questionnaire are volunteers and
may not reflect the characteristics of all who were on the mailing list
(Best and Khan, 1995).

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4

What is the major disadvantage of using just any available data?

3.3 The Sample Size

It has become necessary to present two views on sample size here. It
appears educators have not agreed on sample size. Best and Khan
(1995) explain that there is usually a trade-off between the desirability
of a large sample and the feasibility of a small one. The ideal sample is
large enough to serve as an adequate representation of the population
about which the researcher wishes to generalise, and small enough to be
selected economically – in terms of subject availability, expense in both
time and money and the complexity of data analysis. There is no fixed
number or percentage of subjects that determines the size of an adequate
sample.

It may depend upon the nature of the population of interest or the data to
be gathered and analysed. It is often stated that samples of 30 or more
are to be considered large samples and those fewer than 30 are
considered as small samples. It is approximately at this sample size of
30 that the magnitudes of students’ critical values for small samples
approach the Z critical value of the normal probability table for large
samples.

Leedy (1997), on the other hand, provided a statistical formula for

determining the size of the sample statistically thus:

N = (z/e)2 (p) (1 – p)
Where:

N = size of the sample

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Z =
the standard score corresponding to a given confidence
level
e = the proportion of sampling error in a given situation
p = the estimated proportion or incidence of cases in the
population.

As a result of the calculations he carried out, he provided the table and

accompanying summary below;

Table 6.1: Sample Size(s) required for a given Population Sizes

(N)

N S N S N S N S N S
10 10 100 80 280 162 800 260 2,800 381
15 14 110 86 290 165 850 263 3,000 341
20 19 120 92 300 169 900 269 3,500 346
25 24 130 97 320 175 950 274 4,000 351
30 28 140 103 340 181 1000 278 4,500 354
35 32 150 108 360 186 1100 285 5,000 357
40 36 160 113 380 191 1200 291 6,000 361
45 40 170 118 400 196 1300 297 7,000 364
50 44 180 123 420 201 1400 302 8,000 367
55 48 190 127 440 205 1500 306 9,000 368
60 52 200 132 460 210 1600 310 10,000 370
65 56 210 136 480 214 1700 313 15,000 375
70 59 220 140 500 217 1800 317 20,000 377
75 63 230 144 550 226 1900 320 30,000 379
80 66 240 148 600 234 2000 322 40,000 380
85 70 250 152 650 242 2200 327 50,000 381
90 73 260 155 700 248 2400 331 75,000 382
95 76 270 159 750 254 2600 335 100,000 384

Source: Krejcie and D.W. Morgan (1970). Determining Sample

Size for Research activities Educational and Psychological
Measurement, 30608 copyright © by Sage Publications.

However, Best and Khan (1995) argue that more important than size is
the care with which the sample size is selected. The ideal method is
random selection, letting chance or the laws or probability determine
which members of the population are to be selected.

When random sampling is employed, whether the sample is large or

small, the errors of sampling may be estimated, giving researchers an
idea of the confidence that they may place in their findings.

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Since the Leedy’s table pegs the maximum size at 400 and Best and
Khan argue that painstakingly selected sample is more important than
sample size, this table is recommended for use in selection samples.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 5

Explain how researchers can have confidence in their findings.

4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have learnt that:

• the probability sampling strategies that lend themselves to

random sampling are preferred for research than the non-
probability sampling techniques;
• Leedy recommends a maximum of 400 as an adequate sample
size;
• most authors emphasise the careful and painstaking selection of
sample to a large sample size.

5.0 SUMMARY
As mentioned at the beginning of this unit, it was concerned with
describing the sampling techniques advanced in Unit 1.

The discussion, so far, shows that careful selection of the sample is a

prerequisite for quality research. It is therefore, necessary that you take
special interest in Units 15 and 16, and master them properly. Now that
you have completed the study on population and sample, you will in the
next unit start to study how instruments are designed for data collection
from the selected sample.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Write out five research topics and describe how you would select
(sample) subject for each research topic.

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7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Best, J.W. & Khan, J.V. (1995). Research in Education (7th Edition).
New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India, PP20 – 23.

Cresswell, J.W. (1994). Research Design: Quantitative and Qualitative

Approaches Thousand Oaks C.A.: Sagem PP105 – 107.

Kaufman, R. & Thomas (1980). Evaluation with Fear. New York: New
Viewpoint in Best and Khan, Yorsten, H. (ed.)(1977).
International Study of Achievement in Mathematics. New York:
John Wiley, PP10 – 15.

Monette, D.R.; Sullivan, T.S. & Dejong, R.D. (1994). Applied Social
Research: Tool for the Human Services (Third Edition). Chicago:
Harcourt Brace College Publishers, PP3 – 8.

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UNIT 2 DESIGNING QUESTIONNAIRE

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 What is a Questionnaire?
3.2 Steps in Constructing a Questionnaire
3.2.1 Programme Objectives and Response Format
3.3 Closed-Ended and Open-Ended Questionnaires
3.3.1 Close-Ended Questionnaire
3.3.2 Open-Ended Questionnaire
3.3.3 Improving Questionnaire Items
3.4 Before Administering the Questionnaire
3.4.1 Frame of Reference of Students
3.4.2 Pilot the Questionnaire
3.5 Administering the Questionnaire
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the last unit, we completed our study on sampling. The samples in
most educational studies are pupils, students, teachers, lecturers and
parents among others. They are selected as subjects to be investigated
or participate in a study in such a way as to provide the necessary
information (data) for the study. Often, information is provided by
observing, interviewing, questioning and other methods. In the next two
units (17 and 18), you will learn about some of the ways already
mentioned through which information from a respondent could be
obtained through the use of a questionnaire.

Questionnaire need to be well-designed so that they will provide the

information a researcher needs, which will be acceptable to the
respondents and pose no problem at the analysis and interpretation stage.

In designing questionnaire, the researcher must ensure that care has to

be taken to ensure question type, in question writing, in the design,
piloting, distribution and return of questionnaires. Thought must be
given to how responses will be analysed at the design stage, not after the
entire questionnaires have been returned. Questionnaires are a good
ways of collecting certain information quickly and cheaply.

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In this unit, you will study the design of questionnaire under the
following subheadings: what a questionnaire is, steps in constructing
questionnaires, choosing a response format, types of questionnaire,
evaluating the questions and piloting the questionnaire.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• explain what a questionnaire is

• list the different types of questionnaire
• state the necessary steps in constructing questionnaires
• choose a response format for questionnaires
• design questionnaires
• evaluate questionnaires
• pilot questionnaires
administer questionnaires.
•

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 What Is a Questionnaire?

In Unit 11, you studied the survey methodology of conducting an
investigation. You learnt that a survey is a data collection technique in
which information is gathered from individuals called respondents by
having them respond to questions. A survey is probably the most
widely used research method in educational studies. The many
techniques available for conducting a survey make it a versatile tool.

However, all surveys share certain characteristics. First, surveys

typically involve collecting data from large samples of people; therefore,
they are ideal for obtaining data representative of populations too large
to be dealt with by other methods. Indeed, the generalisability of survey
findings is another major attraction of its method.

Second and the important one for this unit, all surveys involve
presenting respondents with a series of questions to be answered. These
questions may touch on matters of fact, attitudes and opinions, or future
expectations. The questions may be single item measures or complex
multiple item scales. In whatever form, however, survey data are
basically, what people say to the investigator in response to a question.

Data can be collected in a survey research in two basic ways: with

questionnaire or with interviews. A questionnaire contains written

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questions that people respond to directly on the questionnaire form itself

without the aid of an interviewer.

Best and Khan (1995) state that a questionnaire is used when factual
information is desired. When opinions rather than facts are desired, an
opinionaire or attitude scale is used. Also, Okpala, Onuoha and Oyedeji
(1993) define a questionnaire as “a self-reporting instrument that has
received good use in educational research, psychological research,
programme evaluation etc. It is sometimes described as the most
common type of research instrument. It is important for teachers,
students and research officers to master how to construct a
questionnaire. This would enable such people to develop appropriate
questionnaires when they cannot get already existing ones that is valid
and reliable.

Like tests, questionnaires are constructed for specific purposes. It is

therefore, necessary for the researcher to think of a specific study and
design before determining whether it is appropriate for him to use a
questionnaire. Characteristics of a good questionnaire are:

i. it deals with a significant topic, one which the respondent will

recognise as important enough to warrant spending his/her time
on. The significance should be clearly and carefully stated on the
questionnaire or in the letter that accompanies it;

ii. it seeks only the information which cannot be obtained from

other source such as: school reports or census data;

iii. it is as short as possible, and only long enough to get the essential
data. Long questionnaires frequently find their ways into the
waste basket. Keep the writing required of the respondent to a
minimum and make the response system clear and easy to
complete;

iv. it is attractive in appearance, neatly arranged and clearly

duplicated or printed; and

v. directions for a good questionnaire are clear and complete.

Important terms are defined. Each question deals with a single
idea and is worked as simply and clearly as possible.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

State the importance of mastering how to construct a questionnaire to

teachers, students and research officers.

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3.2 Steps in Constructing a Questionnaire

Okpala, et. al. (1993) state that usually a researcher is faced with
respondents who have great amount of information that would go
untapped unless the questionnaire items are valid and reliable enough to
elicit the information. Process of developing and using a questionnaire
could be divided into eight steps as suggested by Henerson et. al.
(1978). The steps are listed below:

i. Identifying the programme objectives and specific information to

be obtained;
ii. Selecting a response format;
iii. Identifying the frame of reference of the respondents;
iv. Writing the item/questions;
v. Preparing a data summary sheet;
vi. Critiquing the questions, trying them out, and revising them;
vii. Assembling the questionnaires; and
viii. Administering the questionnaires.

Some of these steps will be followed in an effort to explain to you how

to design a questionnaire.

3.2.1 Programme Objectives and Response Format

The researcher needs good direction which can only be provided by
clearly stating the objectives of the programme. Clearly stated
objectives help to clear issues concerning the type of information the
researcher requires. Objectives of a programme could be:

i. to determine the view of students about teaching of chemistry in

their schools; and
ii. to find out the attitude of students toward biology.

Choosing a Respondent Format

Having clearly stated the objectives of the questionnaire, the researcher

need to determine the response format. The two major types of
questions used in questionnaires are close-ended and open-ended. The
researcher could use either a combination of both of them in
constructing his/her question.

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3.3 Close-Ended and Open-Ended Questionnaires

Two basic questions can be used in questionnaires and interviews.
Close-ended questions are those questions that provide respondents with
a fixed set of alternatives from which they are to choose. The response
formats of multiple items scales, for example, are all close-ended.
Open-ended questions are questions to which the respondents write their
own response, much as you do for an essay type examination questions.

3.3.1 Close-Ended Questionnaire

Questionnaires that call for short response are known as the restricted or
closed form type. In this type of question, you mark a yes or no, write a
short response, or check an item from a list of suggested responses.
Examples are:

i. Yes or No Type:

Biology is a difficult subject. Yes/No

ii. Writing a Short Response:

The science subject that deals with living things is ………..

iii. Checking an item from a list of suggested responses:

All students should offer Agricultural Science in the secondary school.

Strongly Agree, Agree, Neutral, Disagree, Strongly Disagree.

iv. Multiple Answer Questions:

The ability to do work is ………….

(a) Force
(b) Motion
(c) Energy
(d) Motor
(e) Rank

v. Another Multiple Answer Question:

Why did you choose to study at the Open University? Give three
reasons in order of importance, starting with the most important.

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Rank

(a) Convenience of transportation ……..

(b) Advice of a friend ……..
(c) Reputation of Institution ……..
(d) Expense factor ……..
(e) Scholarship Aid ……..
(f) Others (please specify) ……..

3.3.2 Open-Ended Questionnaire

The open-ended form or unrestricted questionnaire calls for a free
response in the respondents own word. The following open form item
seeks the same type of information as did the closed item. Why did you
choose to do your graduate work at the Open University? Note that no
clues are given. The open form probably provides for greater depth of
response. The respondents reveal their frame of reference and possibly
the reasons for their responses. But because it requires greater effort on
the part of the respondents, returns are often meager. Also, the open
form item can sometimes be difficult to interpret, tabulate and
summarise in the research report. Open-ended questions generally take
one of the following forms:

What do you think ……………?

In your opinion ……………….
How do you feel about ……….?
List the cause of ……………….

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Write two open-ended and two close-ended questions.

3.3.3 Improving Questionnaire Items

Because the questions that make up a survey are the basic data gathering
devices, the researcher should choose word with care, especially with
questionnaires that allow no opportunity to clarify questions for the
respondents. Ambiguity in questions can be a source of substantial
trouble. Therefore, the following steps should be taken to improve
questionnaire items:

• Questions should be simple and direct, expressing only one idea.

Complex statements containing more than one idea should be
avoided e.g. the Universal Basic Education programme is good
and all parents should pay levy to support it. This is not a good

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question because it is possible respondents would agree with the

first part, but not with the second part.

• For the questions designed for research, slang terminology should

be avoided.

• Define or qualify terms that could be misinterpreted.

What is the value of your house? Value may need to be defined.

What is the market value of your house? Or How much will you
sell your house? Could be more appropriate.

• Beware of double negative; underline negative for clarity e.g.

The Federal Government assistance should not be granted to those states

that donot spend the money on the projects they are meant for.

• Be careful of inadequate alternative e.g. Married Yes …..

No …..

Does this refer the present or former marital status? What of widowed,
separated or divorced?

• Underline a word if you wish to indicate special emphasis.

Should all secondary schools offer computer literacy course?

• Phrase questions so that they are appropriate for all the

respondents.

• Design questions that will give a complete response.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

Provide an example for any two of the four instructions above.

3.4 Before Administering the Questionnaire

Before administering the questionnaire, some issues have to be
ascertained. They are being discussed under the following sub-topics:

3.4.1 Frame of Reference of Students

It is important for the researcher to consider the frame of reference of
the respondents before administering the questions. In fact, it is much

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better before phrasing the question. This is necessary in order to ensure

that the questions are within the capability of the respondents.

3.4.2 Pilot the Questionnaire

All data gathering instruments should be piloted to test how long it takes
to complete them, to check that all questions and instructions are clear,
and to enable the researcher to remove any items which do not yield
useable data. There is a temptation in a small study to go straight to the
distribution stage, but however pressed for time you are, give your best
to give the questionnaire a trial run. Note that, it should be tried out on a
group similar to the one that will form the population of your study.
This will enable you to come out with a good questionnaire which your
respondents will respond to, also you can carry out a preliminary
analysis of the data collected.

3.5 Administering the Questionnaire

There is a need to make early decision about how to distribute your
questionnaire and what to do about no response. There are advantages
in being able to give questionnaires to respondents personally. You can
explain the purpose of the study and in some cases; the questionnaire
can be completed on-the-spot. You are likely to get better cooperation if
you can establish personal contact, but if that is impossible, you will
need to investigate other ways of distribution. Colleagues and friends
may be persuaded to lend a hand. If all fails, you may have to mail your
copies, but postal service is expensive and response rate is generally
low. Therefore, mailing should be the last resort.

Whether the researcher is distributing the questionnaire by direct

distribution or by mailing, the instrument must be accompanied with a
covering letter. The letter should inform the respondents about the
objectives of the questionnaire, what will be done with the information,
the deadline for the return of the questionnaire. It might be necessary to
assure the respondent about the anonymity and confidentiality of the
information supplied.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4

Which is the best way of administering your cover letter?

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4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have learnt:

• the meaning of questionnaire;

• the characteristic of a questionnaire;
• steps for constructing a questionnaire;
• that there are two major types of questionnaires – the open-ended
and the close-ended;
• how to improve the questionnaire items; and
• what to do before administering the items;
• how to administer the items.

5.0 SUMMARY
In this section on how to elicit information for the study, you have
concluded the study on questionnaire. In the next unit, you will learn
about interview and observation.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Choose a Science Education topic and construct a questionnaire you
would use to carryout the study.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Best, J.W. & Khan, J.V. (1995). Research in Education (7th Edition).
New Delhi: Prentice Hall. PP 20 – 23.

Cresswell, J.W. (1994). Research Design: Quantitative and Qualitative

Approaches Thousand Oaks C.A.: Sagem PP105 – 107.

Kaufman, R. & Thomas (1980). Evaluation with Fear. New York: New
Viewpoint in Best and Khan, Yorsten, H. (ed.)(1977).
International Study of Achievement in Mathematics. New York:
John Wiley, PP10 – 15.

Monette, D.R.; Sullivan, T.S. & Dejong, R.D. (1994). Applied Social
Research: Tool for the Human Services (Third Edition) Chicago:
Harcourt Brace College Publishers, PP3 – 8.

Okpala, P.N.; Onuoha, C.O. & Oyedeji, O.A. (1993). Measurement and
Evaluation in Education. Jahu Uzairue: Stuling – Horden
Publishers (Nigeria) Limited, 85 – 102.

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UNIT 3 INTERVIEW AND OBSERVATIONS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Interview – Its Meaning and Purpose
3.1.1 Types of Interview and their Characteristics
3.1.2 How to Arrange an Interview
3.1.3 Strengths of Interview
3.2 Conducting an Interview
3.2.1 Recording Responses
3.3 Observation: Definition and Characteristics
3.3.1 Characteristics of a Good Observation
3.3.2 Uses of Observation
3.3.3 What Should be Observed?
3.4 Measurement of Evaluation
3.4.1 Systematising Data Collection
3.4.2 Rating Scale
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the last unit, you learnt about construction of questionnaires as one of
the methods of eliciting information (data) for most survey research. At
the introduction of that unit also, you were informed that apart from
questionnaires, interviews constitute another method of collecting data
for research. In an interview, there is a face-to-face question and answer
session between the researcher and the respondents.

Observation, however, is no ‘natural gift’, but a highly skilled activity

for which an extensive background knowledge and understanding is
required, and also a capacity for genuine thinking and the ability to spot
significant events. It is certainly not an easy option.

In this unit, interviews and observations will be discussed under the

following headings: interview, what interview is, purpose of interview,
types of interview, conducting an interview, validity and reliability of
interview. Observation: what it is, characteristics, uses, observation
plans and tool for recording observation.

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2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• explain what an interview is

• state the purpose of an interview
• list types of interview and their characteristics
• conduct an interview
• determine the validity and reliability of an interview
• explain what observation is
• state the characteristics of observation
•
describe the observation plan
list the different tools for recording observation
•
record observation.
•

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Interview – Its Meaning and Purpose

Questionnaires are relatively inexpensive for reaching a substantial
number of people, but they have some disadvantages associated with
non-response and occasionally with careless response.

The interview is a more effective method of conducting a survey. In

interview, the investigator or his/her assistant reads the questions
directly to the respondents and records their answers. Interviews offer
the investigator a degree of flexibility that is not available in
questionnaire. Interview items, like questionnaire items, can be open-
ended or close-ended.

The purpose of an interview is to find out what is in someone’s mind.

The purpose of open-ended interviewing is not to put things in
someone’s mind, but to assess the perspective of the persons being
interviewed. Too often, the interviewees provide information based
upon what they think the interviewer wants to hear. Therefore, it is
critical for the interviewer to make sure the person being interviewed
understands that the researcher does not hold any preoccupation notions
regarding the outcome of the study.

Interviews are used to gather information regarding an individual’s

experience and knowledge, his or her opinions, beliefs and feelings and
demographics data. Interview questions can be asked so as to determine
past or current information as well as predictions for the future. The
preferred method for data collection is to tape record the interview if the
respondent agrees. Otherwise, the interviewer must keep brief notes

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and expand on them as necessary immediately after the interview while

the information is still fresh in the interviewer’s mind.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

State one purpose of the interview.

3.1.1 Types of Interview and their Characteristics

The table below gives a vivid description of types of interview and their
characteristics.

Table 6.1: Table Showing Types of Interview and their

Characteristics
S/N Types of Characteristics Strengths Weaknesses
Interview
1. Informal Questions Increases the Different
conversational emerge from the salience and information
interview immediate relevance of collected from
context and are questions. different
asked in the Interviews are built questions. Less
natural course of on and emerge systematic and
things: there is from observations: comprehensive
no the interviews can if certain
predetermination be matched to questions do
of question individuals and not arise
topics or circumstances. “naturally”.
wording. Data
organisation
and analysis
can be quite
difficult
2. Interview Topics and issues The outline Importance and
Guide to be covered are increases the salient topics
Approach specified in comprehensiveness may be
advance, in of the data inadvertently
outline fork: collection. It is omitted.
interviewer somewhat Interviewer
decides sequence systematic for each flexibility in
and wording of respondent. sequencing and
questions in the Logical gaps in wording
course of the data can be questions can
interview. anticipated and result in
closed. Interviews substantially
remain fairly different
conversational and responses from

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situational. different
perspective
thus reducing
the
comparability
of responses.

3. Standardised The exact Respondents Little flexibility

open-ended wording and answer the same in relating the
interview sequence of questions, thus interview to
questions are increasing particular
determined in comparability of individuals and
advance. All responses; data circumstances;
are
interviewees are complete for each standardised
asked the same person on the wording of
basic questions topics addressed in questions may
in the same the interview. constrain and
order: Questions Reduces limit
are worded in a interviewer effects naturalness of
completely open- and bias when questions and
ended format. several interviews answers.
are used. Permit
users to see and
review the
instrumentation
used in the
evaluation of
faculties,
organisation and
analysis of the
data.
4. Closed, fixed Questions and Data analysis is Respondents
response response simple; responses must fit their
interview categories are can be directly experiences and
determined in compared and feelings into the
advance. readily aggregated. researcher’s
Responses are Many questions categories; may
fixed; respondent can be asked in be perceived as
chooses from a impersonal,
among these short time. irrelevant and
fixed responses. mechanistic.
Can distort
what
respondents
really mean or
experienced by
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so completely
limiting their
response
choices.

Source: Paston Qualitative Evaluation and Research Methods ©

1990 Table 7.1, 288 – 289.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

State one characteristic of the standardised open-ended interview.

3.1.2 How to Arrange an Interview

Below are the steps for successfully handling the interview as a
technique for gathering data for one’s research study. They are simple
but very important.

i. Set up the interview well in advance;

ii. Send the agenda of questions you will ask the interviewee;
iii. Ask for permission to tape the interview;
iv. Confirm the date immediately in writing;
v. Send a reminder together with another agenda for questions, 10
days before you expect to arrive;
vi. Be prompt, follow the agenda, have a copy of your question for
your interviewee in case he/she has misplaced his/her copy;
vii. Following the interview, submit a typescript of the interview and
get either a written acknowledgement of its accuracy or a correct
copy from the interviewee;
viii. After you have incorporated the materials into your research
report, send that section of the report to the interviewee for final
approval and written permission to use the data in your report.

3.1.3 Strengths of Interview

The interview is often superior to other data-gathering devices. One
reason is that people prefer to talk than to write. After the interviewer
gains rapport or establish a friendly relationship with the interviewee,
certain types of confidential information may be obtained that an
individual might be reluctant to put in writing.

The interviewer can explain more explicitly the investigations purpose

and what information he/she wants.

• If the subject misinterprets the questions, the interviewer may

follow with a clarifying question;

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• It is possible to seek the same information in several ways during

the interview. It is possible to stimulate the interviewee and
possibly explore significant area not anticipated on the original
plan of investigation.

Interview is particularly appropriate when dealing with children.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

What are the two major steps to be taken when arranging for an
interview?

3.2 Conducting an Interview

The interview is a social relationship designed to exchange information
between the respondent and the interviewer. The quantity of
information exchanged depends on how astute and creative the
interviewer is at understanding and managing that relationship.

Note that the goal is to collect data and not to make friends. Appearance
must be neat, clean and businesslike but friendly. The first contact of
the interviewer with the interviewee must be appealing. At times,
characteristics such as: socio-economic status, age, race and ethnicity
might influence the interview.

Also, begin with simple non-threatening questions. If an interview

schedule is used, the interview will progress according to the schedule.
As needed, the interviewer will use probes or follow up questions that
are intended to elicit clearer and more complete responses.

Probe could be a pause in conversation that encourages the respondent

to elaborate or an explicit request to clarify or elaborate on some issues.
An open form question in which the subject is encouraged to answer in
his or her own words at some length is likely to provide greater depth of
response. Though closed questions are easier to record, they may yield
more superficial information. Leading questions that unconsciously
imply a specific answer should be avoided.

3.2.1 Recording Responses

A central task of interviews, of course, is to record responses of
respondents. The four most common ways of recording responses are:
classifying responses into predetermined categories, summarising the
“high point” of what is said, taking verbatim notes or recording the
interview with a tape recorder or video machine. Recording is easiest
when an interview schedule is used.

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Controlling Interview:

Once the interviewers go into the field, the quality of the resulting data
is dependent on the proper supervision during interviewer training.
Interviewers should be informed that their work will be thoroughly
checked and failure to follow procedure will not be tolerated.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4

State any two ways of recording interview responses.

3.3 Observation: Definition and Characteristics

From the earliest history of scientific activity, observation has been the
prevailing method of inquiring. Observation of natural phenomena aided
by systematic classification and measurement led to the development of
theories of nature’s forces. Observation continues to characterise all
research: experimental, descriptive and qualitative.
Observation is the act of looking out for and recording the presence or
absence of verbal and non-verbal behavior of a person or group of
persons. The use of specially designed evaluation instruments to collect
observational data is referred to as observational techniques. All
methods of data collection involve some forms of observation.

Observational techniques, according to Monette et. al. (1994), is the

collection of data through direct visual or auditing experience of
behaviour. With observational techniques which include video or audio
recording of behaviour, the researcher actually sees or hears the
behaviour or words that are the data of the research.

Observational method varies in terms of the extent to which the

researcher participates in the activities of the people being observed.
The two general possibilities are: that of participant observer, and that of
a non-participant observer.

Participant observer is a method in which the researcher is a part, and

participates in the activities of the people, group or situation that is being
studied. Participant observation is highly qualitative research.

3.3.1 Characteristics of a Good Observation

Best and Khan (1995) noted that: observation, as a research data-
gathering process, demands rigorous adherence to the spirit of scientific
inquiry.

The following standards characterise observers and their observations:

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i. Observation is carefully planned. Systematic and perceptive

observers know what they are looking for and what is relevant
in a situation. They are not distracted either by the dramatic
or the spectacular.

ii. Observers are aware of the wholeness of what is observed.

Although they are alert to significant details, they know that
the whole is often greater than sum of its parts.

iii. Observers are objective. They recognise their likely biases,

and they strive to eliminate their influence upon what they see
and report.

iv. Observers separate the facts from the interpretation of facts.

They observe the facts and make their interpretations at a later
time.

v. Observation are checked and verified, whenever possible by

repetition or by comparison with those of other competent
observers.

vi. Observations are carefully and expertly recorded. Observers

use appropriate instruments to quantify and preserve the
results of their observations.

Observations are collected in such a way as to make sure that they are
valid and reliable.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 5

Mention two characteristics of observation.

3.3.2 Uses of Observation

Yoloye (1977) in Okpala et. al. (1993) summarised situations in which
observational data could be useful thus:

• measuring classroom process variables;

• measuring attainment of programme objectives;
• measuring programme implementation;
• identifying difficulties in programme use;
• identifying changes introduced by teachers;
• identifying typical instructional pathways; and
• supplementing data from other sources.

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3.3.3 What Should be Observed?

Monette et. al. (1994) stated that it is possible to organise one’s thought
around some general categories of things to be observed and recorded:

i. The setting: field notes should contain some description of the

general physical and social setting being observed.

ii. The people: field notes should include a physical and social
description of the main characters who are the focus of your
observations.

iii. Individual behaviour – the central observation in most studies

are the behaviour of the people in the settings.

iv. Group behaviour: In some cases, the behaviour of group may

be an important bit of information.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 6

Outline two uses of observation.

3.4 Measurement of Evaluation

If it does not create a barrier between the observer and those observed,
simultaneous recording of observations is recommended. This practice
minimise the errors that result from faulty memory. There are other
occasions when recording would more appropriately be done after
observation. The recording of observation should be done as soon as
possible, while the details are still fresh in the mind of the observer.
However, many authorities agree that objectivity is more likely when the
interpretation of the meaning of the behaviour described is deferred until
a later time, for simultaneous recording and interpretation often interfere
with objectivity.

3.4.1 Systematising Data Collection

To aid the recording of information gained through observation, a
number of devices have been extensively used. Checklists, rating scales,
scorecards and scaled specimens provide systematic means of
summarising or quantifying data collected by observation or
examination. For example, the teaching practice assessment sheet is an
observation scale except the part that deals with quality of the written
lesson note.

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SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 7

Name two devices that are used in recording information on observation.

3.4.2 Rating Scale

For example, the rating scale involves qualitative description of a
limited number of aspects of a thing or of tracts of a person. The
classification could be set out in some definite categories as shown
below:

a. Superior, above average, fair, inferior.

b. Excellent, good, average, below average, poor.
c. Always, frequently, occasionally, rarely, never.

One of the problems of constructing rating scale is conveying to the

rater which quality you wish to be evaluated. It is better to have a brief
behavioural statement because it is more objective than an adjective that
may have no universal meaning in the abstract. For any of the above
categories to be considered, an effective method in observational
research, the traits and categories must be very carefully defined in
observable (behavioural) terms.

Some limitations of rating scale are:

• Conveying to the rater exactly which quality one wishes to be

evaluated;
• How effect cause raters to carry qualitative judgement from one
aspect to another;
• The tendency of the rater to be generous;
• Behaviours might mean different things to different observers;
• Systematic observation of human behaviours in natural setting is, to
some degree, an intrusion into dynamics of the situation. The
intrusion may be reactive, i.e. affect the behaviour of the persons
being observed.

4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have learnt what interview is, how to prepare for an
interview and that the major purpose of interview is to find what is in
someone else’s mind and also information about individual’s
experiences and knowledge.

We also discussed the meaning of observation as the act of looking and

recording the presence and absence of verbal and non-verbal behaviour

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of a person or group of persons. Two methods of observation are the

participant observer and the non-participant observer.

5.0 SUMMARY
In the last two units (17 and 18), you dealt with how to elicit
information (data) for research. In Unit 17, we discussed how to design
questionnaire and in this Unit 18, we dealt with interview and
observation.

In the next unit, you will learn how to determine the validity of these
measures.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

You are conducting a study on the topic “Persistent poor performance of
secondary school students in chemistry”.

Prepare an interview schedule you would use to collect information

from principals.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Best, J.W. & Khan, J.V. (1995). Research in Education (7th Edition).
New Delhi: Prentice Hall. PP20 – 23.

Cresswell, J.W. (1994). Research Design: Quantitative and Qualitative

Approaches Thousand Oaks C.A.: Sagem PP105 – 107.

Leedy, P.D. (1997). Practical Research: Planning and Design (6th

Edition). New Jersey: Morill, PP103 – 110.

Monette, D.R.; Sullivan, T.S. & Dejong, R.D. (1994). Applied Social
Research: Tool for the Applied Social Research: Tool for the
Human Services (3rd Edition) Chicago: Harcourt Brace.

Okpala, P.N.; Onocha, C.O. and Oyedeji, O.A. (1993). Measurement

and Evaluation in Education. Jattu-Uzairue: Stirling-Horden
Publishers Limited, 86 – 103 Observation Techniques.

Yoloye, E.A. (1977). Cited in Okpala, P.N., Onocha, C.O. and Oyedeji,
O.A. (1993). Measurement and Evaluation in Education. Jattu-
Uzarue: Stirling-Horden Publishers Limited, pp. 105.

William, W. & Stephen, G.J. (2005). Research Methods in Education

(8th Edition). Pearson Educational Inc.

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MODULE 7 WRITING THE RESEARCH REPORT

Unit 1 Level of Measurement Validity and Reliability
Unit 2 Research Proposal
Unit 3 Writing a Research Report

UNIT 1 LEVEL OF MEASUREMENT VALIDITY AND

RELIABILITY
CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Levels of Measurement
3.1.1 Nominal Level of Measurement
3.1.2 Ordinal Level of Measurement
3.1.3 Interval Level of Measurement
3.1.4 Ratio Level of Measurement
3.2 Validity and Reliability
3.2.1 Validity
3.2.2 Reliability
3.3 Assessment of Reliability
3.3.1 Test – Retest
3.3.2 Split-Half Approach
3.3.3 Kuder-Richardson Formulae
3.4 Measurement of Evaluation
3.4.1 Systematising Data Collection
3.4.2 Rating Scale
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the last two units (17 and 18), you learnt about the different ways of
collecting information (data) for your research. In this unit, we shall
look into different forms of measurement as well as how they are
considered defendable by considering their validity and reliability.

The discussion in Units 17 and 18 shows that there are numerous ways
of measuring phenomena such as: by asking questions or noting
observations. Measures also differ from one another in terms of what is
called the level of measurement: nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio.

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If you keep in mind that variables are things that can take on different
values, measurement basically involves assessing the value, or category
into which a particular entity falls. For example, measuring age is the
process of placing each person into a particular age category.

Whatever procedure for collecting data is selected, it should always be

examined critically to assess to what extent it is likely to be reliable and
valid. Therefore, as it has been mentioned earlier, levels of
measurement, types of validity and reliability will be discussed in this
unit.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• identify and describe the different levels of measurement

• state the different types of validity
• list the appropriate reliability methods to be used on a set of data
• apply the levels of measurement, validity and reliability
appropriately on a set of data
• evaluate a research report on the appropriateness of the use of
these terms.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Levels of Measurement

As mentioned in the introduction, not only do all data have certain
clearly recognised characteristics, but every statistical approach also has
its own specific requirement in terms of the type of data appropriate to
the demands of that statistical procedure.

A straightforward and widely accepted definition of measurement is

given by Kerlinger (1986). “The assignment of numerals to objects or
evens according to rules”. Data may be characterised and classified in
four ways: nominal data, ordinal data, interval (continuous) data and
ratio data. The four scales comprise a hierarchy of measurement levels
based on the amount of information contained.

3.1.1 Nominal Level of Measurement

Measurement, in this case, could be seen as some form of restriction or
limitation. Assign a specific name to anything and you have restricted
that thing to the meaning of its name. For example, you can measure a
group of children by dividing it into two groups: boys and girls, each
group is thereby measured – “restricted” by virtue of gender to a
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particular category. By assigning a name, you create a measurement.

Things can be measured nominally in an infinite number of ways. For
example, you can measure the groups above, according to their religion,
where they live, etc.

Nominal measurement is elemental and unrefined, but it does divide

data into discrete categories that can be compared with each other. If
you have six people; Chike, Ayo, Adamu, Nosa, Tolu and Habiba, they
can be measured into six units of one each. They can form two groups
or more. The data can be statistically treated by finding mode,
percentage, chi-square etc.

3.1.2 Ordinal Level of Measurement

In ordinal level of measurement, think in terms of symbols > (greater
than) or < (less than). This scale orders the scores on some basis, such
as: low to high or least to most. Although the scores are ordered, equal
intervals between scores are not established. In measuring on the
ordinal scale, the relationship is always asymmetrical. Something is
always greater than, less than, older than, younger than etc. Using
ordinal scale, you can find the mode and the median, determine
percentage or the percentile rank and test by the chi-square.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Briefly explain the term nominal measurement?

3.1.3 Interval Level of Measurement

The interval level of measurement is characterised by two features,
namely:

i. It has equal units of measurement;

ii. Its zero point has been established arbitrarily.

For example, the thermometric scale is equal to the others and the zero
point has been established arbitrarily. A common use of the interval
measurement is in the rating scale employed by many businesses, survey
groups, and professional organisations. Unlike the nominal and ordinal
data, any data generated by using the interval scale can be subjected to
all statistical operations starting with the basic ones of counting,
ranking, adding, subtracting to the use of analysis of variance etc.

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3.1.4 Ratio Level of Measurement

The highest level of measurement is ratio measures. Ratio measures
have all the characteristics of interval measure, but the zero points is
absolute and meaningful rather than arbitrary. As the name implies, you
can make statements to the effect that some score is a given ratio of
another score. For example, with income, you have the Naira as the unit
of measurement. Also, you all recognise that there is such a thing as no
income at all; therefore, the zero point is absolute. Because it is
absolute, it is legitimate to say that an income of N100,000 is twice the
income of N50,000. Given that ratio scales have all the characteristics
of interval scale, you can perform all arithmetic functions on them.

In summary, you should note that although researchers have no control

over the nature of variable, they do have some control over how they
will define variables, at both the nominal and operational levels, and this
affects the level of measurement. It is sometimes possible to change the
level of measurement of a variable by redefining it at the nominal or
operational level. This is important because researcher generally strive
for the level of measurement to enable them measure variables more
precisely and use more powerful statistical procedures.

It is also desirable to measure at the highest possible level of

measurement because it gives the researchers the most options. The
level of measurement can be reduced during the data analysis, but it
cannot be increased. Thus, choosing a level of measurement that is too
low introduces a permanent limitation into data analysis. Other things
being equal, a researcher having two measures available; the ordinal and
the other interval would generally prefer the interval measures.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

What affects the level of measurement most?

3.2 Validity and Reliability

Validity and reliability are two words that are used repeatedly in
research methodology. They are used primarily in connection with
measurement instruments. The integrity of your research may well
stand or fall on the basis of how well you understand their meaning and
carefully obey their demands. They govern the acquisition of data and
the skillfulness with which you design the research structure and create
the instruments of measurement as an integral part of it.

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3.2.1 Validity
Validity is the extent to which a test result measures what it has
been
designed to measure. In a standardised test, for example, validity would
raise such questions as: What does the test measure? Does it in fact
measure what it is supposed to measure? How well? How
comparatively? How accurately does it measure it?

In general, a test is valid, if it measures what it claims to measure.

Validity can also be thought of as utility. There are several types of test,
and uses of test need different types of validity. The seven most
common types with a brief discussion of each are listed below;

i. Face Validity: This type of validity relies basically on the

subjective judgement of the researcher. It asks two questions that
the researcher must finally answer in accordance with his or her
best judgement:

a. is the instrument measuring what it is supposed to measure? and

b. is the sample being measured representative of the behaviour or
trait being measured?

ii. Criterion Validity: This type of validity is determined by

relating performance on one measure (e.g. a test) to performance
on another measure called a criterion. The essential component
in criterion validity is a reliable criterion – a standard against
which to measure the results of the instrument doing the
measuring. The data of the instrument should correlate highly
with equivalence data or the criterion.

iii. Content Validity: This type of validity is sometimes equated

with face validity. Content validity is the accuracy with which an
instrument measures the factors or situations under study – the
accuracy with which an instrument measure the factors or
situations under study, that is, the content being studied. If, for
example, you are interested in the content validity of questions
being asked to elicit familiarity with a certain area of knowledge,
content validity would be concerned with how accurately the
question asked tend to elicit information sought.

iv. Construct Validity: A construct is any concept that cannot be

directly observed or isolated, e.g. attitude. Construct validity is
concerned with the degree to which the construct itself is actually
measured. Different methods of measuring the same construct
should ‘converge’ or ‘focus’ in their result. Discriminability
means that the measuring instrument should be able to

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discriminate or differentiate the construct being studied from

other similar constructs.

v. Internal Validity: Interval is the freedom from bias in forming

conclusions on various data. It seeks to ascertain that the changes
in the dependent variable are the results of the influence of the
independent variable rather than of the way the research was
designed.

vi. External Validity: This type of validity is concerned with the

generalisability of the conclusions reached through observation of
a sample to the universe, or more simply stated, can the
conclusions drawn from a sample be generalised to other cases.

vii. Predictive Validity: This refers to the usefulness of a test in

predicting some future performance such as: the college
performance. If a test is designed to pick out good candidates for
appointment on a job, and test score show a high positive
correlation with later actual success on the job, the test has a high
degree of predictive validity, whatever factor is actually
measured. It predicts well. It serves a useful purpose. But
before determining a test’s predictive validity, success on the job
must be accurately described and measured. Predictive validity is
not easy to assess. It is often difficult to discover whether the
faults of prediction lie in the test, in the criteria of success or
failure or both. Validity looks to the end result of measurement.
The principal question that validity asks is: “is the measure
measuring what it is supposed to measure?” Unfortunately, many
students limit their assessment to content validity with all its
heavy reliance on the subjective judgment, but content validity
should be used with caution.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

Mention the essential component of criterion validity.

3.2.2 Reliability
Reliability is the consistency with which a test result measures what it
has been designed to measure (Oloyede, 2007). To ensure the integrity
of any research, the researcher should consider it mandatory to state
clearly and definitively the specifications of the measuring instrument.
Here, you are dealing with the foundation factors of the entire research
structure. Just as a building with a questionable foundation is very
likely to be unsafe for habitation, so also is a research effort employing
faulty tools of measurement will likely end as a defective research

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endeavour. There are many specific techniques for estimating the

reliability of a measure, but they are all based on one or two principles –
stability or equivalence. Stability is the idea that a reliable measure
should not change from one application to the next, assuming the
concept being measured has not changed. Equivalence is the idea that
all items that make up a measuring instrument should be measuring the
same thing and thus be consistent with one another. The first techniques
for estimating reliability, test-retest reliability, are based on the stability
approach. The other discussed use is the equivalence principle.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4

Name the validity type that is concerned with the generalisability of the
conclusion reached.

3.3 Assessment of Reliability

The assessment of reliability will be discussed under the following sub-
topics: Test-Retest; Split-Half Approach Formulae.

3.3.1 Test-Retest
The first and most generally applicable assessment of reliability is called
test – retest. This technique involves applying a measure to a sample of
subjects and then somewhat later, applying the same measure to the
same subjects again. After the retest, you have two sets of score on the
same measure. These two sets of scores are correlated by using
appropriate statistical measure of association, because with scores
obtained from the two identical questionnaires, a high degree of
association is expected. According to Monettee et. al. (1994), a
correlation coefficient of 0.8 or more is normally necessary for a
measure to be considered reliable.

3.3.2 Split-Half Approach

In the split-half approach to reliability, the test group responses to the
instrument are then divided into two halves. Each half is then treated as
though it was a separate scale, and the two halves are correlated by
using an appropriate measure of association. Because the split half
approach divides the scale, each half is shorter than the whole scale. To
correct for this, the correlation coefficient is adjusted by applying
Spearman-Brown formula thus:

r = 2 rx
1 + rx

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where rx = Uncorrected Correlation Coefficient

r = 2rc
1 + rc

where rc = Corrected Correlation Coefficient

3.3.3 Kuder-Richardson Formulae

Kuder and Richardson developed a number of formulae for determining
reliability using scores from only one test administration. The
correlation coefficient calculated is a measure of internal consistency. A
basic assumption is that the score are homogenous and therefore possess
inter-item consistency as below:

KR20 : r = n (1 – ∑ Pq)
2
n–1 PS

KR21 : r = n (1 – X (n – x)
n–1 ns2

where r = reliability coefficient

n = number of items
p = proportion of people who got the item right
q = proportion of people who got the item wrong
pq = variance of a single item scored dichotomously
∑ = summation sign
S = variance of total test
x = mean of total test.

There are also other methods of estimating reliability such as:

Equivalent forms methods, the Cronbach Coefficient Alpha, among
others. Any standard text in measurement and evaluation is likely to
address most of them.

4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have studied:

• levels of measurement: nominal; ordinal; interval and ratio levels

of measurement.
• validity and different methods of determining validity and
reliability. Types of validity – face, criterion, construct, content,
internal, external and predictive validity; and
• reliability – test-retest, split-half and Kuder-Richardson formulae.

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5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have studied the issues on which measurement
instruments are assessed. The integrity of any research depends wholly
on its validity and reliability.

In the next unit, will learn how to write a research proposal.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Name five types of validity approaches and state how you would
use them in various studies.
2. State the two principles on which reliability is based. Is any
reliability approach considered superior to the other? Explain.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Best, J.W. & Khan, J.V. (1995). Research in Education (7th Edition).
New Delhi: Prentice Hall. PP 20 – 23.

Cresswell, J.W. (1994). Research Design: Quantitative and Qualitative

Approaches Thousand Oaks C.A.: Sagem in P.D. Leedy (1997)
Practical Planning and Design. (6th Edition) New Jersey: Merril,
PP103 – 110.

Monette, D.R.; Sullivan, T.S. & Dejong, R.D. (1994). Applied Social
Research: Tool for the Human Services (3rd Edition) Chicago:
Harcourt Brace College Publishers, ::3 – 8.

Oloyede, I.O. (2007). Measurement and Evaluation for Tertiary

Institutions: An Introduction.

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UNIT 2 RESEARCH PROPOSAL

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Characteristics of Proposal
3.1.1 Proposal and Language
3.2 Writing different Components of the Proposal
3.2.1 The Statement of the Problem
3.2.2 The Significance of the Problem
3.2.3 Definitions, Assumptions, Limitations and
Delimitations
3.3 Review of Related Literature
3.4 Hypotheses
3.5 Methodology
3.6 Time Schedule
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
From Unit 1 to Unit 19, you have studied the major components of
research method. Having gone so far, in your study, it is now
appropriate to learn how to write a research proposal. We shall be
concentrating on writing a research proposal in this unit.

The preparation of a research proposal is an important step in the

research process. Many institutions require that a proposal be submitted
before any project is approved. This provides a basis for the evaluation
of the project and gives the supervisor (advisor) a basis for assistance
during the period of his or her direction. It provides a systematic plan of
procedure for the research to follow.

The proposal is comparable to the blueprint an architect prepares before

the bids are let and the building commences. The initial draft proposal
is subject to modification in the light of the analysis by the student and
his/her supervisor. This is because a good research must be carefully
carried out; procedures that are improvised from steps will not be very
helpful. A worthwhile research project is likely to achieve only from a
well designed proposal.

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2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• write a research proposal

• recognise the different aspects of a research
• identify the importance of a well defined problem in a research
• evaluate research proposals to improve their quality.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Characteristics of Proposal

Research demands that those who undertake it should be able to think
clearly, without confusion. The proposal will show beyond all
reasonable doubt whether the author possesses that capability or not.
When an advisor reads a proposal, the presentation helps him/her to
form an impression about the researcher that produced such a document.

Qualification, as a researcher, more often than not, rests squarely upon

the quality of the proposal submitted. Therefore, as you embark on
writing a research proposal, you should understand and appreciate
exactly what characteristics a proposal should have.

A proposal should not be filled with extraneous matter. An introduction

should be specific and concise. Whatever does not contribute directly to
the delineation of the problem and its solution should be removed.

Your opening sentence must be information laden and appealing to the

reader. If your sentence at that stage irritates the reader, you are
immediately put at a disadvantage and perhaps, have sacrificed your
reader’s interest.

More seriously, it may indicate that you cannot plan meaningfully and
may cast doubts upon your ability, as a researcher, to think clearly and
critically.

In fact, poor beginning could suggest that the writer does not actually
know the meaning of a proposal which is a serious indictment. There
should be a beginning that shows all senses of seriousness.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

What does a well-though out proposal show?

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3.1.1 Proposal and Language

An architect’s drawing is not a “literary” production. The mission is not
artistic; the purpose of both is to communicate clearly. As an architect’s
drawing presents an idea of construction with economy of line and
precision of measurement, so a proposal indicates how a research work
is to be executed to completion; with an economy of words and a
precision of expression. It provides no opportunity for literary
composition.

The language must be clear, concise and sharp. The proposal affords the
researcher to present with ultimate clarity and precision that the
researcher can state a problem, delineate the treatment of data and
establish the logical validity of a conclusion.

3.2 Writing different Components of the Proposal

This will be discussed under the following subtopics.

3.2.1 The Statement of the Problem

This is often a declarative statement and could be in question form. This
attempts to focus on a stated direction in respect of the research process.
It must be limited enough in scope to make a definite conclusion
possible.

The major statement may be followed by the minor statement. A

problem usually implies that a controversy or difference of opinion
exists. As stated earlier understatement of the problem in Unit 3,
problems can be derived from theory prior research results, or personal
observation and experience. Often, problems are based upon a
significant concern, problem of poor performance in science subject,
success of the Universal Basic Education, the menace of cult activities
in our educational institutions, poor scientific literacy in the nation,
stability of democratic practices in Nigeria etc.

A problem could be that knowledge of participation in an experiment

may have a stimulating effect upon the reading achievement of
participants. To develop it, there will be a major problem and sub-
problems. This has been discussed earlier. The problem statement
suggests the research questions and hypotheses and provides a focus for
the entire research.

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3.2.2 The Significance of the Problem

The researcher should be able to point out how the successful execution
of the problem or the answer to the questions raised can influence
educational theory and practice. The research must show why it is
worth the time, effort and expenses required to carry out the proposed
research. Careful formulation and presentation of the implications or
possible applications of knowledge help to give or justify the worth of
the research. Failure to include this step in the proposal may well leave
the researcher with a problem without significance i.e. a search for data
of little ultimate value. With so many gaps in education theory and
practice in need of investigation, there is little justification for the
expenditure of research effort on trivial or superficial investigation.

3.2.3 Definitions, Assumptions, Limitations and Delimitations

It is important that all terms and expressions that could be misinterpreted
be defined. These definitions help to determine the frame of reference
with which the researcher approaches the problem. The major variables
– dependent and independent should be defined in operational terms.
Such expression as performance and personality are useful concepts, but
they cannot be used as criteria unless they are defined as observables.
Academic grade assigned by teachers or scores on standardised
achievement tests are operational definitions of performance.
Tolerance, anxiety level, comportment etc. are components of
individual’s personality.

Assumptions are statements of which the researcher believes to be facts,

but cannot verify.

Limitations are those conditions beyond the control of the researcher

that may place restrictions on the conclusion of the study and their
applications to other situations. Lack of female student for a study that
sex was proposed as a variable; poor teaching due to unqualified staff;
administrative policies that preclude using more than one class in an
experiment, using non-randomised groups because of lack of subject are
examples of limitation to a study.

Delimitations are the boundaries of the study. A study of attitudes

toward science may be concerned with elementary science pupils.
Conclusions cannot be extended beyond this group.

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3.3 Review of Related Literature

A summary of the writing of recognised authorities or researchers
generally provides evidence that the researcher is familiar with what is
already known and what is still unknown and untested. Since effective
research is based upon past knowledge, this step helps to eliminate the
duplication of what had been done and provides useful hypotheses and
helpful suggestions for significant investigation.
Citing studies that show substantial agreement and those that even seem
to present conflicting conclusions helps to sharpen and define
understanding of existing knowledge in the problem area. Providing a
long list of annotated studies relating to the problem is ineffective and
inappropriate. Only those studies that are plainly relevant, competently
executed and clearly reported should be included.
Below are certain important elements that the researcher should note as
suggested by Best Khan (1995):

• Report of studies closely related to problems that have been

investigated;
• Design of the study, including procedures employed and data
gathering instruments used;
• Populations that were sampled and sampling methods employed;
• Variables that were defined;
• Extraneous variables that could have affected the findings;
• Faults that could have been avoided; and
• Recommendations for further research.
The search for related literature is very vital in any research because it is
guide to defining the problem, recognising its significance, suggesting
promising gathering devices, and appropriate study design and source of
data. A meaningful search for related literature provides clues to all
other important aspects of the problems.

3.4 Hypotheses
It is appropriate here to formulate a major hypothesis and possibly
several minor hypotheses. The hypotheses give direction to the data
gathering process. A good hypothesis has several basic characteristics it
should:
• be reasonable;
• be consistent with known facts and theories;
• be stated in the simplest possible terms; and
• have at least two variables.

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Research hypothesis is a tentative answer to a question. The

formulation of an hypothesis in advance of the data gathering process is
necessary for an unbiased investigation. It is appropriate to formulate
additional hypotheses after data have been collected, but they should be
tested on the basis of new data and not on the old data that was initially
suggested.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

State two basic characteristics of a good hypothesis.

3.5 Methodology
This part of any proposal usually consists of three parts – population and
sample, procedure and data analysis. The subjects section describes the
target population from which the sample is to be selected. The number
of subjects (sample) and how they can be selected are discussed in this
section. The procedure section outlines the research plan. It describes,
in detail, what will be done, how it will be done, what data will be
needed and what data gathering devices would be used, and the method
of analyzing the data (this will be discussed in the statistics course
material). The information given in the data analysis section should be
specific and detailed enough to demonstrate to the reader exactly what is
planned. No details should be left open to question.

A research proposal is a clear statement of a problem and sub-problem,

the data and how these will be processed and more important of all, how
the data will be interpreted. Although the interpretation of data is what
gives the research the necessary information for leasing out the findings
and subsequent recommendations, many students treat it in a very casual
manner. Data should be handled properly. Some suggestions towards
proper handing of data are as follows:

• Systematically describe the treatment of the data;

• State precisely where the data are to come from;
• State clearly how the data will be secured;
• State fully how you intend to interpret the data;
• Spell out every step in the interpretation of data – you may treat
each question or hypothesis separately; and
• Be sure the data will support your conclusions.

3.6 Time Schedule

Although this step may not be required by your supervisor, a time
schedule should be provided so that the researcher may budget his or her
time and other resources required for the study effectively. Dividing the

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time into manageable parts and assigning dates for their completion to
organise the study and minimise the natural leniency to procrastinate.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4

List the areas to be discussed under methodology in a research proposal.

You will discover that most of the major sections stated here have been
discussed in the different units of this course; you should refer to any
relevant section for clarification where you are in doubt. Though most
institutions provide their own format for presenting a proposal, a general
approach is given below:

i. Introduction

• General background of the study

• Purpose of the study
• Research questions and hypotheses
• Delimitations and limitations
• Significance of the study
• Definition of terms.

ii. The Review of Related Literature

iii. Methodology

• Theoretical framework
• Type of design
• Population and sample
• Demographic
• Data collection strategies
• Data analysis strategies
• Presentation of results.

iv. Findings

• Relationship to literature
• Relationship to theory
• Relationship to practice.

v. Management plan, timeline, feasibility

vi. References / Bibliography
vii. Appendices.

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The writing of the proposal – The arrangement: the material should

be
so presented that it forms, for the reader, a clear, progressive
presentation by keeping together items that belong together.

4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have learnt the major steps of writing a proposal.
Language in research writing, the different components of the proposal
and a possible format for presenting proposal.

5.0 SUMMARY
This unit shows that a proposal helps learner in organising the projected
research work and a proposal provides the learner’s supervisor with a
global view of the project and affords an opportunity to counsel and
guide the learner with respect to areas that may pose exceptional
difficult.

It is awesome to contemplate, but to no small degree, your proposal is

you. It defines your ability to think critically and to express your
thoughts capably. It is the practical application of your educational
competencies laid bare upon a sheet of paper.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Choose a topic in your area of specialisation and write a research
proposal of not more than four foolscap pages.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Best, J.W. & Khan, J.V. (1995). Research in Education. (7th Edition).
New Delhi: Prentice Hall. PP 20 – 23.

Cresswell, J.W. (1994). Research Design: Quantitative and Qualitative

Approaches Thousand Oaks C.A.: Sagem in P.D. Leedy (1997)
Practical Planning and Design. (6th Edition) New Jersey: Merril,
PP103 – 110.

Leedy, P.D. (1997). Practical Research: Planning and Design (6th

Edition). New Jersey: Morill, PP103 – 110.

Monette, D.R.; Sullivan, T.S. & Dejong, R.D. (1994). Applied Social
Research: Tool for the Applied Social Research: Tool for the
Human Services (3rd Edition) Chicago: Harcourt Brace.

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Okpala, P.N.; Onocha, C.O. and Oyedeji, O.A. (1993). Measurement

and Evaluation in Education. Jattu-Uzairue: Stirling-Horden
Publsihers Limited, PP86 – 103 Observation Techniques.

Yoloye, E.A. (1977). Cited in Okpala, P.N., Onocha, C.O. and Oyedeji,
O.A. (1993). Measurement and Evaluation in Education. Jattu-
Uzarue: Stirling-Horden Publishers Limited, pp. 105.

William, W. and Stephen, G.J. (2005). Research Methods in Education

(8th Edition). Pearson Educational Inc.

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UNIT 3 WRITING A RESEARCH REPORT

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Planning a Research Report
3.2 Format for a Research Report
3.2.1 Review of Literature
3.2.2 Methodology and Statement of Results
3.2.3 The Statement of Results
3.2.4 Analysis and Discussion
3.2.5 Summary and Conclusion
3.2.6 References
3.3 Principles of Writing
3.4 Evaluating a Research Report
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
A research work will be a worthless effort if after an excellent problem
has been identified, a clearly stated and comprehensive literature has
been searched and reported with an appropriate methodology, the final
analysis and interpretation are now poorly presented. This can only be
likened to roofing a new building with perforated roofing sheets.

To write a report of one’s research that shows fidelity to the data and the
ability to organise them logically and present them clearly is to bring
one’s research effort to its destined conclusion: to share with others your
findings and whatever nuggets of meaning they may contain.

A research report is a straightforward document that sets forth clearly

and precisely what a researcher has done to resolve a research problem.
In structure, it is factual and logical. Like the research proposal, it
makes no pretence at being a literary production. It must, however, be
readable which is another way of saying that the writer of the research
report must know how to communicate clearly.

The basics of the sentence and paragraph structure must evidence

mastery. Punctuation use and spelling must display proficiency. The
research document you write is a clear reflection of your knowledge as a
researcher; this is why it is also often used as a culminating measure of a

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student’s educational success. Writing a report or a dissertation requires

discipline, and even the most experienced of researcher needs to
improve some sort of self-control to ensure that the task is completed on
time. Different people have different ways of working and what suits
one person may not suit another. The important thing is that you must
impose some sanctions on yourself, set time frame and work towards it.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• plan a research report

• structure a research report
• write a research report
• appraise a research report.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Planning a Research Report

A research report has a relatively simple format. In general, it should
achieve three objectives thus:

i. It should acquaint readers with the problem that has been

researched and explain its implications adequately enough so that
they have a clear orientation to the problem;

ii. It should present the data fully and adequately. The data within
the report should substantiate all the interpretation and conclusion
that the report contains; and

iii. It should interpret the data for the reader and demonstrate exactly
how the data resolved the problem that has been researched. A
report that merely represents raw data and uninterpreted fact is of
little help to the readers in deriving meaning from these data.

For a thesis or dissertation report, it is advisable to visit the graduate

school to find out whether the university has a prescribed set of
guidelines for writing theses. Such issues as paper size, width of
margins, size and style of typeface should be checked from the graduate
school. Often, what is acceptable in one institution may not be accepted
in another. You should ask whether your University has a style manual
for writing research documents or whether it recommends you follow a
particular style manual and if so, which one.

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No matter how well you write, your writing will benefit from regular
usage of style manual.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

State one objective which a research report must bear in mind.

It has been mentioned earlier that in almost all cases, institutions have
their manuals for writing research reports, particularly thesis and
dissertation. You are advised to consult your graduate school so as to
obtain a copy of the manual and follow it thoroughly. For the purpose of
discussion, the following format will be used as follow:

3.2 Format for the Research Report

i. Title Page

This includes the title of your study, your name and the date, the title
should accurately reflect the nature of your study and should be brief
and to the point.

ii. Acknowledgement

You may wish to acknowledge the help given to you in the preparation
of your report. If so, acknowledge generally.

iii. Abstract

In most cases, institutions demand an abstract. It is quite difficult to

produce in few words what your research set out to do, the methods
employed and the conclusions reached. Also, most institutions specify
the length; an abstract should be at most two A4 pages. Generally, most
scientific journals, theses and dissertations contain abstracts. An
abstract is a summary of the study that allows the reader to learn enough
to decide whether to read the whole thing. In an abstract, the first
sentence should be clear statement of the problem that was investigated
in the study. The research methodology and sampling techniques are
then indicated. A brief summary of findings and conclusion completes
the abstract.

iv. Introduction and Problem Statement

The first part of the body of the report states the research problem and
its importance. This should include a brief literature review or the
history of the problem in previous research and theory. The objectives

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of the study, research questions and hypotheses all constitute part of this
aspect of the study.

A guide should: explain the research problem in few sentences, state the
aims/objectives/hypotheses, provide any background to the study which
is necessary to place the study in its context. Draw attention to any
limitation the study might have at this stage. This chapter also
accommodates the significance of the study and definition of terms.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

What should the introduction of a research report contain?

3.2.1 Review of Literature

A thesis or dissertation should have a chapter which deals exclusively
with the review of literature. This should include the history of the
problem (if any). It also indicates how the current study flows from
previous studies. Simply put, the review of literature provides the
context and background of the study. Selection has to be made and only
books and journals articles which relate directly to the topic should be
used. You should be able to select material which is related to your
study, group the information into categories, comment on features which
are of particular importance and also compare the results of different
investigations. A good review of literature sets the scene, places the
work in context and prepares the reader on what is to follow.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

What is the major aim of a literature review?

3.2.2 Methodology and Statement of Results

The methodology section describes the sample that was studied and the
research techniques employed. It also shows how concepts are
operationalised and what measurement devices such as scales were used,
choice of variables and controls. This section is very important because
it provides the basis for any future replication efforts, so such section
must be written with sufficient detail so that it can perform these two
functions. Readers of this section of your thesis or dissertation must be
able to tell precisely what was done in the study and who participated.

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3.2.3 The Statement of Results

This is the heart of the report and will consist of tables, figures and text,
depending on the nature of the thesis and dissertation. The way results
are presented is important. Tables, charts, graphs and other figures
should illustrate and illuminate the text. The text should be written after
the results are prepared and should not duplicate information in the
tables, but should highlight significant aspects of the findings. You
should ensure that all relevant facts are presented in a way that draws the
readers’ attention to what is most important. This requires some
practice and in most cases, you need to repeat the draft severally before
you produce something acceptable to your supervisor. You should
recognise that other students have produced research reports before you,
so you will do well to look through their work.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4

Discuss methodology and statement of results in thesis and dissertation.

3.2.4 Analysis and Discussion

It is often advisable to start this section with a restatement of the
problem before discussing how the result affects existing knowledge of
the subject. If your research aimed at certain hypotheses then, this
section demonstrate whether they were or were not supported by the
evidence. Any deficiencies in the research design should be mentioned,
with suggestion about different approaches which might have been more
appropriate. Implications for improvement of practice, if any, should be
stated under this section. Often, research results raise new questions as
they answer others. Any suggestions for future research should be
stated in this section.

3.2.5 Summary and Conclusion

The main issues arising from the analysis and discussion should be
summarised clearly in this section. Only conclusion that can be
justifiably drawn from findings should be made. It is advisable to read
the entire report before writing this section of the research report.

3.2.6 References
All the materials referred to in the text and only those listed
alphabetically in the reference section of the manuscript should be
written. Some examples are shown below.

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Books:

Jegede, O.J. (1998). Primary Science for Nigerian Primary Schools.

Ibadan: Heinemann Educational Books; PP80 – 150.

Oloyede, O.I. (2007). Measurement and Evaluation for Tertiary

Institutions, Kaduna: Euneeks and Associates, PP37 – 53.

Associations:

Science Teachers Association of Nigeria, STAN (1998). The History of

STAN. Ibadan: University Press Plc. PP90 – 110.

Journals:

Otuka, J.O.E. (2000). Think and Do Activity-Based Science for

Nigerian Primary Schools. Journal of the Science Teachers
Association of Nigeria, 80, PP1 – 10.

Thesis:

Ezenwa, V. (1998). Children’s Ideas about Chemical Bonds.

Unpublished doctoral thesis, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria.

Chapters in Edited Books:

Otuka, J.O.E. and Atadoga, M. (2000). How Children Learn Scientific

Concepts, in M.J. Shuaibu and M.F. Bandele (eds.) History of
Science in Nigeria, Kaduna: Bode Press, PP211 – 219.

Appendices:

Should include copies of questionnaire, interview schedules, raw data

etc.

3.3 Principles of Writing

Remember that your report is you; your report is a powerful
psychological weapon. Without your meaning to do so, a report can say
more about you to your supervisor than you possibly can imagine.
Below are some tips to note:

Neatness and Clarity: Your report should be clean and clear. Each
sub-problem should be a clear stepping stone in the resolution of the
main problem. Little things leave lasting impressions. Your page

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should be easy to read, double-spaced lines and clear crisp letters, placed
attractively on the page.

Precision: In addition to neatness and clarity, a research report should

be crisp with precision. There should be no room for guessing or for
ambiguous or foggy terms. Your document should be clear-cut and
present its information plainly.

Writing research reports effectively is not an easy task. Good reports

are not written in a hurry. Even experienced and skillful writers revise
their report severally before they submit their final report.

3.4 Evaluating the Research Report

Below are some questions that could enable you to evaluate your
research report.

Step 1: The Problem

- Is the problem clearly and concisely stated?

- Is the problem adequately narrowed down into a research effort?
- Is the problem significant enough to warrant a formal research
effort?
- Is the relationship of the identified problem to previous research
clear?

Step 2: Literature Review

- Is the literature review logically organised?

- Does the review provide a critique of the relevant studies?
- Are gaps in knowledge about the research problem identified?
- Are important relevant references omitted?

Step 3: Theoretical or Conceptual Framework

- Is the theoretical framework easily linked with the problem, or

does it seem forced?
- If a conceptual framework is used, are the concepts adequately
defined, are the relationships among these concepts clearly
identified?
- Are the independent and dependent variables identified?
- Is a predicted relationship between two or more variables
included in each hypothesis?
- Are the hypotheses clear, testable and specific?
- Do the hypotheses logically flow from the theoretical or
conceptual framework?

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Step 4: Research Variables

- Are the dependent and independent variables operationally

defined?
- Are any extraneous or intervening variables identified?

Step 5: Hypotheses

- Is a predicted relationship between two or more variables

included in each hypothesis?
- Are the hypotheses clear, testable and specific?
- Do the hypotheses logically flow from the theoretical or
conceptual framework?

Step 6: Sampling

- Is the sample size adequate?

- Is the sample representative of the defined population?
- Is the method of selection of the sample appropriate?
- Are the sample criteria for inclusion into the study identified?
- Is there any sampling bias in the chosen method?

Step 7: Research Design

- Is the research design adequately described?

- Does the research design control for threats to internal and
external validity of the study?
- Are the data collection instruments described adequately?
- Are the reliability and validity of the measurement tools
adequate?

Step 8: Data Collection Methods

- Are the data collection methods appropriate for the study?

- Are the data collection instruments described adequately?
- Are the reliability and validity of the measurement tools
adequate?

Step 9: Data Analysis

- Is the result section clearly and logically organised?

- Is the type of analysis appropriate for the level of measurement
for each variable?
- Are the tables and figures clear and understandable?
- Is the statistical test the correct one for answering the research
question?

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Step 10: Interpretation and Discussion of the Findings

- Are the interpretations based on the data obtained?

- Does the investigator clearly distinguish between actual findings
and interpretations?
- Are the findings discussed in relation to previous research and to
the conceptual / theoretical framework?
- Are unwarranted generalisation made beyond the study sample?
- Are the limitations of the results identified?
- Are recommendations for future research identified?
- Are the conclusions justified?

4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have learnt:

• how to plan a research report;

• the format for a standard research report but institutions have
variations of this standard format;
• how to write a comprehensive research report and takes care of
all aspects of such a report, of the need to revise your research
report draft severally before you arrive at the final report;
• that your research report provides a mirror of your person to the
society, you must therefore do it very meticulously.

5.0 SUMMARY
We have come to the end of this course. I hope you enjoyed it. I do
hope you can now initiate and carryout research. Also, you can assess
and criticise research work. Try publishing your research findings in
journal. If you are a classroom teacher, action research can improve the
quality of your teaching and make you popular. You may try it.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Select any three research studies from a journal and use the scale for
evaluating research reports to evaluate them.

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7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Best, J.W. & Khan, J.V. (1995). Research in Education (7th Edition).
New Delhi: Prentice Hall. PP 20 – 23.

Cresswell, J.W. (1994). Research Design: Quantitative and Qualitative

Approaches Thousand Oaks C.A.: Sagem in P.D. Leedy (1997)
Practical Planning and Design (6th Edition) New Jersey: Merril,
PP105 – 107.

Leedy, P.D. (1997). Practical Research: Planning and Design (6th

Edition). New Jersey: Morill, PP103 – 110.

Monette, D.R.; Sullivan, T.S. & Dejong, R.D. (1994). Applied Social
Research: Tool for the Human Services (3rd Edition) Chicago:
Harcourt Brace College Publishers, PP3 – 8.

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