MODULE I

GENERAL CONCEPTS AN D
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS

Lesson 1 Introduction to Science,

Technology, and Society

Lesson 2 Historical Antecedents of Science

and Technology

Lesson 3 Intellectual Revolutions and

Society

Lesson 4 Science and Technology and

Nation-Building

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MODULE I

GENERAL CONCEPTS AND HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS

• INTRODUCTION

This module introduces students to the study of Science, Technology,

and Society (STS) beginning with general concepts and its historical
development. It also covers the impact of science and technology and their
interactions of science and technology and their interactions within various
social contexts, with emphasis on the role of science and technology in
Philippine nation building.

~ LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading the module, you should be able to:

1. Discuss the interactions between Science and Technology and society

throughout history;
2. Discuss how scientific and technological developments affect society
and the environment; and
3. Identify the paradigm shifts in history.

0 DIRECTIONS/MODULE ORGANIZER
Welcome to the world of children!

Read thoroughly the module 1 in the four different lessons. Assess the
extent of knowledge, values, and skills you have acquired from the module
by performing the activities designed for the purpose.

After accomplishing the activities, submit your output to your tutor

at the DOUS office. In case you encounter difficulties, contact your tutor at
DOUS. Good luck and may you enjoy reading about the world of children.

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Lesson 1

m INTRODUCTION TO SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY,

AND SOCIETY

Science comes from the Latin word scientia, meaning 'knowledge.' It

refers to a systematic and methodical activity of building and organizing
knowledge about how the universe behaves through observation,
experimentation or both. According to the famous American science
historian, John Heilbron (2003, p. vii), "Modern science is a discovery as
well as an invention." Heilbron considered science as a discovery of
regularity in nature, enough for natural phenomena to be described by
principles and laws. He also explained that science required invention to
devise techniques, abstractions, apparatuses, and organizations to describe
these natural regularities and their law-like descriptions.

Technology, for its part, is the application of scientific knowledge,

laws, and principles to produce services, materials, tools and machines
aimed at solving real-world problems. It comes from the Greek root word
techne, meaning 'art, skill, or cunning of hand.' During a live public Q&A in
December 2014, one member of the audience asked Mark Zuckerberg what
his definition of a technological tool is, and the CEO of Facebook responded:

"What defines a technological tool- one historical definition - is

something that takes a human's sense or ability and augments it
and makes it more powerful. So, for example, I wear contact
lenses or glasses; that is a technology that enhances my human
ability of vision and makes it better."

Wolpert (2005) made an interesting comparison between science and

technology that is helpful in the study of their interaction with society. In
his landmark paper, The Medawar Lectur 1998: Is Science Dangerous?
Wolpert explained that reliable knowledge has no moral or ethical value. It
is meant simply to explain how nature and the universe work and that the
obligation of scientists, besides studying the nature of the universe, is to
explain the possible uses and applications of such scientific knowledge.
Along this line, Wolpert made it clear that science is not the same as
technology. The scientist is not responsible for the application of knowledge
in technology. He further explained that the very nature of science is that it
is not possible to predict scientific discoveries and how these discoveries
may be applied. While scientists are responsible for the reliable conduct of
the scientific inquiry and its honest interpretation and dissemination,
technological applications of science are influenced by other sectors such as
politics and governance, religion, and business. With this distinction, one
can surmise the need for the study of the various ways in which science and
technology act and are enacted in society. This is a particularly timely and

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relevant concern because of the advancements in science and technology

today.

Nowadays, advancements in science and technology have become

pervasive. They are manifested in the activities that humans pursue and the
tools they use every day. The beauty of this is that pursue and the tools
they use every day. The beauty of this is that advancement builds upon
itself. As such, humans today live more productive and more exciting lives
than their predecessors. With the way, things go it, could be expected that
this generation's children and the children of their children have the chance
to lead even better lives than this generation already does.

However, the dynamism and immensity of scientific and technological

progress also pose challenges and drawbacks to the way humans live. The
introduction of machines tremendously cut the need for the human
workforce and gave rise to questions about whether machines will
eventually replace humans. The invention of drugs that cured the previously
incurable diseases introduced new strains of bacteria and viruses that are
resistant to the very same drugs that once fought them - take an antibiotic-
resistant strain of gonorrhea as an example. The rise of social media
drastically changed the way humans communicate, interact, and share
information; however, this tends to put people's privacy at risk. Indeed,
science and technology have served a predominantly double-edged function.
This is succinctly captured in a famous line of popular American scientist,
Carl Sagan, quoted in Tom Head's (2006) book:

"We live in a society absolutely dependent on science and

technology and yet have cleverly arranged things so that almost
no one understands science and technology. That's a clear
prescription for disaster. "

As problems in science and technology continue to rise and become more

observable, the need to pay attention to their interactions with various
aspects of human life, e.g., social, political, and economic, becomes ever
more necessary. How the different aspects of society shape and influence
the progression and further development of science and technology is the
area of concern of a relatively new academic discipline called Science,
Technology, and Society.

Science, Technology, and Society (STS) is a relatively young field that

combines previously independent and older disciplines, such as the history
of science, philosophy of science, and sociology of science. As an academic
field, STS, according to Harvard University's Kennedy School (2018), traces
its roots from the interwar period and the start of the Cold War. It was
during this period when historians and scientists found interest in the
interconnections of scientific knowledge, technological systems, and
society. The rise of STS as an academic field resulted from the recognition
that many schools today do not really prepare students to respond critically,
reflectively, and proactively to the challenges posed by science and
technology in the contemporary world.

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In general, STS applies methods drawn from history, philosophy, and

sociology inthe study the nature of science and technology and ultimately
judge their value and place in society. As an interdisciplinary field, the
emergence of STS was a result of questions about science and technology's
dynamic interaction with various aspects of society and was thus viewed as
a socially embedded enterprise. Thus, as the Kennedy School effectively
encapsulates, STS seeks to bridge the gap between two traditionally
exclusive - humanities (interpretative) and natural sciences (rational) - so
that humans will be able to better confront the moral, ethical, and
existential dilemmas brought by the continued developments in science and
technology.

The John J. Relly Center for Science, Technology, and Values of the
University of Notre Dame is responsible for listing the ten emerging ethical
dilemmas and policy issues in science and technology every year. Below is
the list for 2018.

1. Helix - a digital app store designed to read genomes

2. BlessU-2 and Pepper - first robot priest and monk
3. Emotion-Sensing Facial Recognition - a software being developed to
assess your reactions to anything such as shopping and playing games.
4. Ransomware - a way of holding data hostage through hacking and
requiring a ransom to be paid.
5. Textalyzer - a device that analyzes whether a driver was using his or
her phone during an accident.
6. Social Credit System - a system of scoring citizens through their
actions by placing them under constant surveillance (which China
plans to adopt)
7. Google Clips - a hands-free camera that lets the user capture every
moment effortlessly
8. Sentencing Software - a mysterious algorithm designed to aid courts
in sentencing decisions
9. Friendbot - an app that stores the deceased's digital footprint so one
can still "chat" with them
10. Citizen App - an app that notifies users of ongoing crimes or major
events in a specific area.

Even though several items in the list sound unfamiliar to many, it can
be a useful springboard in the study of science and technology. The list
points to the ever-growing challenges, questions, and issues that need to be
addressed and resolved when science and technology and humanity
intertwine. However, methods of critiquing these emerging ethical
dilemmas may come from similar methods used in previous critiques of
science and technology issues. For example, one can use methods used in
critiquing the rise of clinical trials of gene therapy in the 1990s. Today's
approach in critiquing emerging science and technology issues, such as the
ones listed above, may be influenced by how scientists and non-scientists
evaluated the positive and negative implications of clinical trials of gene
therapy in the 1990s. For this purpose, one can continue to specifically draw

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from the tenets of history, philosophy, and sociology in making informed

and critical judgments of the ethical and moral values of these innovations
in science and technology.

/lS LEARNING ACTIVITIES

Instructions: On the space below, paste a magazine or newspaper cutout of
any photograph that depicts an issue or problem in science and technology.
Then, answer the questions that follow.

1. What is the issue or problem depicted in the photograph?

2. How does this particular issue or problem impact the well-being of

humans today?

3. Why is it important for people to study and learn about STS as an

academic field, especially in addressing the issue or problems depicted in
the photograph?

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Lesson 2

w HISTORICAL ANTECEDENTS OF SCIENCE &

TECHNOLOGY

One of the key interests of STS as an academic field is the history of

science and technology. As a strand of STS, the history of science and
technology focuses on how science and technology have changed across
time. Also, it explores the impacts of scientific and technological
innovations on the prevailing social, cultural, political, and economic
context throughout history. Conversely, it also pays attention to the
conditions that shaped science and technology. Quite often, interests lie in
historical antecedents of scientific and technological innovations.

An antecedent is defined as a precursor to the unfolding or existence

of something. Thus, historical antecedents in science and technology are
factors that paved the way for the presence of advanced and sophisticated
scientific and technological innovations today. Knowledge of the history of
science and technology is useful in appraising these innovations today. By
understanding how previous generations influenced and were influenced by
developments in science and technology, today's generation can come up
with informed decisions on the proper applications of science and
technology to daily life.

ANCIENT PERIOD

The rise of ancient civilizations paved the way for advances in

science and technology. These advances during the Ancient period allowed
civilizations to flourish by finding better ways of communication,
transportation , self-organization, and living in general.

Sumerian Wheel Potter's Wheel

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Ancient Wheel

People from ancient civilizations used animals for transportation long

before the invention of the wheel. No one knows exactly who invented the
wheel and when. There is, however, a general agreement that the ancient
wheel grew out of a mechanical device called the potter's wheel - a heavy
flat disk made of hardened clay which was spun horizontally on axis. It is
believed that the Sumerians invented the potter's wheel shortly after 3,500
BC. The invention of the ancient wheel is often credited to the Sumerian
since no other ancient civilization used a similar device at the time. It could
be that a potter thought of shifting the potter's wheel to a 90-degree angle
for the purpose of transportation or the wheel was reinvented for this
purpose. Nonetheless, it would not be until 1000 to 1500 years later that the
wheel was first used on carts.

Paper

Roughly around 3000 BC, the ancient Egyptians began writing on

papyrus, a material similar to
thick paper. Papyrus is made from
the pith of the papyrus plant
Cyperus papyrus. It is lightweight,
strong, durable, and most
importantly, portable. Before the
Egyptians invented the papyrus,
the writing was done on stone.
Because of the difficulty of
writing on stone, the writing was
reserved only for very important
occasions. With the advent of the
papyrus, documentation and
record-keeping became efficient, widespread, and vast. Through its use,
information dissemination became exponentially faster. Records were kept
and stood the test of time.

Shadoof

The shadoof was an early tool invented

and used by ancient Egyptians to irrigate the
land. Among Egyptians who lived near the Nile
River, irrigation was necessary to water their
crops. The shadoof, also spelled as shaduf, is a
hand-operated device used for lifting water. Its
invention introduced the idea of lifting things
using counterweights. Because of this invention,
irrigation and farming became much more
efficient. The shadoof is also believed to be an
ancient precursor of more sophisticated
irrigation tools.

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Antikythera mechanism

Even before the invention of the antecedents of the modern

computer, the Greeks had already invented the ancient world's analog
computer orrery. Discovered in 1902 and retrieved from the waters of
Antikythera, Greece, the Antikythera mechanism is similar to a mantel
clock. Upon its discovery, the bits of wood seen on its fragments suggest
that it must have been housed in a wooden case. It is akin to a clock in the
way that the case has a circular face and rotating hands. A knob on the side
makes it possible for it to be wound forward or backward . As this knob
moves forward or backward, its mechanism allows it to display celestial
time. Thus, it is widely believed that the Antikythera mechanism was used
to predict astronomical positions and eclipses for calendar and astrological
purposes. It is also believed that the Antikythera mechanism, which is one
of the oldest known antecedents of modern clockwork, was invented by
Greek scientists between 150-1 00BC.

Aeolipile

Also known as the Hero's engine, the aeolipile is widely believed to

be the ancient precursor of the steam engine. Hero of Alexandria is credited
for the demonstration of the use of the aeolipile
during the 1st century AD. The aeolipile is a
steam-powered turbine which spun when the
water container at its center was heated, thus
making it practically the first rudimentary steam
engine. It is not clear whether the aeolipile
served any practical purpose, but it is believed to
be one of many "temple wonders" at the time.
Nonetheless, Vitruvius, a Roman author,
architect, and civil engineer described the
aeol ipile as a scientific invention through which
"the mighty and wonderful laws of the heavens
and the nature of winds" may be understood and
judged.

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MIDDLE AGES

Between the collapse of the Roman Empire in the 5th century AD and
the colonial expansion of Western Europe in late 15 th century AD, major
advances in scientific and technological development took place. These
include a steady increase of new inventions, the introduction of innovations
in traditional production , and the emergence of scientific thinking and
method. The Middle Ages was not a stagnant as alternate terms such as the
'Medieval Period' or 'Dark Ages' suggest. In fact, many medieval universities
at the time stirred scientific thinking and built infrastructures for scientific
communities to flourish. As such, some of humanity's most important
present-day technologies could be traced back to their historical
antecedents in the Middle Ages.

Heavy Plough

Perhaps one of the most important technological innovations during

the middle ages is the invention of the heavy plow. Clay soil, despite being
more fertile than lighter types of soil, was not cultivated because of its
heavy weight. However, through the invention of the heavy plow, it became
possible to harness clay soil. Professor Thomas Bernebeck Andersen of the
University of Southern Denmark succinctly describes the impact of the
invention of the heavy plow. "The heavy plow turned European agriculture
and economy on its head. Suddenly, the fields with the heavy, fatty, and
moist clay soils became those that gave the greatest yields." Because of
this, Europe, particularly its northern territories, saw rapid economic
prosperity. The heavy plow stirred an agricultural revolution in Northern
Europe marked by higher and healthier agricultural yields and more efficient
agricultural practices.

Gunpowder

Around 850 AD, Chinese alchemists accidentally invented black

powder or gunpowder. Multiple accounts suggest that the gunpowder might
have been an unintended byproduct of attempts made by the Chinese to
invent the elixir of life, which is why the Chinese called it huoyao, roughly
translated as "fire potion ." Prior to the invention of the gunpowder, swords
and spears were used in battles and wars. Towards the end of the 13 th
century, the explosive invention crept into most parts of Europe and Asia.

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Since its invention, the

gunpowder has allowed for
more advanced warfare. From
fiery arrows to cannons and
grenades, the gunpowder has
prompted foundation for the
functionality of almost every
new weapon used in war since
its invention. It ushered in an
unprecedented advancement
in warfare and combat
throughout the Middle Ages.

Paper Money

Although it was not until the 17th century that bank notes began to be
used in Europe, the first known versions of paper money could be traced
: -· -- back to the Chinese
in 17th century AD as
an offshoot of the
invention of block
printing, which is
similar to stamping.
Before the
introduction of
paper money,
precious metals,
such as gold and
silver were used as
currency. However,
the idea of assigning value to a marked piece of paper did not immediately
become popular. In fact, when the Mongols attempted to introduce paper
money into the Middle East market in the 13 th century, it did not gain
immediate success. Nonetheless, traders and merchants eventually realized
the huge advantage of using paper money because it was easier to transport
around compared to the previous forms of currencies.

Mechanical Clock

Although devices for timekeeping and recording sprung the ancient

times, such as the Antikythera mechanism, it was not until the Middle Ages
that clockwork technology was developed. The development of mechanical
clocks paved the way for accurately keeping track of time. The
sophistication of clockwork technology of the mechanical clock drastically
changed the way days were spent and work patterns were established,
particularly in the more advanced Middle Age cities.

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A medieval mechanical clock found in Prague, Czech Republic

Spinning Wheel

Another important invention of the Middle

Ages is the spinning wheel, a machine used for
transforming fiber into thread or yarn and
eventually woven into cloth on a loom. Although
no consensus could be made regarding the origin
of the spinning wheel, it is theorized that the
Indians invented the spinning wheel between 6th
and 11 th century AD. Prior to the invention of the
spinning wheel, weaving was done predominantly
through the more time-consuming and tedious
process of hand spinning. According to White
(1974), the invention of the spinning wheel speed up the rate at which fiber
could be spun by a factor of 10 to 100 times. Thus, White argued that this
invention ushered in a breakthrough in linen production when it was
introduced in Europe in the 13 th century AD.

MODERN AGES

As the world population steadily increased, people of the Modern

Ages realized the utmost importance of increasing the efficiency of
transportation, communication, and production. Industrialization took place
with greater risks in human health, food safety, and environment which had
to be addressed as scientific and technological progress unfolded at an
unimaginable speed.

Compound Microscope

A Dutch spectacle maker named Zacharias Janssen id credited for the

invention of the first compound microscope in 1590. Together with his
father Hans, Zacharias began experimenting with lenses by outing together
several lenses on a tube. This led to an amazing discovery that an object,
when placed near the end of the tube, can be magnified far larger than

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what a simple magnifying lens can do.

Janssen's compound microscope was
an important progression from the
single lens microscope. It was capable
of magnifying objects three times
their size when fully closed and up to
ten times when extended to the
maximum. Today, the compound
microscope is an important
instrument in many scientific studies,
such as in the areas of medicine,
forensic studies, tissue analysis, atomic studies, and genetics.

Telescope

Perhaps the single, most important technological invention in the

study of astronomy during the Modern Ages was the practical telescope
invented by Galileo Galilei. This invention could magnify objects 20 times
larger than the Dutch perspective
glasses. It was Galileo who first
used the telescope skyward and
made important astronomical
discoveries, and identified the
presence of craters and
mountains on the moon. Galileo's
remarkable technological
contribution drastically changed
the study of astronomy. For the
first time, it became clear that the universe is far larger than previously
imagined and the Earth for smaller compared to the entire universe.

Jacquard Loom

As the Industrial Revolution reached

full speed, the Jacquard loom was
considered as one of the most critical
drivers of the revolution. Built by French
weaver Joseph Marie Jacquard, the
Jacquard loom simplifies textile
manufacturing. Prior to the invention of
the Jacquard loom, a drawloom was used
which required two individuals to operate -
the weaver and a "drawboy" - if figured
designs on textiles were needed. As such,
intensified manual labor and greater effort
had to be exerted to produce complex
designs. In 1801, Jacquard demonstrated -
the ingenuity of his version of a loom in

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which a series of cards with punched holes automatically created complex

textile designs and made mass production easier. The Jacquard loom is also
an important antecedent of modern computer technology as it
demonstrated the use of punched cards to instruct a machine to carry out
complex tasks, i.e., making different textile patterns.

Engine-Powered Airplane

Orville Wright and Wilbur Wright are credited for designing and
successfully operating the first engine-powered aircraft. The Wright
brothers
approached the
design of powered
aircraft and flight
scientifically.
Orville and Wilbur
proved that
aircraft could fly
without airfoil-
shaped wings.
They demonstrated
this in their
original Flying
Machine patent (US
patent #821393),
showing that slightly-tilted wings, which they referred to as airplanes, were
the key features of a powered aircraft. Their pioneering success marked an
age of powered flights. Sans modern knowledge on aerodynamics and a
comprehensive understanding of the working of aircraft wings, the Wright
brothers were brilliant scientists who paved the way for modern aircraft
technology.

Television

The Scottish engineer John Logie Baird is largely credited for the
invention of the modern television. Baird successfully televised objects in
outline in 1924, recognizable
human faces in 1925, and
moving objects in 1926, and
projected colored images in
1928. Baird's television
technology caught on really
swiftly. In fact, the British
Broadcasting Corporation
(BBC) used this for its earliest
television programming in
1929. Despite being the first
television invented, Baird's television was later on criticized for its fuzzy

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and flickering images, primarily because it was mechanical compared to

electronic versions that were developed much later.

INVENTIONS BY FILIPINO SCIENTISTS

The Philippines boasts of its own history and tradition of scientific

and technological innovations. Filipinos have long been known for their
ingenuity. As with all other inventions, necessity has always been the
mother of Philippine inventions. Most of the inventions appealed to the
unique social and cultural context of the archipelagic nation. Throughout
Philippine history, Filipinos are responsible for developing many scientific
and technological innovations focused on navigation, traditional
shipbuilding, textiles, food processing, indigenous arts and techniques, and
even cultural inventions. The following are some of the most important
inventions by Filipino scientists.

Electronic Jeepney (e-jeepney)

The jeepney is perhaps one of the most recognizable national

symbols of the Philippines and the most popular mode of public
transportation in the country. It is also perhaps one of the most enduring
symbols of Filipino ingenuity. Jeepneys were designed and improvised from
scratch out of military jeeps that
the Americans left in the country
after World War II. As demand for
more responsive transportation
technology arose, the e-jeepney
was introduced in Metro Manila and
Bacolod City. The e-jeepney is the
inventive response to criticisms to
the traditional jeepney that
belched smoke, directly causing air
pollution which made it
unsustainable and uneconomical. E-
jeepneys are designed to be environment-friendly, eliminating noise and air
pollution as they run on electricity. They are also more economical for
electricity is far cheaper than ordinary diesel, allowing jeepney drivers to
earn more profit.

Eryth romyci n

Perhaps one of the most important

medical inventions is the Erythromycin.
The llonggo scientists Abelardo Aguilar
invented this antibiotic out of a strain of
bacterium called Streptomyces
erythreus, from which this drug derived

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its name. As with the case of several other local scientists, however, Aguilar
was not credited for this discovery by Eli Lilli Co, Aguilar's US employer, to
whom he sent the strain for separation. The US company eventually owned
the merits for this delivery.

Medical Incubator

World-renowned Filipino
pediatrician and national scientist, Fe
del Mundo, is credited for the
invention of the incubator and jaundice
relieving device. Del Mundo was the
first woman pediatrician to be
admitted to the prestigious Harvard
University's School of Medicine. She is
also the founder of the first pediatric
hospital in the country. Her pioneering
work in pediatrics that spanned a total
of eight decades won her the 1977
Ramon Magsaysay Award, Asia's
J premier prize granted to outstanding
individuals whose selfless service
remarkably contributed to the
betterment of society. Her original
improvised incubator consisted of two
native laundry baskets of different sizes that are placed one inside the
other. Warmth is generated by bottles with hot water placed around the
baskets. A makeshift hood over the baskets allows oxygen to circulate inside
the incubator. Del Mundo's incubator was particularly outstanding as it
addressed the state of Philippine rural communities that had no electricity
to aid the regulation of body temperature of newborn babies. For this
purpose, del Mundo's invention was truly ingenious.

Mole Remover

In 2000, a local
invention that had the ability
to easily remove moles and
warts on the skin without the
need for any surgical
procedure shot to fame.
Rolando dela Cruz is credited
for the invention of a local
mole remover that made use
of extracts of cashew nuts
(Annacardium occidentale),
which are very common in the
Philippines. The indigenous

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formula easily caught on for its accessibility, affordability, and painless and
scarless procedure . Dela Cruz won a gold medal for this invention in the
International Invention, Innovation, Industrial Design, and Technology
Exhibition in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia in 2000.

Banana Ketchup

Filipino food
technologist, Maria Orosa,
;iii is credited for the
invention of banana
ketchup, a variety of
ketchup different from the
commonly known tomato
ketchup. Her invention
appeals particular! y to
Filipinos who love using
condiments to go along
with their food . Historical
accounts posit that Orosa
invented the banana
ketchup at the backdrop of World War II when there was a huge shortage of
tomatoes. As a result, Orosa developed a variety of ketchup that made use
of mashed banana, sugar, vinegar, and spices, which were all readily
available. Orosa's banana ketchup is brownish-yellow in natural color but is
dyed red to resemble the color of the most loved tomato ketchup.

Salamander Amphibious Tricycle

It has become
ordinary for Filipinos to
convert transport vehicles
into something more
useful. An example is the
conversion of American
military jeeps used in
World War II into
jeepneys. Another Filipino
innovation is the addition
of a sidecar to a
motorcycle, transforming
it into a tricycle to accommodate more passengers.

During the rainy season, flooding is a common occurrence in many

areas in the country. Tricycles find it very difficult to traverse the streets.
To remedy the issue, H20 Technologies headed by Dominic N. Chung and
Lamberto Armada, together with Chief Designer Victor "Atay" Llave, was
able to invent the Salamander, an amphibious tricycle that can cross not

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only flooded streets but also rivers and lakes. It may also be utilized to
travel from island to island. Since the Philippines is an archipelago, the
Salamander is a useful invention that has a lot of potentials.

Salt Lamp

One of the major needs in the Philippines, as a developing nation, is

electrification. Electricity powers various types of machines, including light
sources. In many rural areas in the country, activities would cease when it
gets dark. It also becomes more dangerous to travel. Filipinos have resorted
to using candles and kerosene lamps but they carry certain risks as they are
fire hazards. Solar power is also a welcome development but like
rechargeable batteries, solar panels are
too expensive for ordinary Filipinos.
Fortunately, a young Filipina inventor
named Aisa Mijeno was able to invent a
lighting system that utilizes a material
abundant in the Philippines - saltwater.
She invented the Sustainable
Alternative Lighting (SALt) lamp, an
environment-friendly light source that
runs on saltwater. The SALt lamp is
safer as it poses no risk of fire and emits
no toxic gases. Aside from people who
live in coastal areas, it may their own
saltwater by mixing two tablespoons of
salt and a glass of tap water.

Mosquito Ovicidal/Larvicidal Trap System

Dengue, a mosquito-
borne viral illness, is
endemic in tropical and
subtropical areas, including
the Philippines. This virus is
usually transmitted by
Aedes aegypti mosquito,
rampant during the rainy
season. Insecticides were
previously used to kill the
species. However, recent
studies show that
insecticide resistance has
evolved in some mosquito
populations. Likewise, using
insecticides is harmful not only to humans but also to the environment. In
2010, the Department of Science and Technology - Industrial Technology
Development Institute (DOST-ITDI) was able to introduce the Mosquito

GECC 1OSA - General Concepts and Historical Developments -Module I-

 19

Ovicidal/Larvicidal Trap System, also known as the OL Trap. This trap

system is made of natural ingredients that are lethal to mesquites but safe
for humans and the environment.

Ji5 LEARNING ACTIVITIES

Guide Questions

1. Give three other major scientific and technological developments in

the world (or in the Philippines) that created a large impact on your
daily life.
2. What historical antecedents gave rise to the inventions you
mentioned in the first question?
3. How did developments in science and technology shape human
history?

GECC 1OSA - General Concepts and Historical Developments -Module/-

 20

Lesson 3

w INTELLECTUAL REVOLUTIONS AND SOCIETY

In the study of the history of science and technology, another

important area of interest involves the various intellectual revolutions
across time. In this area, interest lies in how intellectual revolutions
emerged as a result of the interaction of science and technology and of
society. It covers how intellectual revolutions altered the way modern
science was understood and approached.

For this discussion, intellectual revolutions should not be confused

with the Greeks' pre-Socratic speculations about the behavior of the
universe. In science and technology, intellectual revolutions refer to the
series of events that led to the emergence of modern science and the
progress of scientific thinking across critical periods in history. Although
there are many intellectual revolutions, this section focuses on three of the
most important ones that altered the way humans view science and its
impacts on society: the Copernican, Darwinian, and Freudian revolutions. In
the words of French astronomer, mathematician, and freemason, Jean
Sylvain Bailey (1976 in Cohen, 1976), their scientific revolutions involved a
two-stage process of sweeping away the old and establishing the new.

In understanding intellectual revolutions, it is worth noting that these

revolutions are, in themselves, paradigm shifts. These shifts resulted from a
renewed and enlightened understanding of how the universe behaves and
functions. They challenged long-held views about the nature of the
universe. Thus, these revolutions were often met with huge resistance and
controversy.

Copernican Revolutions

The Copernican Revolution refers to the 16th -century paradigm shift

named after the Polish mathematician and astronomer, Nicolaus Copernicus.
Copernicus formulated the heliocentric model of the universe. At the time,
the belief was that the Earth was the center of the Solar System based on
the geocentric model of Ptolemy (i.e., Ptolemaic model).

Copernicus introduced the heliocentric model in 40-page outline

entitled Commentariolus. He formulated his model in the publication of his
treatise, De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium (The Revolution of Celestial
Spheres) in 1543. In his model, Copernicus repositioned the Earth from the
center of the Solar System and introduced the idea that the Earth rotates on

GECC 105A - General Concepts and Historical Developments -Module I·

 21

its own axis. The model illustrated the Earth, along with other heavenly
bodies, to be rotating around the Sun.

The idea that the Sun is at the center of the universe instead of doing
Earth proved to be unsettling to many when Copernicus first introduced his
model. In fact, the heliocentric model was met with huge resistance ,
primarily from the Church, accusing Copernicus of heresy. At the time, the
idea that it was not the Earth, and, by extension, not man, that was at the
center of all creation was unthinkable. Copernicus faced persecution from
the Church because of this.

Moreover, although far

more sensible than the
Ptolemaic model, which as
early as the 13 th century had
been criticized for its
shortcomings, the Copernican
model also had multiple
inadequacies that were later
filled in by astronomers who
participated in the
revolution. Nonetheless,
despite problems with the
model and the persecution of
the Church, the heliocentric
model was soon accepted by
other scientists of the time, most profoundly by Galileo Galilei.

The contribution of the Copernican Revolution is far-reaching. It

served as a catalyst to sway scientific thinking away from age-long views
about the position of the Earth relative to an enlightened understanding of
the universe. This marked the beginning of modern astronomy. Although
very slowly, the heliocentric model eventually caught on among other
astronomers who further refined the model and contributed to the
recognition of heliocentricism. This was capped off by Isaac Newton's work
a century later. Thus, the Copernican Revolution marked a turning point in
the study of cosmology and astronomy making it a truly important
intellectual revolution.

Darwinian Revolution

The English naturalist, geologist, and biologist, Charles Darwin, is

credited for stirring another important intellectual revolution in the mid-
19th century. His treatise on the science of evolution, On The Origin of
Species, was published in 1859 and began a revolution that brought
humanity to a new era of intellectual discovery.

The Darwinian Revolution benefited from earlier intellectual

revolutions especially those in the 16th and 17th centuries, such that it was

GECC 105A - General Concepts and Historical Developments -Module/-

 22

guided by confidence in human reason's ability to explain phenomena in the

universe. For his part, Darwin gathered evidence pointing to what is now
known as natural selection , an evolutionary process by which organisms,
including humans, inherit, develop, and adopt traits that favored survival
and reproduction. These traits are manifested in offspring's that are more
fit and well-suited to the challenges of survival and reproduction.

Darwin's theory of evolution was, of course, met with resistance and

considered to be controversial. Critics accused the theory of being either
short in accounting for the broad and complex evolutionary process or
dismissive of the idea that the functional design of organisms was a
manifestation of an omniscient God. The Darwinian Revolution can be
likened to the Copernican Revolution in its demonstration of the power of
the laws of nature in explaining biological phenomena of survival and
reproduction.

The place of the Darwinian Revolution in modern science cannot be

underestimated. Through the Darwinian Revolution, the development of
organisms and the origin of unique forms of life and humanity could be
rationalized by a lawful system or an orderly process of change underpinned
by laws of nature.

Freudian Revolution

Austrian neurologist, Sigmund Freud, is · ·

credited for stirring a 20 th -century intellectual
revolution named after him, the Freudian
Revolution. Psychoanalysis as a school of thought in
psychology is at the center of this revolution. Freud
developed psychoanalysis - a scientific method of
understanding inner and unconscious conflicts
embedded within one's personality, springing from
free associations, dreams, and fantasies of the
individual. Psychoanalysis immediately shot into
controversy for it emphasized the existence of the
unconscious where feelings, thoughts, urges,

GECC 105A - General Concepts and Historical Developments -Module/-

 23

emotions , and memories are contained outside of one's conscious mind.

Psychoanalytic concepts of psychosexual development , libido, and ego were
met with both support and resistance from many scholars. Freud suggested
that humans are inherently pleasure-seeking individuals. These notions were
particularly caught in the crossfire of whether Freud's psychoanalysis fit in
the scientific study of the brain and mind.

Scientists working on a biological approach in studying human

behavior criticized psychoanalysis for lack of vitality and bordering on being
unscientific as a theory. Particularly, the notion that all humans are
destined to exhibit Oedipus and Electra complexes (i.e., sexual desire
towards the parent of the opposite sex and exclusion of the parent of the
same sex) did not seem to be supported by empirical data. In the same vein,
it appeared to critics that psychoanalysis, then , was more of an ideological
stance than a scientific one.

Amidst controversy, Freud ' s psychoanalysis is widely credited for

dominating psychotherapeutic practice in the early 20 th century.
Psychodynamic therapies that treat a myriad of psychological disorders still
remain largely informed by Freud's work on psychoanalysis.

How well have you understood the lesson? Try to evaluate yourself by
doing the following activities:

/ES LEARNING ACTIVITIES

Guide Questions

1. Why do you think were most intellectual ideas controversial?

2. Why did the people accept these new discoveries despite being
contradictory to what was widely accepted at that time?
3. How do intellectual revolutions transform societies?
4. Can you name other scientific revolutions that happened in the
following places?
a. Meso - America
b. Asia
c. Middle East
d. Africa

GECC 105A - General Concepts and Historical Developments -Module/-

 24

Lesson 4

m SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY AND NATION-BUILDING

Science and technology in the Phil ippines had its beginnings during
the pre-colonial times.
During th is period , people
used herbal medicine to
treat illnesses. To facilitate
trading, Filipinos made use
of writing , numerical,
measurement, and calendar
systems. Farming, fishing,
mining, and weaving were
the first livelihood skills
developed by Filipinos. In
some cases, the techniques
Filipinos developed for
livelihood purposes resulted in majestic architectural designs that managed
to attract worldwide attention like the Banaue Rice Terraces of lfugao.

During the Spanish colonial period, science and technology developed

through the establishment of formal education institutions and the
launching of scientific organizations. Schools were mandated to teach
religion, mathematics, reading and writing, music and arts, and health and
sanitation. Medicine and biology were taught in different educational and
training institutions. Since agriculture was the major livelihood of Filipinos,
the natives were trained to use innovative approaches in farming. To
construct buildings, churches, bridges, roads, and forts, engineering was
introduced and developed as well. The rapid development of scientific
principles influenced by Western culture during the Spanish colonial period
was shortchanged. This is why agriculture and industrial developments were
during the latter part of the Spanish era. Instead, trade was prioritized due
to possible bigger profits.

When the
Americans came,
institutions for science
and technology were
reorganized as well. For
example, the former
Laboratorio Municipal
was replaced by the
Bureau of Government
Laboratories under the
United States'

GECC 105A · General Concepts and Historical Developments -Module/-

 25

Department of Interior. The Bureau was established for the purpose of

studying tropical diseases and pursuing other related research projects.
Eventually, in 1905, the Bureau was changed to Bureau of Science, which
became the main research center of the Philippines.

In 1933, the National Research Council of the Philippines was

established. Developments in science and technology during the American
regime were focused on agriculture, medicine and pharmacy, food
processing, and forestry. In 1946, the Bureau of Science was replaced by the
Institute of Science.

During the time of former President Ferdinand Marcos, the role of

science and technology in national development was emphasized. He
mandated the Department of Education and Culture, now known as the
Department of Education (DepEd), to promote science courses in public high
schools. Additional budget for research projects in applied sciences and
science education was granted by Marcos. A big drunk of the war damage
fund from the Japanese was donated to private universities and colleges for
the creation of science and technology-related courses and to promote
research . The 35-hectare lot in
Bicutan, Taguig proclaimed in
1968 as the Philippine Science
Community, now the site of the
Department of Science and
Technology (DOST). Seminars,
workshops, training programs, and
scholarships on fisheries and
oceanography were also sponsored
by the government during Marcos'
presidency. The Philippine
Coconut Research Institute
(PHILCORIN) was tasked to
promote the modernization of the
coconut industry. Several agencies
and organizations were then established like the Philippine Textile Research
Institute, Philippine Atomic Energy Commission (now the PhiUppine Nuclear
Institute), National Grains Authority (now the National
Food Authority), Philippine Council for
Agricultural Research (now the Philippine
Council for Agriculture, Aquatic, and
Natural Resources Research and
Development), Philippine Atmospheric,
Geophysical and Astronomical Services
Administration (PAGASA), Philippine
National Oil Company, Plant Breeding
Institute, International Rice Research
Institute (/RR/), Bureau of Plant Industry,
Bureau of Forest Products, and the National
Committee on Geological Sciences. The
National Science Development Board (NSDB)

GECC 105A - General Concepts and Historical Developments -Module/-

 26

reorganized as the National Science and Technology Authority (NSTA) in

1981. In 1976, Marcos established the National Academy of Science and
Technology (NAST) to be the reservoir of scientific and technological
expertise in the country. Salary increases for teachers and administrators at
the Philippine Science High School were granted and the Mindanao and
Visayas campuses of the Philippine Science High School were established
during Marcos' time.

In 1986, under President Corazon Aquino, NSTA was renamed DOST.

This was done in order for the science and technology sector to be
represented in the cabinet and thus play an integral role in the country's
sustainable economic recovery and growth. The Science and Technology
Master Plan penned by DOST aimed to update the production sector,
improve research activities, and develop infrastructures for the science and
technology sector.

In 1987, during the presidency of Fidel Ramos, the Philippines had

approximately 3,000 competent scientists and engineers. The "Doctors to
the Barrio" Program made healthcare accessible even in far-flung areas in
the country. Incentives were given to people who played significant roles in
the science and technology sector. The National Program for Gifted FWpino
Children in Science and Technology was created for high school students
who wanted to major in science and engineering in college. It was also
during Ramos' term that a number of laws and statutes related to the
science and technology sector were mandated such as RA 8439: Magna Carta
for Scientist Engineers, Researchers and other Science and Technology
Personnel in Government: RA 7687: Science and Technology Scholarship Act
of 1994; RA 7459: Inventors and Inventions Incentives Act; and RA 8293: The
Intellectual Property Code of the PhWppines.

RA 8749: The Philippine Clean Air Act of 1999 and RA 8792: Electronic
Commerce Act of 2000 were both signed and mandated during the term of
President Joseph Estrada. He was also responsible for implementing cost-
effective irrigation technologies and providing basic health care services for
those who could not afford them.

During the administration of President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo, the

science and technology sector was developed to strengthen the education
system and to address poverty. The term FWpinnovation was coined to refer
to the Philippines as an innovation hub in Asia. Arroyo also promulgated RA
9367: Biofuels Act, to utilize indigenous materials as sources of energy.
However, the act was not able to produce positive outcomes because of the
lack of technology to source raw materials. It was also in Arroyo's term that
farmers were encouraged to use rice that can withstand environmental
hazards. RA 10601: Agriculture and Fisheries Mechanization (AFMech) Law
was also passed to modernize agricultural and fisheries machinery and
equipment.

In 2014, President Benigno Aquino Ill named new National Scientists

namely: Gavina C. Trono for Marine Biology, Angel C. Alcala, for Biological

GECC 1OSA - General Concepts and Historical Developments -Module I-

 27

Science, Ramon C. Barba , for Horticulture, and Edgardo D. Gomez , also for
Marine Biology.

NRCP PRESIDENT NRCP Regular Member NRCP Regular Member NRCP Regular Member NRCP Associate Member
National Scientist National Scientist National Scientist National Scientist Alfredo Mahar Lagmay
Edgardo D. Gomez Angel C. Alcala Ramon C. Barba Gavina C. Trono , Jr.

Today, in the administration of President Rodrigo Duterte, the

science and technology sector is seen to be a priority based on the budget
for research and development (R&D) that grew by nearly six times over the
same period. Formulation of programs and policies that will aid in shaping
the country is backed up President Duterte. The focus of DOST is to put the
results of R&D into commercialization in order to gain new intellectual
properties. Currently, the Philippines have the PhWppine Space Technology
Program which launches Diwata-2 in 2018 after the launch of Diwata-1 in
2016 that displayed the Philippine flag in space. Besides technology, the
current administration also gives importance to agriculture and disaster
preparedness.

Science and Technology in the Philippines and the Environment

Science and technology have numerous contributions to society. The

mechanization of farming, for instance, is necessary for agriculture, being
the number one source of food production. Agricultural development needs
to cope with the rapidly
and exponentially
growing population.
Tools such as water
pumps and sprinklers
help in managing the
damaging effects of
extreme heat caused by
climate change on
crops. Science and
technology have also
made it possible to
produce genetically
modified crops, which
grow faster and are more resistant to pests. Fertilizers that increase

GECC 1OSA - General Concepts and Historical Developments -Module I-

 28

nutrients in the soil enhance the growth of the crops and produce high-
quality yields. However, many types of research show that genetically
modified crops and fertilizers made from strong chemicals are not
environment-friendly. Science and technology have improved transportation
by land, air, and sea. Communication has also improved through
technological advancements. With the internet and the rise of social media,
information is transmitted easily and rapidly. Through technological
developments, ways of learning also changed. Learning management
systems used in education is now accessible through computers, mobile
phones, tablets, and other gadgets. Online learning has also become popular
in various disciplines like mathematics, physics, biology, geography,
economics, and others.

These contributions of science and technology, however, always

come with advance impacts especially on the environment. One is resource
depletion. The increasing number of new and advanced technologies in the
production and manufacture of different goods and services results in the
depletion of the Earth's natural resources. Wastes are also generated as
these technologies are developed. People have also become too dependent
on science and technology, making them disregards its consequences that
may be damaging to the environment.

~ LEARNING ACTIVITIES

Guide Questions

1. Trace the development of science and technology from the pre-

colonial times up to the present. What have you observed?
2. What do you think are the major contributions of science and
technology to Philippine nation-building?
3. What specific government policy do you like the most in terms of
contributing to the development of science and technology in the
Philippines?
4. What do you think are the major contributions of the Philippines to
the field at present?
5. What policies do you want the government to implement in the near
future?

( w MODULE SUMMARY
Lesson I introduces Science, Technology, and Society (STS) as a field
of study. After defining science and technology, the section traces the
historical roots of STS as an academic field. It also enumerates emerging
dilemmas that reinforce the importance of the study of STS in an age of
scientific progress and technological development.

GECC 105A - General Concepts and Historical Developments -Module/-

 29

Furthermore, Lesson 2 tackles how social contexts shaped and were

shaped by science and technology across three historical periods. By
introducing the historical antecedents of science and technology, the
section explores the dynamic interactions between different societal factors
and science and technology. Along with the discussion of these antecedents
during the ancient period, middles ages, and modern ages, this section also
includes a discussion on important Philippine inventions and innovations. It
emphasizes the various social, cultural, economic, and political impacts of
scientific and technological innovation throughout history.

Lastly, Lesson 3 reviews the intellectual revolutions that changed the

way people perceive the influence of science on society in general. It
focuses on three of the most important intellectual revolutions in history:
Copernican, Darwinian, and Freudian. By discussing these intellectual
revolutions in the context of science, technology, and society, the attention
of students is drawn again toward the complex interplay of the various
social context and the development of modern science. The section also
engages students in a critical analysis of ongoing intellectual and scientific
revolutions, which they may find themselves to be part of.

~ SUMMATIVE TEST

A. Read Lewis Wolpert's The Medawar Lecture 1998 Is Science

Dangerous?
(https: / /www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1569503). Then
complete the metacognitive reading report below.

1. Difficult Concepts
a.---------------------
b. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
c. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
2. Learning ·Insights
a. Before reading the article, I thought that

However, after reading the article, I now think/learned that

b. Before reading the article, I thought that

However, after reading the article, I now think/learned that

How did you find the module? I'm sure you'd be able to know more
about science and technology and nation-building. Welcome to Module
2/!!

GECC 105A - General Concepts and Historical Developments -Module/-

 MODULE 11
SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND
SOCI ETY AN D THE HUMAN
CONDITION

Lesson 1 Technology as a Way of

Revealing

Lesson 2 Human Flourishing in Progress

and De-development

Lesson 3 The Good Life

Lesson 4 When Technology and Humanity

Cross

Lesson 5 Why the Future Does Not Need

Us

-,
I
__,

..,
 2

MODULE II

SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY AND THE HUMAN

CONDITION

INTRODUCTION

This module introduces students to a number of relevant and timely

philosophical foundations that will aid in examining the functions, roles, and
impacts of science and technology on society. The module is divided into
five sections. These sections aim to provide students with cogent and
comprehensive knowledge on the concept of human flourishing in the face
of rapid scientific progress and technological development.

~ LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. differentiate the essences of technology and modern technology;

2. discuss and illustrate the dangers of modern technology; and
3. explain why art is the saving power of modern technology.

7
Cf DIRECTIONS/MODULE ORGANIZER

Read each lesson in Module II after which you accomplish the

exercises. The module summary is also given for you to have the whole
grasp of STS and its role in human flourishing. Answer also the summative
test to evaluate how much you have gained from the whole Module.

. )

GECC 105A - Science, Technology, and Society and the Human Condition -Module II-
 3

Lesson 1

��.:�Ll TECHNOLOGY AS A WAY OF REVEALING

At A Glance: Who is Martin Heidegger?

"The essence of technology is by no means anything technology."

- Martin Heidegger (1977)

Martin Heidegger (1889-1976) is widely acknowledged as one of the

most important philosophers of the 20th century. He was a German
philosopher who was part of the Continental tradition of philosophy. His
stern opposition to positivism and technological world domination received
unequivocal support from leading postmodernists and poststructuralists of
the time, including Jacques Derrida, Michel Foucault, and Jean-Francois
Lyotard.

In 1933, he joined the Nazi Party (NSDAP) and remained to be a

member until it was dismantled toward the end of World War II. This
resulted in his dismissal from the University of Freiburg in 1949. He was only
able to resume teaching in 191. Heidegger's membership to the Nazi Party
made him controversial - his philosophical work as often eclipsed by his
political affiliation with critics saying that his philosophy would always be
rooted in his political consciousness.

Heidegger's work on philosophy focused on ontology or the study of

'being' or dasein in German. His philosophical works are often described as
complicated, partly due to his use of complex compound German words,
such as Seinsvergessenheit (Forgetfulness of Being), BodensUindigkeit
(Rootedness-in-Soil) and Wesensverfassung (Essential Constitution).

The Essence of Technology

It cannot be denied that science and technology are responsible for

the way's society is continuously being modernized. Science and technology
continuously seep into the way people go about their daily lives. However,
the omnipresence of science and technology must not eclipse the basic
tenets of ethics and morality. Instead, it should allow the human person to
flourish alongside scientific progress and technological development. In
order to spark the discussion on the role of ethics and social morality in
science and technology, it is necessary to go back to the very essence of
technology, i.e., its definition.

GECC 105A - Science, Technology, and Society and the Human Condition -Module II·
 4

In his seminal work, The Question of Technology, Martin Heidegger

urges us to question technology and see beyond people's common
understanding of it.

According to ancient doctrine, the essence of a thing is

considered to be what the thing is. We ask the question
concerning technology when we ask what it is. Everyone
knows the two statements that answer our question. One
says: Technology is a means to an end. The other says:
Technology is a human activity. The two definitions of
technology belong together. For to posit ends and procure
and utilize the means to them is human activity the
manufacture and utilization of equipment, tools, and
machines, the manufactured and used tMngs themselves, and
the needs and ends that they serve, all belong to what
technology is. The whole complex of these contrivances is
technology. Technology itself is a contrivance - in Latin, an
instrumentum. The current conception of technology,
according to which it is a means and a human activity, can,
therefore, be called the instrumental and anthropological
definition of technology (Heidegger, 1997, p.5).

Martin Heidegger (19n) explains the two widely embraced definitions

of technology: (1) instrumental and (2) anthropological.

1. Instrumental definition: Technology is a means to an end.

Technology is not an end in itself, it is a means to an end. In this

context, technology is viewed as a tool available to individuals,
groups, and communities that desire to make an impact on society
how technology is used varies from individual to individual, groups to
groups, and communities to communities according to their individual
and collective functions, goals, and aspirations. While technology is
omnipresent, knowing its functions requires paying attention to how
humans use it as a means to an end. In this sense, technology is an
instrument aimed at getting things done

Z. Anthropological definition: Technology is a human activity.

Alternatively, technology can also be defined as a human activity

because to achieve an end and to produce and use a means to an end
is, by itself, a human activity. The production or invention of
technological equipment, tools, and machines, the products and
inventions, and the purpose and functions they serve are what define
technology.

Both definitions, i.e., instrumental and anthropological, are correct.

However, neither touches on the true essence of technology.

GECC 105A - Science, Technology, and Society and the Human Condition -Module II-
 5

Technology as a Way of Revealing

Heidegger stressed that the truth can only be pursued through the
correct. Simply, what are correct leads to what is true. In this sense,
Heidegger envisioned technology as a way of revealing - a mode of 'bringing
forth.' Bring;ng forth can be understood through the Ancient Greek
philosophical concept, pojesjs, which refers to the act of bringing something
out of concealment. By bringing something out of concealment, the truth of
that something is revealed. The truth is understood through another Ancient
Greek concept of Alethe;a, which is translated as unclosedness,
unconcealedness, disclosure, or truth.

Thus, for Heidegger, technology is a form of poeisis - a way of

revealing that unconceals Aletheia or the truth. This fs seen in the way the
term techne, the Greek root word of technology, is understood in different
contexts. In philosophy, techne resembles the term epjsteme that refers to
the human ability to make and perform. Techne also encompasses
knowledge and understanding. In part it refers to tangible and intangible
aspects of life. The Greeks understood techne in the way that it
encompasses not only craft, but other acts of the mind, and poetry.

Technology as Poiesis: Does Modern Technology Bring Forth or Challenge

Forth?

Heidegger, in The Questfon Concerning Technology, posited that both

primitive crafts and modern technology are revealing. However, he
explained that modern technology is revealing not in the sense of bringing
forth or poeisis. Heidegger made a clear distinction between technology and
modern technology in that the latter 'challenges' nature. Modern
technology challenges nature by extracting something from it and
transforming, storing, and distributing it.

On the surface, Heidegger's criticism of modern technology might

appear counterintuitive to the purpose of nature to human existence.
However, by digging deeper into Heidegger's question, it becomes clear that
the essence of modern technology is not to bring forth in the sense of
poiesis. Instead, Heidegger considers modern technology's way of revealing
as a way of challenging forth. Modern technology challenges forth, because
it makes people think how to do things faster, more effectively, and with
less effort. It prompts people into dominating and enframing the earth's
natural resources. Challenging forth reduces objects as standing-reserve or
something to be disposed of by those who enframe them - humans. This is
evident in the way people exploit natural resources with very little concern
for the ecological consequences that come with it. Challenging forth as a
result of modern technology is also evident in the formation age, such that
greater control of information to profit from its value gives rise to concern
about privacy and the protection of human rights.

J
I

GECC 105A - Science, Technology, and Society and the Human Condition -Module II-
 6

The challenging forth of modern technology is seen everywhere: in

the rise and depletion of petroleum as a strategic resource; the introduction
and use of synthetic dyes, artificial flavorings, and toxic materials into the
consumer stream that bring about adverse effects on human health; and the
use of ripening agents in agriculture that poses threats to food safety.

What kind of unconcealment is it, then, that is peculiar to that

which results from this setting upon those challenges?
Everywhere everything is ordered to stand by, to be
immediately on hand, and indeed to stand there just so that it
may be on call for a further ordering. Whatever is ordered
about in this way has its own standing. We call it the standing-
reserve (Heidegger, 1977, p.5)

Enframing as Modern Technology's Way of Revealing

The essence of technology can be understood as a way of bringing

forth the truth in the sense of poiesis. Heidegger distinguished the way of
revealing of modern technology by considering it as a process of enframing.
Humankind's desire to control everything, including nature, is captured in
this process. By putting things, in this case, nature, in a frame, it becomes
much easier for humans to control it according to their desires.

Enframing according to Heidegger, is akin to two ways of looking at

the world: calculative thinking and meditative thinking. In calculative
thinking, humans desire to put an order to nature to better understand and
control it. In meditative thinking, humans allow nature to reveal itself to
them without the use of force or violence. One thinking is not necessarily
better than the other. In fact, humans are capable of using both the will
benefit from being able to harmonize these ways of looking at the world.
Yet, calculative thinking tends to be more commonly utilized, primarily
because humans desire to control due to their fear of irregularity.

Enframing, then, is a way of ordering (or framing) nature to better

manipulate it. Enframing happens because of how humans desire for
security, even if it puts all of nature as a standing reserve ready for
exploitation. Modern technology challenges humans to enframe nature.
Thus, humans become part of the standing reserve and an instrument of
technology, to be exploited in the ordering of nature. The role humans take
as instruments of technology through enframing is called destining. In
destining, humans are challenged forth by enframing to reveal what is real.
However, this destining of humans to reveal nature carries with it the
danger of misconstruction or misinterpretation.

The Dangers of Technology

Though it is true that the individual takes part in the revealing of

nature, limits must still be recognized. Humans do not really call the shots

GECC 105A - Science, Technology, and Society and the Human Condition -Module II-
 7

on this Earth . If we allow ourselves to get swallowed by modern technology,

we lose the essence of who we are as beings in this world. If we are
constantly plugged online and no longer have the capacity for authentic
personal encounters, then we are truly swallowed by technology. If we
cannot let go of the conveniences and profits brought about by processes
and industries that pollute the environment and cause climate change, then
technology has consumed our humanity.

The dangers of technology lie in how humans let themselves be

consumed by it. Although humans are looped into the cycle of bringing forth
or challenging forth, it is their responsibility to recognize how they become
instruments of technology.

The Brazilian novelist, Paulo Coelho, once remarked that it is boastful

for humans to think that nature needs to be saved, whereas Mother Nature
would remain even if humans cease to exist. Hence, in facing the dangers of
technology, the fear of disappearing from the face of the Earth should
concern people more potently than the fear of the Earth disappearing. As
mere tenants on Earth people must not allow themselves to be consumed by
technology lest they lose the essence of who they are as human beings. In
this sense, humans are in danger of becoming merely part of the standing
reserve or, alternatively, may find themselves in nature.

Nevertheless, as expressed by the poet Holderlin, "But where danger

is, grows the saving power also." The saving power lies in the essence of
technology. The essence is the way in which things are, as that which
endures. Heidegger further asserted that the "essence of technology is
nothing technological" (1977). The essence of technology is not found in the
instrumentality and function of machines constructed, but in the
significance of such as technology unfolds.

Recognizing its dangers of technology requires critical and reflective

thinking on its use. For example, social media has indeed connected people
in the most efficient and convenient way imaginable, but it also
inadvertently gave rise to issues such as the invasion of privacy, online
disinhibition, and proliferation of fake news. The line has to be drawn
between what constitutes a beneficial use of social media and a dangerous
one. As exemplified, social media comes with both benefits and drawbacks.

However, the real threat of technology comes from its essence, not
its activities or products. The correct response to the danger of technology
is not simply dismissing technology altogether. Heidegger (19n) explained
that people are delivered over to technology in the worst possible way when
they regard it as something neutral. This conception of technology,
according to Heidegger, to which today humans particularly like to pay
homage, makes them utterly blind to the essence of technology. Ultimately,
the essence of technology is by no means anything technological (Heidegger,
1977).

GECC 105A - Science, Technology, and Society and the Human Condition -Module II-
 8

He also expressed that the various problems brought about by

hu man 's dependence on technology cannot be simply resolved by refusing
technology altogether. He stated:

Thus , we shall never experience our relationship to the essence of

technology so long as we merely represent and pursue the
technol~ical, put up with it, or evade it. Everywhere we remain
unfree and chained to technology, whether we passionately affirm
or deny it. But we are delivered over to it in the worst possible
way when we regard it as something neutral; for this conception of
it , to which today we particularly like to pay homage, makes us
utterly blind to the essence of technology (1977, p. 1)

Art as the Saving Power

Necessary reflection upon and confrontation with technology are

required in order to proactively address the dangers of technology. Friedrich
Holderlin, a German poet quoted by Heidegger, said: "But where danger is,
grows the saving power also" (1997, p.14). Following this, the saving power
can be traced exactly where the danger is - in the essence of technology. As
mentioned, this essence is not neutral and by no means anything
technological. Along this line, Heidegger proposed art as the saving power
and the way out of enframing: "And art was simply called techne. It was a
single, manifold revealingJ' (1997, p.18). Heidegger saw art as an act of the
mind, i.e., a techne, that protected and had great power over the truth. By
focusing on art, people are able to see more clearly how art is embedded in
nature. Art encourages humans to think less from a calculative standpoint
where nature is viewed as an ordered system. Instead, it inspires meditative
thinking where nature is seen as an art and that, in all of the art, nature is
almost poetic. Heidegger encapsulated this as follows:

Because the essence of technology is nothing technological, essential

reflection upon technology and decisive confrontation with it must
happen in a realm that is, on the one hand, akin to the essence of
technology and, on the other, fundamentally different from it. Such
a realm is art. But certainly, only if reflection on art, for its part,
does not shut its eyes to the constellation of truth after which we are
questioning (1997, p. 19)

Enframing, as the mode of revealing in modern technology, tends to

block poiesis. The poetry that is found in nature can no longer be easily
appreciated when nature is enframed. If the Earth has just become a gas
station for us, then we have become enframed as well. In modern
technology, the way of revealing is no longer poetic; it is challenging. When
instruments are observed linearly, its poetry can no longer be found. For
example, the watermill is a primitive structure compared to the hydropower
plant; or the first iPhone model is just an obsolete piece of machine. People
no longer realize how the watermill is more in tune with the rhythms of
nature or how much genius went into the building of the first iPhone.

GECC 105A - Science, Technology, and Society and the Human Condition -Module II-
 9

Heidegger proposes art as a way out of this enframing. With art, we

are better able to see the poetic in nature in reality. It leads us away from
calculative thinking and towards meditative thinking. Through meditative
thinking, we will recognize that nature is art par excellence. Hence, nature
is the most poetic.

There was a time when it was technology alone that bore the name
techne. Once the revealing that brings forth truth into the
splendor of radiant appearance was also called techne.

Once there was a time when the bringing-forth of the true into the
beautiful was called techne. The poiesis of the fine arts was also
called techne.

At the outset of the destining of the West, in Greece, the arts

soared to the supreme height of the revealing granted them. They
illuminated the presence {Gegenwart] of the gods and the dialogue
of divine and human destinies. And art was called simply techne. It
was a single, manifold revealing. It was pious, promos i.e. , yielding
to the holding sway and the safekeeping of truth.

The arts were not derived from the artistic. Artworks were not
enjoyed aesthetically. Art was not a sector of cultural activity.

What was art - perhaps only for that brief but magnificent age?
Why did art bear the modest name techne? Because it was a
revealing that brought forth and made present, and therefore
belonged within poiesis. It was finally that revealing which holds
complete sway in all the fine arts, in poetry, and in everything
poetical that obtained poiesis as its proper name (Heidegger, 1977,
p. 13)

When meditatively looking at technology, one will begin to

question its significance in his/her life more than in its instrumental
use. Technology is normally thought of as that which solves problems,
but Heidegger asserted that it is something that must be questioned.
Again, it is in question that we build a way to understand. In the
nuclear age, we view nature as a problem to be solved. The calculative
thinking in which we perceive nature in a technical and scientific
manner is becoming more important in the modern world. On the other
hand, it is meditative thinking that provides a way for us to remain
rooted in the essence of who we are. It grounds us so as not let our
technological devices affect our real core and warp our nature.

Aristotle's conception of the four causes was mechanical. As

explained by Heidegger:
For centuries philosophy has taught that there are four causes:
(1) the causa materials, the material, the matter out of which,
for example, a silver chalice is made; (2) the causa formalis, the
form, the shape into which the material enters; (3) the causa

GECC 105A - Science, Technology, and Society and the Human Condition -Module II-
 10

finalis, the end, for example, the sacrificial rite in relation to

which the chalice required is determined as to its form and
matter; (4) the causa efticiens, which brings about the effect
that is the finished actual chalice, in this instance, the
silversmith. What technology is, when represented as a means,
discloses itself when we trace instrumentality back to fourfold
causality (1977, p. 2)

Through correct in the four causes, Aristotle remained in the

mechanical sense and did not allow for a larger truth to disclose itself.
The poetic character may be hidden but it is there. For example, the
ancient Greek experience of cause is action or indebtedness not cause
and effect. Thus, the Greeks revere the sun because they are indebted
to it, and not because the sun is the cause of energy on earth. Action is
responsible for bringing forth.

Though enframing happens, it cannot completely snuff out the

poetic character of technology. We ponder technology and question it.
In so doing, we also become aware of the crisis we have plunged the
Earth into. The danger is made present and more palpable through our
art and poetry. Amid this realization, we remain hopeful because, as
the poet Holderlin put it, " ... poetically man dwells upon this Earth"
(Heidegger, 19TT, p. 13)

Questioning as the Piety of Thought

Heidegger concluded his treatise on technology by saying:

The closer we come to the danger, the more brightly do the

_,
ways into the saving power begin to shine and the more
questioning we become. For questioning is the piety of thought
(1977, p. 19).

Heidegger underscored the importance of questioning in the midst of

technology for him, there is unparalleled wisdom gained only when humans
..J
are able to pause, think, and question what is around them. Humans are
consumed by technology when they are caught up in enframing and fail to
pay attention to the intricacies of technology, the brilliance of the purpose
of humankind, and the genius of humans to bring forth the truth .

Questioning is the piety of thought. It is only through questioning that

humans are able to reassess their position not only in the midst of
technology around them but also, and most importantly, in the grand
..J
scheme of things. Heidegger posited that it is through questioning that
humans bear witnesses to the crises that a complete preoccupation with
technology brings, preventing them from experiencing the essence of
technology.

GECC 105A - Science, Technology, and Society and the Human Condition -Module II-
 11

Thus, humans need to take a step back and reassess who they were,
who they are, and who they are becoming in the midst of technology in this
day and age.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES

Read the article "Facebook says 87 mHlion may be affected by Data Privacy
Scandal" by Agence France-Presse. After reading, answer the questions that
follow.

1. What is this data privacy scandal all about?

2. How does this Facebook privacy scandal relate to Heidegger's notion
of revealing of modern technology as challenging forth?
3. How are Facebook users 'enframed' in this particular data privacy
scandal?
4. How do you think Facebook can be used in a way that is more
consistent with Heidegger's idea of poiesis or a bringing forth of
technology?
5. How can the Heideggerian notion of 'questioning' guide Facebook
users toward a beneficial use of social media?

Are you finished? Check your answers by going over the text.
Proceed to Lesson 2.

GECC 105A - Science, Technology, and Society and the Human Condition -Module II-
 12

Lesson 2

HUMAN FLOURISHING IN PROGRESS AND

DE-DEVELOPMENT

Thoughts to Ponder

Despite efforts to close out the gap between the rich and poor
countries, a BBC report in 2015 stated that the gap in growth and
development just keeps on widening. Although there is no standard measure
of inequality the report claimed that most indicators suggest that the
widening of the growth gap slowed during the financial crisis of 2007 but is
now growing again. The increasing inequality appears paradoxical having in
mind the efforts that had been poured onto the development programs
designed to assist poor countries to rise from absent to slow progress.

With this backdrop and in the context of unprecedented scientific

and technological advancement and economic development, humans must
ask themselves whether they are indeed flourishing, individually or
collectively. If development efforts to close out the gap between the rich
and poor countries have failed, is it possible to confront the challenges of
development through a nonconformist framework?

In the succeeding article, Jason Hickel, an anthropologist at the

London School of Economics, criticizes the failure of growth and
development efforts to eradicating poverty seven decades ago. More
importantly, he offers a nonconformist perspective toward growth and
development.

Forget 'developing' poor countries it's time to 'de-develop' rich countries

by Jason Hickel

This week, heads of state are gathering in New York to sign the UN's
new sustainable development goals (SDGs). The main objective Is to
eradicate poverty by 2030. Beyonce, One Direction and Malala are on board.
It's set to be a monumental international celebration.

Given all the fanfare, one might think the SDGs are about to offer a
fresh plan for how to save the world, but beneath all the hype, it's business
as usual. The main strategy for eradicating poverty is the same: growth.

Growth has been the main object of development for the past 70
years, despite the fact that it's not working. Since 1980, the global economy
has grown by 380%, but the number of people living in poverty on less than
$5 (£3.20) a day has increased by more than 1.1 billion. That's 17 times the
population of Britain. So much for the trickle-down effect.

GECC 105A - Science, Technology, and Society and the Human Condition -Module II-
 13

Orthodox economists fnsfst that all we need is yet more growth. N-ore
progressive types tell us that we need to shift some of the yields of growth
from the richer segments of the population to the poorer ones, evening
things out a bit. Neither approach is adequate. Why? Because even at
current levels of average global consumption, we're overshooting our
planet's biocapacity by more than 50% each year.

In other words, growth isn't an option anymore - we've already grown

too much. Scientists are now telling us that we're blowing past planetary
boundaries at breakneck speed. And the hard truth is that this global crisis
is due almost entirely to overconsumption in rich countries.

Right now, our planet only has enough resources for each of us to
consume 1.8 "global hectares" annually - a standardtzed unit that measures
resource use and waste. This figure is roughly what the average person in
Ghana or Guatemala consumes. By contrast, people in the US and Canada
consume about 8 hectares per person, while Europeans consume 4.7
hectares - many times their fair share.

What does this mean for our theory of development? Economist Peter
Edward argues that instead of pushing poorer countries to 'catch up" with
rich ones, we should be thinking of ways to get rich countries to "catch
down" to more appropriate levels of development. We should look at
societies where people live long and happy lives at relatively low levels of
income and consumption not as basket cases that need to be developed
towards western models, but as exemplars of efficient living:

How much do we really need to live long and happy lives? In the US,
life expectancy is 79 years and GDP per capita is $53,000. But many
countries have achieved similar life expectancy with a mere fraction of this
income. Cuba has a comparable life expectancy to the US and one of the
highest literacy rates in the world with GDP per capita of only $6,000and
consumption of only 1. 9 hectares - right at the threshold of ecological
sustainability. Similar claims can be made of Peru, Ecuador, Honduras,
Nicaragua, and Tunisia.

Yes, some of the excess income and consumption we see in the rich
world yield improvements in quality of life that are not captured by life
expectancy, or even literacy rates. But even if we look at measures of
overall happiness and well-being in addition to life expectancy, a number of
low-and-middle-income countries rank highly. Costa Rica manages to sustain
one of the highest happiness indicators and life expectancies in the world
with a per capita income one-fourth that of the US.

In light of this, perhaps we should regard such countries not as

underdeveloped, but rather as appropriately developed. And maybe we
need to start calling on rich countries to justify their excesses.

The idea of "de-developing" rich countries might prove to be a strong

rallying cry in the global south, but it will be tricky to sell to westerners.
Tricky, but not impossible. According to recent consumer research, 7CR of

GECC 105A - Science, Technology, and Society and the Human Condition -Module II-
 14

people in middle-and high -income countries believe overconsumption is

putting our planet and society at risk. A similar majority also believe we
should strive o buy and own less, and that doing so would not compromise
our happiness. People sense there is something wrong with the dominant
model of economic progress and they are hungry for an alternative
narrative.

The problem is that the pundits promoting this kind of transition are
using the wrong language. They use terms such as de-growth, zero growth or
- worst of all - de-development, which are technically accurate but off·
putting for anyone who's not already on board. Such terms are repulsive
because they run against the deepest frames we use to think about human
progress, and, indeed, the purpose of life itself. It's like asking people to
stop moving positively through life, to stop learning, improving, growing.

Negative formulations won't get us anywhere. The idea of "steady-

state" economics is a step in the right direction and is growing in popularity,
but it still doesn't get the framing right. We need to reorient ourselves
toward a positive future, a truer form of progress. One that is geared
toward quality instead of quantity. One that is more sophisticated than just
accumulating ever-increasing amounts of stuff, which doesn't make anyone
happier anyway. What is certain is that GDP as a measure is not going to get
us there and we need to get rid of it.

Perhaps we might take a cue from Latin Americans, who are

organizing alternative visions around the indigenous concept of been vivir,
or good living. The west has its own tradition of reflection on the good life
and it's time we revive it. Robert and Edward Skielsky take us down this
road in his book, How Much is Enough? where they lay out the possibility of
interventions such as banning advertising, a shorter working week and a
basic income, all of which would improve our lives while reducing
consumption.

Either we slow down voluntarily or climate change will do it for us.

We can't go on ignoring the laws of nature. But rethinking our theory of
progress is not only an ecological imperative, but it is also a development
one. If we do not act soon, all our hard-won gains against poverty will
evaporate, as food systems collapse and mass famine re-emerge to an
extent not seen since the 19th century.

This is not about giving anything up. And it's certainly not about
living a life of voluntary misery or imposing harsh limits on human potential.
On the contrary. It's about reaching a higher level of understanding and
consciousness about what we're doing here and why.

Source: Hickel, (2015, Sep 23). Forget 'developing' poor countries it's time to de-develop'
rich countries. The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/global-
developmentprofessioanals-network/ 2015/ sep / 23/ developing-poor-countries-de-
developrich-countries-sdgs.

_J

GECC 105A - Science, Technology, and Society and the Human Condition -Module II-
 15

You have just learned human floudshing in the context of

progress in science and technology. See how well you have understood
the lesson by answering the following activities.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES

Guide Questions

After reading Hickel's article on the concept of de-development answer the

following questions in two to three sentences.

1. What is the framework of de-development of rich countries all about?

2. How is the de-development framework different from traditional
frameworks of developments?
3. According to Hickel, how can rich countries de-develop?
4. Why does Hickel frown upon pundits using terms such as de-growth,
zero growth, or de-development in describing an alternative
framework?
5. Some people might think that de-development is about giving things
up. How does Hickel explain that this is not the case?

GECC 105A - Science, Technology, and Society and the Human Condition -Module II-
 16

Lesson 3

THE GOOD LIFE

Are we living the good life? This question is inarguably one universal
human concern. Everyone aims to lead a good life. Yet, what constitutes a
happy and contented life varies from person to person. Unique backgrounds,
experiences, social contexts, and even preferences make it difficult to
subscribe to a unified standard on which to tease out the meaning of 'the
good life'. Thus, the prospect of a standard of the good life- one that
resonates across unique human experiences - is inviting.

Aristotle's Nichomachean Ethics and the Good Life

To answer the question, "Are we living the good life?" necessary

reflection must be made on two things: first, what standard could be used
to define 'the good life?' Second, how can the standard serve as a guide
toward living the good life in the midst of scientific progress and
technological advancement?

In the documentary film, The Magjcian's Twin: C.S. Lewis and the
Case Against Scientism, C.S. Lewis posited that "science must be guided by
some ethical basis that is not dictated by science itself." One such ethical
basis is Aristotle's Nichomachean Ethics.

Aristotle, who lived from 384 to 322 BC, is probably the most
important ancient Greek philosopher and scientist. He was a student of
Plato, who was then a student of Socrates. Together, they were considered
the 'Big Three of Greek Philosophy.'

Aristotle's Nichomachean Ethics, the fundamental basis of

Aristotelian ethics, consist of ten books. Originally, they were lecture notes
written on scrolls when he taught at the Lyceum. It is widely believed that
the lecture notes were compiled by or were dedicated to one of Aristotle's
sons, Nichomacus. Alternatively, it is believed that the work was dedicated
to Aristotle's father who was of the same name.

The Nichomacean Ethics, abbreviated as NE or sometimes EN based

on the Latin version of the name, is a treatise on the nature of moral life
and human happiness based on the unique essence of human nature. The NE
is particularly useful in defining what a good life is. In Nichomachean Ethics,
Aristotle stated:

All human activities aim at some good. Every art and human
inquiry, and similarly every action and pursuit, is thought to aim
at some good; and for this reason, the good has been rightly

GECC 105A - Science, Technology, and Society and the Human Condition -Module II-
 17

declared as that at which all things aim (Nichomachean Ethics

2:2)

Everyone has a definition of what good is - getting a college degree,

traveling across the world, succeeding in a business venture, pursuing a
healthy and active lifestyle, or being a responsible parent. However,
although everyone aims to achieve that which is good. Aristotle posited two
types of good. In NE Book 2 Chapter 2, (NE 2:2), Aristotle explained that
every action aims at some good. However, some actions aim at an
instrumental good while some aim at an intrinsic good. He made it clear
that the ultimate good is better than the instrumental good for the latter is
good as a means to achieving something else or some other end while the
former is good in itself.

Eudaimonia: The Ultimate Good

What then is the ultimate good? Based on the contrast between two
types of good, one could reflect on some potential candidates for the
ultimate good.

One might think that pleasure is the ultimate good. One aims for
pleasure in the food they eat or in the experiences they immerse
themselves into. Yet, while pleasure is an important human need, it can not
be the ultimate good. First, it is transitory - it passes. One may have been
pleased with the food they had for lunch, but he or she will be hungry again
or will want something else after a while. Second, pleasure does not
encompass all aspects of life. One may be pleased with an opportunity to
travel but that may not make him or her feel good about leaving, say, his or
her studies or the relationship he or she has been struggling with.

Others might think that wealth is a potential candidate for the

ultimate good, but a critique of wealth would prove otherwise. Indeed,
many, if not most, aim to be financially stable, to be rich, or to be able to
afford a luxurious life. However, it is very common to hear people say that
they aim to be wealthy insofar as it would help them achieve some other
goals. Elsewhere, it is also common to hear stories about people who have
become very wealthy but remain, by and large, unhappy with the lives they
lead. In this sense, wealth is just an intermediate good - that is, only
instrumental. It is not the ultimate good because it is not self-sufficient and
does not stop one from aiming for some other 'greater' good.

Another candidate for the ultimate good is fame and honor. Many
people today seem to be motivated by a desire to be known - to be famous.
Others strive for honor and recognition. This is reflected by those people
who use social media to acquire large virtual following on the internet and
wish to gain a foothold on the benefits that fame brings. Many people act
.., according to how they think they will be admired and appreciated by other
I
people. However, these cannot constitute the ultimate good, simply
because they are based on the perception of others. Fame and honor can
never be good in themselves. If one's definition of the good life is being

GECC 105A - Science, Technology, and Society and the Human Condition -Module II-
 18

popular or respected, then the good life becomes elusive since it is based
on the subjective views of others.

Unlike pleasure, wealth, fame, and honor, happiness is the ultimate

good. In the Aristotelian sense, happiness is "living well and doing well" (NE
1:4). Among the Greeks, this is known as eudaimonia, from the root word is,
meaning good, and daimon , meaning spirit. Combining the root words,
eudaimonia means happiness or welfare. More accurately, others translate
it as human flourishing or prosperity. Aristotle proposed two hallmarks of
eudaimonia, namely virtue and excellence (NE 1:7). Thus, happiness in the
sense of eudaimonia has to be distinguished from merely living good.
Eudaimonia transcends all aspects of life for it is about living well and doing
well in whatever one does.

Eudaimonia: Uniquely Human?

Eudaimonia or happiness is unique to humans for it is a uniquely

human function. It is achieved only through a rationally directed life.
Aristotle's notion of a tripartite soul as a nested hierarchy of the functions
and activities of the soul. The degrees and functions of the soul are nested,
such that the one which has a higher degree of the soul has all of the lower
degrees. Thus, on the nutritive degree, all living things, i.e., plants,
animals, and humans, require nourishment and have the ability to move and
perceive. Finally, on a rational degree, only humans are capable of
theoretical and practical functions. Following this, humans possess the
nutritive, sensitive, and rational degrees of the soul. More importantly, only
humans are capable of a life guided by reason. Because this is so,
happiness, too, is a uniquely human function for it can only be achieved
through a rationally directed life.

Humans

Animals
Plants

t. obll11v, 5-!nsatlon

Arete and Human Happiness

Eudaimonia is what defines the good life. To live a good life is to live
a happy life. For Aristotle, eudaimonia is only possible by living a life a
virtue.

GECC 105A - Science, Technology, and Society and the Human Condition -Module II-
 19

Arete, a Greek term, is defined as "excellence of any kind" and can

also mean "moral virtue." Virtue is what makes one function well. Aristotle
suggested two types of virtue: intellectual virtue and moral virtue.

Virtue plays a significant role in the living and attainment of the good
life. It is the constant practice of the good no matter how difficult the
circumstances may be. Virtue is the excellence of character that empowers
one to do and be good. Such virtue is cultivated with habit and discipline as
it is not a one-time deed, but a constant and consistent series of actions.
Everyone has the capacity within himself/herself to be good, but he/she
also has to be disciplined to make a habit of exercising the good.

Virtue, then, being of two kinds, intellectual and moral,

intellectual virtue in the main owes its birth and growth to
teaching (for which reason it requires experience and time), while
moral virtue comes about as a result of habit (Nichomachean Ethics
2:1 ).

Intellectual virtue or virtue of thought is achieved through education,

time, and experience. Key intellectual virtues are wisdom, which guides
ethical behavior, and understanding, which is gained from scientific
endeavors and contemplation. Wisdom and understanding are achieved
through formal and non-formal means. Intellectual virtues are acquired
through self-taught knowledge and skills as much as that knowledge and
skills taught and learned in formal institutions.

Moral virtue or virtue of character is achieved through habitual

practice. Some key moral virtues are generosity, temperance, and courage.
Aristotle explained that although the capacity for intellectual virtue is
innate, it is brought into completion only by practice. It is by repeatedly
being unselfish that one develops the virtue of generosity. It is by
repeatedly resisting and foregoing every inviting opportunity that one
develops the virtue of temperance. It is y repeatedly exhibiting the proper
action and emotional response in the face of danger that one develops the
virtue of courage. By and large, moral virtue is like a skill. Skill is acquired
only through repeated practice. Everyone is capable of learning how to play
the guitar because everyone has an innate capacity for intellectual virtue,
but not everyone acquires it because only those who devote time and
practice develop the skill of playing the instrument.

If one learns that eating too many fatty foods is bad for the health,
he or she has to make it a habit to stay away from this type of food because
health contributes to living well and doing well. If one believes that too
much use of social media is detrimental to human relationships and
productivity, he or she must regulate his or her use of social media and
deliberately spend more time with friends, and family, and work than in
virtual platform. If one understands the enormous damage to the
environment that plastic materials bring, he or she repeatedly forego the
next plastic item he or she could do away with. Good relationship dynamics

GECC 105A - Science, Technology, and Society and the Human Condition -Module II·
 20

and a healthy environment contribute to one's well ness , In n or

lives and what he or she does.

Both intellectual virtue and moral virtue should be i accorda e

with reason to achieve eudaimonia. The indifference with ese
reasons that are only for one ' s convenience, pleasure, or sat"sfac i
humans away from eudaimonia.

A virtue is ruined by any excess and deficiency in how one ltves and
acts. A balance between two extremes is a requisite f virtue. This balance ·s
a mean of excess not in the sense of a geometric or arithmet ·c average .
Instead, it is a mean relative to t he person, circumstances, and the right
emotional response in every experience (Nf2:2; 2-6).

Consider the virtue of cou rage. Courage was earlier defined as

displaying the right action and emotional response in the face of dan~er.
The virtue of courage is rui ned by an excess of t he needed emotio al and
proper action to address a particular situation. A person who does not
properly assess the danger and is total without fear may develop t he vice of
foolhardiness or rashness. Also, courage is ruined by a deficiency of the
needed emotion and proper action. When one overthinks of a looming
danger, that he or she becomes too fearful and incapable of acting on the
problem, he or she develops the vice of cowardice.

What then is a good life?

Putting everything in perspective, the good life in the sense of

eudaimonia is the state of being happy, healthy, and prosperous in the way
one thinks, lives, and acts. The path to the good life consists of the virtues
of thought and character, which are relative mediators between the two
extremes of excess and deficiency. In this way, the good life is understood
as happiness brought about by living a virtuous life.

One could draw parallels between moving toward the good life and
moving toward further progress and development in science and technology.
In appraising the goodness of the next medical procedure, the new social
media trend, the latest mobile device, or the upcoming technology for food
safety, one must be guided by Aristotelian virtues. Science and technology
can be ruined by under-or- over-appreciation of the scope and function it
plays in the pursuit of the uniquely human experience of happiness.
Refusing science and technology all together to improve human life is as
problematic as allowing it to entirely dictate reason and action without any
regard for ethical and moral standards. By imposing on science and
technology an ethical standard that is not dictated by itself, as C.S. Lewis
proposed, not only will scientific advancement and technological
development flourish, but also the human person.

GECC 105A - Science, Technology, and Society and the Human Condition -Module II-
 21

LEARNING ACTIVITIES

Guide questions

Compare and contrast each pair of terms related to Aristotle's

Nichomachean Ethics as discussed in this section.

1. Instrumental Good - Ultimate Good

2. Pleasure - Happiness

3. Virtue - Vice

4. Intellectual Virtue - Moral Virtue

5. Science and Technology - The Good Life

Congratulations! You are now ready to study the next lesson in

Module II .

..,

GECC 105A - Science, Technology, and Society and the Human Condition -Module II-
 22

Lesson 4

WHEN TECHNOLOGY AND HUMANITY CROSS

The good life entails living in a just and progressive society whose
citizens have the freedom to flourish. The human person has the autonomy
to make choices which may enable the flourishing of his/her self and
society. The United Nations General Assembly proclaimed the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) on December 10, 1948, as the global
standard of fundamental human rights for universal recognition and
protection. The UDHR begins,

"Whereas recognition of the inherent dignity human family is

the foundation of freedom, justice, and peace in the world"
(UDHR Preamble).

As implied, everyone has absolute moral worth by virtue of being

human. Human dignity is the ultimate core value of our existence. When we
fully recognize and appreciate this truth in ourselves and in all the persons
around us, regardless of their status in life, then we pave the way for a just
and progressive society. It is in this kind of society that we are able to
become fully human - more free, more rational, and more living. Human
beings become freer when we are empowered to make choices for our
flourishing. We become more rational when we are able to value and apply
the principles of logic and science in our lives, we become more loving when
we ensure that human dignity lies at the foundation of our endeavors,
whether scientific or not. It entails knowing one's fundamental human rights
that must always be protected in the face of changing conditions.

Universal Declaration of Human Rights

The UDHR explicates the

fundamental human rights in 30 articles.
UNIVERSAL It outlines inalienable human rights that
are vital and necessary in the pursuit of
DECLARATION OF the good life. These are the freedoms
everyone is entitled to and guaranteed by
HUMAN RIGHTS I virtue of being human. The first article
states the essential principle of being
Adopted "nd prnrlaimed b_y the Gt11,ru/ Asstmbly human in a just, free, and rational
of ti~ U11iled Nations 0,1 the te11th day of
1 society. Everyone is born free and equal
Dece11JMT 1948
in dignity and rights. The common
experience, however, does not always
manifest such truth. More often than not,
those who have more to offer are given
special treatment. The good life,
nevertheless, as a life of justice, demands

GECC 105A - Science, Technology, and Society and the Human Condition -Module II-
 23

not just equal treatment of human beings but also pre ferential treatment to
those who have less or are disadvantaged. The first seven articles of the
UDHR ncapsulate the spirit of this so-called "milestone document In the
history of human righ ts.'' They are as follows:

ARTICLE I

All human beings are born free and equal In dignity and rights. They
are endowed with reason and conscience and should ac t towards one
another in a spirit of brotherhood.

ARTICLE 2

Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this
Declaration , without distinction of any kind, such as race, color, sex,
language, religion political or another opinion, national or social origin,
property, birth or another status. Furthermore, no distinction shall be made
on the basis of the political, jurisdictional or international status of the
country or territory to which a person belongs, whether it be Independent,
trust, non-self-governing or under any other limitation of sovereignty.

ARTICLE 3

Everyone has the right to life, liberty, and security of person.

ARTICLE 4

No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave

trade shall be prohibited in all their forms.

ARTICLE 5

No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or

degrading treatment or punishment.

ARTICLE 6

Everyone has the right to recognition everywhere as a person before

the law.

ARTICLE 7

All are equal before the law and are entitled without any
discrimination to equal protection of the law. All are entitled to equal

GECC 105A - Science, Technology, and Society and the Human Condition -Module II·
 24

protection against any discrimination in violation of this Declara t ion and

against any incitement to such discrimination.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights has a long, bloody history.

Crafted in 1948, after World War II, the UDHR now serves as a common
understanding of what each person's fundamental rights are. These rights
apply to everyone, everywhere. It is imperative that we all know and live
these rights to prevent injustice and oppression.

Human rights in the face of scientific and technological advancement

are critical factors in one's journey toward eudaimonia of the good life.
Exercising the right to accept or reject , minimize or maximize, and evaluate
and decide on the scope and function of science and technology indicates
human flourishing in science and technology. Protecting the well -being and
upholding the dignity of the human person must be at the core of continued
scientific and technological progress and development. Such is the focus of
a human rights-based approach to science, technology, and development.

S. Romi Mukherjee, a senior lecturer in Political Theory and the

History of Religions at the Paris Institute of Political Studies, explained a
human rights-based approach to science, technology, and developments as
follows:

"[It] seeks to place a concern for human rights at the heart of how
the international community engages with urgent global
challenges. The UN Development Programme characterizes this
approach as one that 'leads to better and more sustainable
outcomes to analyzing and addressing the inequalities,
discriminatory practices and unjust power relations which are
often at the heart of development problems. It puts the
international human rights entitlements and claims of the people
(the 'right-holders') and the corresponding obligations of the state
(the 'duty-bearers') in the center of the national development
debate, and it clarifies the purpose of capacity development."

Murherjee (2012) furthered that this approach identifies science as "a

socially organized human activity which is value-laden and shaped by
organizational structures and procedures." Moreover, it requires an answer
to whether governments and other stakeholders can craft and implement
science and technology policies that "ensures safety, health, and
livelihoods; include people's needs and priorities in development and
environmental strategies, and ensure they participate in decision-making
that affects their lives and resources."

Multiple international statutes, declarations, and decrees have been

produced to ensure the well-being and human dignity. Mukherjee listed
some of the most important documents that center on a human rights-based
approach to science, development, and technology, and their key
principles:

GECC 105A- Science, Technology, and Society and the Human Condition -Module II-
 25

Document Ke Prtnctples
--::--i-- - - - - - -~ -
U niversal Declaration of This document affirms everyone's right to
Human Rights (Article 27) participate in and benefit from scientific
advances, and be protected from scientific
misuse. The right to the benef fts of science
comes under the domain of 'culture,' so it is
usually examined from a cultural rights
perspective.

UNESCO Recommendation This document affirms that all advances in

on the Status of Scientific scientific and technological knowledge should
Researchers 1974 solely be geared towards the welfare of the
(Article 4) global citizens, and calls upon member states
to develop necessary protocol and policies to
monitor and secure this objective. Countries
are asked to show that science and technology
are integrated into policies that aim to ensure
a more humane and just society.

UNESCO Declaration on This document states, "Today, more than

the Use of Scientific ever, science and its applications are
Knowledge - 1999 (Article indispensable for development. All levels of
33) government and the private sector should
provide enhanced support for building up an
adequate and evenly distributed scientific and
technological capacity through appropriate
education and research programs as an
indispensable foundation for economic, social,
cultural and environmentally sound
development. This is particularly urgent for
developing countries." The declaration
encompasses issues such as pollution-free
production, efficient resource use,
biodiversity protection, and brain drains

A human rights-based approach to science, technology, and

development sets the parameters for the appraisal of how science,
technology, and development promote human well-being. Thus, the
discussion of human rights in the face of changing scientific and
technological contexts must not serve as the merely decorative moral
dimension of scientific and technological policies. As Mukherjee (2012)
posited, this approach "can form the very heart of sustainable futures."

Human rights should be integral to the journey toward the ultimate

good. They should guide humans not only to flourish as individual members
of society but also to assist each other in flourishing collectively as a
society. Human rights are rights to sustainability, as Mukherjee put it. They
may function as the 'golden mean,' particularly by protecting the weak,
poor, and vulnerable from the deficiencies and excesses of science and
., technology. By imposing upon science and technology the moral and ethical
duty to protect and uphold human rights, there can be a more effective and

GECC 105A - Science, Technology, and Society and the Human Condition -Module II-
_,
 26

sustainable approach to bridging the gap between poor and rich countries on
both ta_ngible (e.g., services and natural resources) and intangible (e.g.,
well-bemg and human dignity) aspects. Ultimately, all these will lead
humans to flourish together through science and technology.

HUMANS vs. ROBOTS

The rise of the machines accompanying the progress in science and

technology may render humans useless. Manual labor is gradually being
replaced by machinery. Computers become more and more sophisticated.
Robots, usually designed like humans' beings, are created to perform
complex, repetitive, or dangerous tasks.

With the development of artificial intelligence (Al), robots may also

eventually act and decide like humans. In the possibility that machines
adopt the nature of humans, there is a need to reflect on the ethical
·, problems posed by such development.

Though the Philippines have not yet reached the point of producing
robots on a commercial scale for household use, it still behooves us to
ponder the ramifications of replacing persons with machinery. Much as the
BBC News has reported that experts in South Korea are crafting ethical
guidelines to prevent humans from exploiting robots and vice versa 9Evans,
2007) and that roboticists in Europe are lobbying for government legislation,
such reality is generally unheard of in the Philippines. To Filipinos, artificial
intelligence seems like the stuff of science fiction movies. Be that as it
many, its use in the country is surely gaining ground, especially in the
business process outsourcing (BPO) industry. Technology enables the growth
of the BPO industry but it seems that it is also technology that will kill the
industry as we know it. Investors and business people find as a sure return of
investment the use of business analytics provided by artificial intelligence.
Business analytics is a means by which consumer and industry data are used
to come up with better decision-making. With the help of Al, decisions now
rise from sophisticated statistical analyses made from massive data. As of
August 2017, it is estimated that a million Filipino BPO workers may be
affected and lose their jobs with the adoption of artificial intelligence
(Santos, 2017).

Unemployment is only one of the many ethical considerations in the

widespread use of Al. What does this mean for human beings who can be
replaced by machines? Is the value of the person inversely proportional to
that of a machine exhibiting artificial intelligence? How do we guard against
mistakes committed by machines? These points are but a sample of the
questions that should be resolved when faced with technology that may
become a threat to human dignity and security. In the future, when
machines and robots become more human-like, with all the attendant
feelings and thoughts, people may also have to consider the ethical
_j
treatment for Al.

It is also interesting to note that as machines and robots approach

GECC 105A - Science, Technology, and Society and the Human Condition -Module II-
 27

having a human-like nature, humans may also have the tendency to become
machine-like. Since many of the things people need, from inconveniences to
information, are available with just the touch and swipe of the fingertips,
humans begin to function more like autonomous. The internet has become
an instant go-to tool for answers to questions. More often than not, people
accept what the search engine, like Google, spews out in byte sizes and
forget how to process, read, think further, or put things in context. As the
internet gets more intelligent, we are in danger of becoming less so. In the
article, "Is Google making us stupid?" Nicolas Carr (2008) asserted that "as
we come to rely on computers to mediate our understanding of the world, it
is our own intelligence that flattens into artificial intelligence."

The development of society along with science and technology gives

rise to more and more complex issues. What is vital is that, at the very
least, we are able to protect and exercise human rights for everyone in our
pursuit of the good life. It is important that amid these developments,
human beings become more free, more rational, and more loving in our
practice of science and technology.

As we examine contemporary issues in science and technology -

information, genetically modified organisms, nanotechnology, and climate
change - we keep in mind that the building of a just and progressive society
entails the constant practice of the good. It may be exhibited in exceptional
scientific methodologies, personal virtue, social responsibility, and global
concern.

~--P'
!{-d...J LEARNING ACTIVITIES

Guide Questions

Answer the following questions in your own words based on your

understanding of Mukherjee's human rights-based approach to science,
technology, and development. Limit your responses to three or four
sentences only

1. What is a human rights-based approach to science, technology, and

development?
2. How do the documents and their key principles present in the
position of human rights in the intersection of technology and
humanity?
3. Why should human rights be at the core of scientific and
technological advancement?
4. What is the danger of using human rights as the merely decorative
moral dimension of scientific and technological policies?
5. Do you agree with Mukherjee's assertion that a human rights-based
j
approach to science, technology, and development can form the very
heart sustainable futures? Explain.
.)
..
l

GECC 105A - Science, Technology, and Society and the Human Condition -Module II-
 16

Lesson 3

THE GOOD LIFE

Are we living the good life? This question is inarguably one universal
human concern. Everyone aims to lead a good life. Yet, what constitutes a
happy and contented life varies from person to person. Unique backgrounds,
experiences, social contexts, and even preferences make it difficult to
subscribe to a unified standard on which to tease out the meaning of 'the
good life'. Thus, the prospect of a standard of the good life- one that
resonates across unique human experiences - is inviting.

Aristotle's Nichomachean Ethics and the Good Life

To answer the question, "Are we living the good life?" necessary

reflection must be made on two things: first, what standard could be used
to define 'the good life?' Second, how can the standard serve as a guide
toward living the good life in the midst of scientific progress and
technological advancement?

In the documentary film, The Magjcian's Twin: C.S. Lewis and the
Case Against Scientism, C.S. Lewis posited that "science must be guided by
some ethical basis that is not dictated by science itself." One such ethical
basis is Aristotle's Nichomachean Ethics.

Aristotle, who lived from 384 to 322 BC, is probably the most
important ancient Greek philosopher and scientist. He was a student of
Plato, who was then a student of Socrates. Together, they were considered
the 'Big Three of Greek Philosophy.'

Aristotle's Nichomachean Ethics, the fundamental basis of

Aristotelian ethics, consist of ten books. Originally, they were lecture notes
written on scrolls when he taught at the Lyceum. It is widely believed that
the lecture notes were compiled by or were dedicated to one of Aristotle's
sons, Nichomacus. Alternatively, it is believed that the work was dedicated
to Aristotle's father who was of the same name.

The Nichomacean Ethics, abbreviated as NE or sometimes EN based

on the Latin version of the name, is a treatise on the nature of moral life
and human happiness based on the unique essence of human nature. The NE
is particularly useful in defining what a good life is. In Nichomachean Ethics,
Aristotle stated:

All human activities aim at some good. Every art and human
inquiry, and similarly every action and pursuit, is thought to aim
at some good; and for this reason, the good has been rightly

GECC 105A - Science, Technology, and Society and the Human Condition -Module II-
 17

declared as that at which all things aim (Nichomachean Ethics

2:2)

Everyone has a definition of what good is - getting a college degree,

traveling across the world, succeeding in a business venture, pursuing a
healthy and active lifestyle, or being a responsible parent. However,
although everyone aims to achieve that which is good. Aristotle posited two
types of good. In NE Book 2 Chapter 2, (NE 2:2), Aristotle explained that
every action aims at some good. However, some actions aim at an
instrumental good while some aim at an intrinsic good. He made it clear
that the ultimate good is better than the instrumental good for the latter is
good as a means to achieving something else or some other end while the
former is good in itself.

Eudaimonia: The Ultimate Good

What then is the ultimate good? Based on the contrast between two
types of good, one could reflect on some potential candidates for the
ultimate good.

One might think that pleasure is the ultimate good. One aims for
pleasure in the food they eat or in the experiences they immerse
themselves into. Yet, while pleasure is an important human need, it can not
be the ultimate good. First, it is transitory - it passes. One may have been
pleased with the food they had for lunch, but he or she will be hungry again
or will want something else after a while. Second, pleasure does not
encompass all aspects of life. One may be pleased with an opportunity to
travel but that may not make him or her feel good about leaving, say, his or
her studies or the relationship he or she has been struggling with.

Others might think that wealth is a potential candidate for the

ultimate good, but a critique of wealth would prove otherwise. Indeed,
many, if not most, aim to be financially stable, to be rich, or to be able to
afford a luxurious life. However, it is very common to hear people say that
they aim to be wealthy insofar as it would help them achieve some other
goals. Elsewhere, it is also common to hear stories about people who have
become very wealthy but remain, by and large, unhappy with the lives they
lead. In this sense, wealth is just an intermediate good - that is, only
instrumental. It is not the ultimate good because it is not self-sufficient and
does not stop one from aiming for some other 'greater' good.

Another candidate for the ultimate good is fame and honor. Many
people today seem to be motivated by a desire to be known - to be famous.
Others strive for honor and recognition. This is reflected by those people
who use social media to acquire large virtual following on the internet and
wish to gain a foothold on the benefits that fame brings. Many people act
.., according to how they think they will be admired and appreciated by other
I
people. However, these cannot constitute the ultimate good, simply
because they are based on the perception of others. Fame and honor can
never be good in themselves. If one's definition of the good life is being

GECC 105A - Science, Technology, and Society and the Human Condition -Module II-
 18

popular or respected, then the good life becomes elusive since it is based
on the subjective views of others.

Unlike pleasure, wealth, fame, and honor, happiness is the ultimate

good. In the Aristotelian sense, happiness is "living well and doing well" (NE
1:4). Among the Greeks, this is known as eudaimonia, from the root word is,
meaning good, and daimon , meaning spirit. Combining the root words,
eudaimonia means happiness or welfare. More accurately, others translate
it as human flourishing or prosperity. Aristotle proposed two hallmarks of
eudaimonia, namely virtue and excellence (NE 1:7). Thus, happiness in the
sense of eudaimonia has to be distinguished from merely living good.
Eudaimonia transcends all aspects of life for it is about living well and doing
well in whatever one does.

Eudaimonia: Uniquely Human?

Eudaimonia or happiness is unique to humans for it is a uniquely

human function. It is achieved only through a rationally directed life.
Aristotle's notion of a tripartite soul as a nested hierarchy of the functions
and activities of the soul. The degrees and functions of the soul are nested,
such that the one which has a higher degree of the soul has all of the lower
degrees. Thus, on the nutritive degree, all living things, i.e., plants,
animals, and humans, require nourishment and have the ability to move and
perceive. Finally, on a rational degree, only humans are capable of
theoretical and practical functions. Following this, humans possess the
nutritive, sensitive, and rational degrees of the soul. More importantly, only
humans are capable of a life guided by reason. Because this is so,
happiness, too, is a uniquely human function for it can only be achieved
through a rationally directed life.

Humans

Animals
Plants

t. obll11v, 5-!nsatlon

Arete and Human Happiness

Eudaimonia is what defines the good life. To live a good life is to live
a happy life. For Aristotle, eudaimonia is only possible by living a life a
virtue.

GECC 105A - Science, Technology, and Society and the Human Condition -Module II-
 19

Arete, a Greek term, is defined as "excellence of any kind" and can

also mean "moral virtue." Virtue is what makes one function well. Aristotle
suggested two types of virtue: intellectual virtue and moral virtue.

Virtue plays a significant role in the living and attainment of the good
life. It is the constant practice of the good no matter how difficult the
circumstances may be. Virtue is the excellence of character that empowers
one to do and be good. Such virtue is cultivated with habit and discipline as
it is not a one-time deed, but a constant and consistent series of actions.
Everyone has the capacity within himself/herself to be good, but he/she
also has to be disciplined to make a habit of exercising the good.

Virtue, then, being of two kinds, intellectual and moral,

intellectual virtue in the main owes its birth and growth to
teaching (for which reason it requires experience and time), while
moral virtue comes about as a result of habit (Nichomachean Ethics
2:1 ).

Intellectual virtue or virtue of thought is achieved through education,

time, and experience. Key intellectual virtues are wisdom, which guides
ethical behavior, and understanding, which is gained from scientific
endeavors and contemplation. Wisdom and understanding are achieved
through formal and non-formal means. Intellectual virtues are acquired
through self-taught knowledge and skills as much as that knowledge and
skills taught and learned in formal institutions.

Moral virtue or virtue of character is achieved through habitual

practice. Some key moral virtues are generosity, temperance, and courage.
Aristotle explained that although the capacity for intellectual virtue is
innate, it is brought into completion only by practice. It is by repeatedly
being unselfish that one develops the virtue of generosity. It is by
repeatedly resisting and foregoing every inviting opportunity that one
develops the virtue of temperance. It is y repeatedly exhibiting the proper
action and emotional response in the face of danger that one develops the
virtue of courage. By and large, moral virtue is like a skill. Skill is acquired
only through repeated practice. Everyone is capable of learning how to play
the guitar because everyone has an innate capacity for intellectual virtue,
but not everyone acquires it because only those who devote time and
practice develop the skill of playing the instrument.

If one learns that eating too many fatty foods is bad for the health,
he or she has to make it a habit to stay away from this type of food because
health contributes to living well and doing well. If one believes that too
much use of social media is detrimental to human relationships and
productivity, he or she must regulate his or her use of social media and
deliberately spend more time with friends, and family, and work than in
virtual platform. If one understands the enormous damage to the
environment that plastic materials bring, he or she repeatedly forego the
next plastic item he or she could do away with. Good relationship dynamics

GECC 105A - Science, Technology, and Society and the Human Condition -Module II·
 20

and a healthy environment contribute to one's well ness , In n or

lives and what he or she does.

Both intellectual virtue and moral virtue should be i accorda e

with reason to achieve eudaimonia. The indifference with ese
reasons that are only for one ' s convenience, pleasure, or sat"sfac i
humans away from eudaimonia.

A virtue is ruined by any excess and deficiency in how one ltves and
acts. A balance between two extremes is a requisite f virtue. This balance ·s
a mean of excess not in the sense of a geometric or arithmet ·c average .
Instead, it is a mean relative to t he person, circumstances, and the right
emotional response in every experience (Nf2:2; 2-6).

Consider the virtue of cou rage. Courage was earlier defined as

displaying the right action and emotional response in the face of dan~er.
The virtue of courage is rui ned by an excess of t he needed emotio al and
proper action to address a particular situation. A person who does not
properly assess the danger and is total without fear may develop t he vice of
foolhardiness or rashness. Also, courage is ruined by a deficiency of the
needed emotion and proper action. When one overthinks of a looming
danger, that he or she becomes too fearful and incapable of acting on the
problem, he or she develops the vice of cowardice.

What then is a good life?

Putting everything in perspective, the good life in the sense of

eudaimonia is the state of being happy, healthy, and prosperous in the way
one thinks, lives, and acts. The path to the good life consists of the virtues
of thought and character, which are relative mediators between the two
extremes of excess and deficiency. In this way, the good life is understood
as happiness brought about by living a virtuous life.

One could draw parallels between moving toward the good life and
moving toward further progress and development in science and technology.
In appraising the goodness of the next medical procedure, the new social
media trend, the latest mobile device, or the upcoming technology for food
safety, one must be guided by Aristotelian virtues. Science and technology
can be ruined by under-or- over-appreciation of the scope and function it
plays in the pursuit of the uniquely human experience of happiness.
Refusing science and technology all together to improve human life is as
problematic as allowing it to entirely dictate reason and action without any
regard for ethical and moral standards. By imposing on science and
technology an ethical standard that is not dictated by itself, as C.S. Lewis
proposed, not only will scientific advancement and technological
development flourish, but also the human person.

GECC 105A - Science, Technology, and Society and the Human Condition -Module II-
 21

LEARNING ACTIVITIES

Guide questions

Compare and contrast each pair of terms related to Aristotle's

Nichomachean Ethics as discussed in this section.

1. Instrumental Good - Ultimate Good

2. Pleasure - Happiness

3. Virtue - Vice

4. Intellectual Virtue - Moral Virtue

5. Science and Technology - The Good Life

Congratulations! You are now ready to study the next lesson in

Module II .

..,

GECC 105A - Science, Technology, and Society and the Human Condition -Module II-
 22

Lesson 4

WHEN TECHNOLOGY AND HUMANITY CROSS

The good life entails living in a just and progressive society whose
citizens have the freedom to flourish. The human person has the autonomy
to make choices which may enable the flourishing of his/her self and
society. The United Nations General Assembly proclaimed the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) on December 10, 1948, as the global
standard of fundamental human rights for universal recognition and
protection. The UDHR begins,

"Whereas recognition of the inherent dignity human family is

the foundation of freedom, justice, and peace in the world"
(UDHR Preamble).

As implied, everyone has absolute moral worth by virtue of being

human. Human dignity is the ultimate core value of our existence. When we
fully recognize and appreciate this truth in ourselves and in all the persons
around us, regardless of their status in life, then we pave the way for a just
and progressive society. It is in this kind of society that we are able to
become fully human - more free, more rational, and more living. Human
beings become freer when we are empowered to make choices for our
flourishing. We become more rational when we are able to value and apply
the principles of logic and science in our lives, we become more loving when
we ensure that human dignity lies at the foundation of our endeavors,
whether scientific or not. It entails knowing one's fundamental human rights
that must always be protected in the face of changing conditions.

Universal Declaration of Human Rights

The UDHR explicates the

fundamental human rights in 30 articles.
UNIVERSAL It outlines inalienable human rights that
are vital and necessary in the pursuit of
DECLARATION OF the good life. These are the freedoms
everyone is entitled to and guaranteed by
HUMAN RIGHTS I virtue of being human. The first article
states the essential principle of being
Adopted "nd prnrlaimed b_y the Gt11,ru/ Asstmbly human in a just, free, and rational
of ti~ U11iled Nations 0,1 the te11th day of
1 society. Everyone is born free and equal
Dece11JMT 1948
in dignity and rights. The common
experience, however, does not always
manifest such truth. More often than not,
those who have more to offer are given
special treatment. The good life,
nevertheless, as a life of justice, demands

GECC 105A - Science, Technology, and Society and the Human Condition -Module II-
 23

not just equal treatment of human beings but also pre ferential treatment to
those who have less or are disadvantaged. The first seven articles of the
UDHR ncapsulate the spirit of this so-called "milestone document In the
history of human righ ts.'' They are as follows:

ARTICLE I

All human beings are born free and equal In dignity and rights. They
are endowed with reason and conscience and should ac t towards one
another in a spirit of brotherhood.

ARTICLE 2

Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this
Declaration , without distinction of any kind, such as race, color, sex,
language, religion political or another opinion, national or social origin,
property, birth or another status. Furthermore, no distinction shall be made
on the basis of the political, jurisdictional or international status of the
country or territory to which a person belongs, whether it be Independent,
trust, non-self-governing or under any other limitation of sovereignty.

ARTICLE 3

Everyone has the right to life, liberty, and security of person.

ARTICLE 4

No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave

trade shall be prohibited in all their forms.

ARTICLE 5

No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or

degrading treatment or punishment.

ARTICLE 6

Everyone has the right to recognition everywhere as a person before

the law.

ARTICLE 7

All are equal before the law and are entitled without any
discrimination to equal protection of the law. All are entitled to equal

GECC 105A - Science, Technology, and Society and the Human Condition -Module II·
 24

protection against any discrimination in violation of this Declara t ion and

against any incitement to such discrimination.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights has a long, bloody history.

Crafted in 1948, after World War II, the UDHR now serves as a common
understanding of what each person's fundamental rights are. These rights
apply to everyone, everywhere. It is imperative that we all know and live
these rights to prevent injustice and oppression.

Human rights in the face of scientific and technological advancement

are critical factors in one's journey toward eudaimonia of the good life.
Exercising the right to accept or reject , minimize or maximize, and evaluate
and decide on the scope and function of science and technology indicates
human flourishing in science and technology. Protecting the well -being and
upholding the dignity of the human person must be at the core of continued
scientific and technological progress and development. Such is the focus of
a human rights-based approach to science, technology, and development.

S. Romi Mukherjee, a senior lecturer in Political Theory and the

History of Religions at the Paris Institute of Political Studies, explained a
human rights-based approach to science, technology, and developments as
follows:

"[It] seeks to place a concern for human rights at the heart of how
the international community engages with urgent global
challenges. The UN Development Programme characterizes this
approach as one that 'leads to better and more sustainable
outcomes to analyzing and addressing the inequalities,
discriminatory practices and unjust power relations which are
often at the heart of development problems. It puts the
international human rights entitlements and claims of the people
(the 'right-holders') and the corresponding obligations of the state
(the 'duty-bearers') in the center of the national development
debate, and it clarifies the purpose of capacity development."

Murherjee (2012) furthered that this approach identifies science as "a

socially organized human activity which is value-laden and shaped by
organizational structures and procedures." Moreover, it requires an answer
to whether governments and other stakeholders can craft and implement
science and technology policies that "ensures safety, health, and
livelihoods; include people's needs and priorities in development and
environmental strategies, and ensure they participate in decision-making
that affects their lives and resources."

Multiple international statutes, declarations, and decrees have been

produced to ensure the well-being and human dignity. Mukherjee listed
some of the most important documents that center on a human rights-based
approach to science, development, and technology, and their key
principles:

GECC 105A- Science, Technology, and Society and the Human Condition -Module II-
 25

Document Ke Prtnctples
--::--i-- - - - - - -~ -
U niversal Declaration of This document affirms everyone's right to
Human Rights (Article 27) participate in and benefit from scientific
advances, and be protected from scientific
misuse. The right to the benef fts of science
comes under the domain of 'culture,' so it is
usually examined from a cultural rights
perspective.

UNESCO Recommendation This document affirms that all advances in

on the Status of Scientific scientific and technological knowledge should
Researchers 1974 solely be geared towards the welfare of the
(Article 4) global citizens, and calls upon member states
to develop necessary protocol and policies to
monitor and secure this objective. Countries
are asked to show that science and technology
are integrated into policies that aim to ensure
a more humane and just society.

UNESCO Declaration on This document states, "Today, more than

the Use of Scientific ever, science and its applications are
Knowledge - 1999 (Article indispensable for development. All levels of
33) government and the private sector should
provide enhanced support for building up an
adequate and evenly distributed scientific and
technological capacity through appropriate
education and research programs as an
indispensable foundation for economic, social,
cultural and environmentally sound
development. This is particularly urgent for
developing countries." The declaration
encompasses issues such as pollution-free
production, efficient resource use,
biodiversity protection, and brain drains

A human rights-based approach to science, technology, and

development sets the parameters for the appraisal of how science,
technology, and development promote human well-being. Thus, the
discussion of human rights in the face of changing scientific and
technological contexts must not serve as the merely decorative moral
dimension of scientific and technological policies. As Mukherjee (2012)
posited, this approach "can form the very heart of sustainable futures."

Human rights should be integral to the journey toward the ultimate

good. They should guide humans not only to flourish as individual members
of society but also to assist each other in flourishing collectively as a
society. Human rights are rights to sustainability, as Mukherjee put it. They
may function as the 'golden mean,' particularly by protecting the weak,
poor, and vulnerable from the deficiencies and excesses of science and
., technology. By imposing upon science and technology the moral and ethical
duty to protect and uphold human rights, there can be a more effective and

GECC 105A - Science, Technology, and Society and the Human Condition -Module II-
_,
 26

sustainable approach to bridging the gap between poor and rich countries on
both ta_ngible (e.g., services and natural resources) and intangible (e.g.,
well-bemg and human dignity) aspects. Ultimately, all these will lead
humans to flourish together through science and technology.

HUMANS vs. ROBOTS

The rise of the machines accompanying the progress in science and

technology may render humans useless. Manual labor is gradually being
replaced by machinery. Computers become more and more sophisticated.
Robots, usually designed like humans' beings, are created to perform
complex, repetitive, or dangerous tasks.

With the development of artificial intelligence (Al), robots may also

eventually act and decide like humans. In the possibility that machines
adopt the nature of humans, there is a need to reflect on the ethical
·, problems posed by such development.

Though the Philippines have not yet reached the point of producing
robots on a commercial scale for household use, it still behooves us to
ponder the ramifications of replacing persons with machinery. Much as the
BBC News has reported that experts in South Korea are crafting ethical
guidelines to prevent humans from exploiting robots and vice versa 9Evans,
2007) and that roboticists in Europe are lobbying for government legislation,
such reality is generally unheard of in the Philippines. To Filipinos, artificial
intelligence seems like the stuff of science fiction movies. Be that as it
many, its use in the country is surely gaining ground, especially in the
business process outsourcing (BPO) industry. Technology enables the growth
of the BPO industry but it seems that it is also technology that will kill the
industry as we know it. Investors and business people find as a sure return of
investment the use of business analytics provided by artificial intelligence.
Business analytics is a means by which consumer and industry data are used
to come up with better decision-making. With the help of Al, decisions now
rise from sophisticated statistical analyses made from massive data. As of
August 2017, it is estimated that a million Filipino BPO workers may be
affected and lose their jobs with the adoption of artificial intelligence
(Santos, 2017).

Unemployment is only one of the many ethical considerations in the

widespread use of Al. What does this mean for human beings who can be
replaced by machines? Is the value of the person inversely proportional to
that of a machine exhibiting artificial intelligence? How do we guard against
mistakes committed by machines? These points are but a sample of the
questions that should be resolved when faced with technology that may
become a threat to human dignity and security. In the future, when
machines and robots become more human-like, with all the attendant
feelings and thoughts, people may also have to consider the ethical
_j
treatment for Al.

It is also interesting to note that as machines and robots approach

GECC 105A - Science, Technology, and Society and the Human Condition -Module II-
 27

having a human-like nature, humans may also have the tendency to become
machine-like. Since many of the things people need, from inconveniences to
information, are available with just the touch and swipe of the fingertips,
humans begin to function more like autonomous. The internet has become
an instant go-to tool for answers to questions. More often than not, people
accept what the search engine, like Google, spews out in byte sizes and
forget how to process, read, think further, or put things in context. As the
internet gets more intelligent, we are in danger of becoming less so. In the
article, "Is Google making us stupid?" Nicolas Carr (2008) asserted that "as
we come to rely on computers to mediate our understanding of the world, it
is our own intelligence that flattens into artificial intelligence."

The development of society along with science and technology gives

rise to more and more complex issues. What is vital is that, at the very
least, we are able to protect and exercise human rights for everyone in our
pursuit of the good life. It is important that amid these developments,
human beings become more free, more rational, and more loving in our
practice of science and technology.

As we examine contemporary issues in science and technology -

information, genetically modified organisms, nanotechnology, and climate
change - we keep in mind that the building of a just and progressive society
entails the constant practice of the good. It may be exhibited in exceptional
scientific methodologies, personal virtue, social responsibility, and global
concern.

~--P'
!{-d...J LEARNING ACTIVITIES

Guide Questions

Answer the following questions in your own words based on your

understanding of Mukherjee's human rights-based approach to science,
technology, and development. Limit your responses to three or four
sentences only

1. What is a human rights-based approach to science, technology, and

development?
2. How do the documents and their key principles present in the
position of human rights in the intersection of technology and
humanity?
3. Why should human rights be at the core of scientific and
technological advancement?
4. What is the danger of using human rights as the merely decorative
moral dimension of scientific and technological policies?
5. Do you agree with Mukherjee's assertion that a human rights-based
j
approach to science, technology, and development can form the very
heart sustainable futures? Explain.
.)
..
l

GECC 105A - Science, Technology, and Society and the Human Condition -Module II-
 28

Lesson 5

WHY THE FUTURE DOES NOT NEED US

f-

Can you imagine a future without the human race? Do you think that
robots and machines can replace humans? Do you believe that there will
come a time when human existence will be at the mercy of robots and
machines? Is it also possible that medical breakthroughs in the future may
go terribly wrong that a strain of drug-resistant viruses could wipe out the
entire human race?

For some, imagining a future without humans is nearly synonymous to

the end of the world. Many choose not to speculate about a future where
humans cease to exist while the world remains. However, a dystopian
society void of human presence is the subject of many works in literature
and film. The possibility of such a society is also a constant topic of
debates.

Chief scientist and corporate executive officer of Sun Microsystems,

Bill Joy wrote in 2000 a controversial essay, "Why the future does not need
us." In his work, he contended that our most powerful 2Pt-century
technologies - genetics, nanotech, and robotics (GNR) - are threatening to
make humans an endangered species. This possible extinction of the species
may largely come about due to the unreflective and unquestioning
'
J acceptance of new technologies by humans. Joy also asserted that:

Accustomed to living with an almost routine scientific

.J
breakthrough, we have yet to come to terms with the fact that
the most compelling 21 st -century technologies - robotics, genetic
engineering, and nanotechnology - pose a different threat than
the technologies that have come before. Specifically, robots,
engineered organisms, and nanobots share a dangerous amplifying
factor: They can self-replicate. A bomb is blown up only once -
but one bot can become many, and quickly get out of control.

Each of these technologies also offers untold promise: The vision

of near immortality drives as forward; genetic engineering may
soon provide treatments, if not outright cares, for most diseases;
and nanotechnology and nanomedicine can address yet more ills.
Together they could significantly extend our average life span
and improve the quality of our lives. Yet, with each of these
technologies, a sequence of small, individually sensible advances
leads to an accumulation of great power and, concomitantly,
great danger (Joy, 2000).

Joy also voiced out his apprehension about the rapid increase of
computer power. He was also concerned that computers will eventually

GECC 105A - Science, Technology, and Society and the Human Condition -Module II·
 29

become intelligent than humans, thus ushering societies into dystopian

visions, such as robot rebellions. To illuminate his concern, Joy drew
from Theodore Kaczynskt's book, Unabomber Manifesto where
Kaczynski described that the unintended consequences of the design
and use of technology are clearly related to Murphy's Law: "Anything
that can go wrong will go wrong." Kaczynski argued further that
overreliance on antibiotics led to the great paradox of emerging
antibiotic-resistant strains of dangerous bacteria. The introduction of
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) to combat malarial mosquitoes,
for instance, only gave rise to malarial parasites with multi-drug-
resistant genes.

Since the publication of the article, Joy's arguments against 2pt.

century technologies have received both criticisms and expression of
shared concern. Critics dismissed Joy's article for deliberately
presenting information in an imprecise manner that obscures the larger
picture or state of things. For one, John Seely Brown and Paul Duguid
(2001 ), in their article, A Response to Bill Joy and the Doom-and-Gloom
Technofuturists, criticized Joy's failure to consider social factors and
only deliberately focused on one part of the larger picture. Others go
as far as accusing Joy of being a neo-Luddite, someone who rejects new
technologies and shows technophobic learnings.

As a material, Joy's article tackles the unpleasant and

uncomfortable possibilities that a senseless approach to scientific and
technological advancements may bring. Whether Joy's propositions are
a real possibility or an absolute moonshot, it is unavoidable to think of
a future that will no longer need the human race. It makes thinking
about the roles and obligations of every stakeholder a necessary
component of scientific and technological advancement. In this case, it
is preeminently necessary that the scientific community, governments,
and business engage in a discussion to determine the safeguards of
humans against the potential dangers of science and technology.

Humans should have learned the lesson in the atomic bombings

of the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945 that killed
over a hundred thousand people. Brilliant physicists, led by J. Robert
Oppenheimer, brought into existence a deadly nuclear weapon. A
definite testament to the success of science and technology, the
atomic bomb was also a fatal reminder of its destructive power. Now
with GNR, we are called to be circumspect and questioning of
technology. Again, s Heidegger (1977) propounded, it is in question that
we build a way. GNR today is accessible to small groups and individuals
and does not require funding and facilities as huge as those needed by
the nuclear weapons of mass destruction. This makes GNR more prone
to accidents and abuses. It is scary to imagine that such accidents and
abuses may self-replicate and spin out of control, especially when
placed in the hands of extremist groups and individuals,

GECC 105A - Science, Technology, and Society and the Human Condition -Module II-
 30

Science and technology may be the highest expression of human

rationality . People are able to shape or destroy the world with it.
Theoretical physicist and mathematician Freeman Dyson, in the
documentary The Day After Trinity (1981 ), shared his thoughts and
sentiments as a scientist taking part in the development of nuclear
power:

I have felt it myself. The glitter of nuclear weapons. It is

irresistible if you come to them as a scientist. To feel it's
there in your hands, to release this energy that fuels the
stars, to let it do your bidding. To perform these miracles, to
lift a million tons of rock into the sky. It is something that
gives people an illusion of illimitable power and it is, in some
ways, responsible for all our troubles - this, what you might
call technical arrogance, that overcomes people when they
see what they can do with their minds.

Human nature may be corrupted when the powers of our mind,

our rationality, and our science and technology become manifest. If we
are not able to rein in the vanity and arrogance that such powers
unleash, then we are on the way to destroying the world.

The wasteland grows; woe unto him who harbors the

wasteland within. - Friedrich Nietzsche

,?~,
ff!J?'.· LEARNING ACTIVITIES

Guide Questions

1. How do science and technology affect contemporary life and vice

versa?
2. How do we protect our human rights in the face of technological
advancements and ethical dilemmas?
3. Do you believe that Google makes people stupid? Cite at least three
examples to support your assertion.
4. Read the entirety of Joy's article. Why doesn't the future need us?

MODULE SUMMARY

The progress of human civilizations throughout history mirrors the

development of science and technology. The human person, as both the
bearer and beneficiary of science and technology, flourishes and finds
meaning in the world that he/she builds. In the person's pursuit of the good

GECC 105A - Science, Technology, and Society and the Human Condition -Module II-
 31

life, he/she may unconsciously acquire, consume, or destroy what the world
has to offer. It is thus necessary to reflect on the things that truly matter.
Science and technology, despite its methodical and technical nature, gives
meaning to the life of a person making his/her way in the world.

To be able to appreciate the fruits of science and technology, they

must be examined not only for their function and instrumentality but also
for their greater impact on humanity as a whole. The various gadgets,
machines, appliances, and vehicles are all tools that make human lives
_,I easier because they serve as a means to an end. Their utility lies on
providing people with a certain good, convenience, or knowledge.
Meanwhile, medical research employs the best scientific and technological
principles to come up with cures for diseases and ways to prevent illnesses
to ensure a good quality of life .

../9
/g::; SUMMATIVE TEST

Activity

Watch Steven Spielberg's science fiction drama film. A.I: Artificial

Intelligence (2001 ). After watching the film, reflect on the story of David, a
childlike android uniquely programmed with the ability to love, and write a
200-300-word essay on the topic, "Why does the future need us?" Cite
particular scenes and insights from the movie to support your arguments.

Congratulations! You have just finished answering all the learning

I activities in Module II. Take a rest and get ready for Module Ill.
.J

7 GECC 105A - Science, Technology, and Society and the Human Condition -Module II·
_J