PNN Frequently Asked Questions
Frequently Asked Questions
about pnnPlus PNN System
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PNN Frequently Asked Questions
Frequently Asked Questions about pnnPlus PNN System
This is designed to answer frequently asked questions on pnnPlus PNN system for
a better understanding of both the technical and the analytical (interpretation and
application) procedure.
Introduction and Background
pnnPlus PNN measures the thermal decay of neutrons by neutron capture (Sigma
tool). It is comparable to any standard Gamma Ray type of pulsed neutron tools
(such as PDK or TDT). There are differences to conventional techniques with many
improvements in the measurement itself as well as in data processing. This makes
pnnPlus PNN much more sensitive which enables us to use it in low-salinity
formation water and at lower porosities.
To examine these statements closer the following contains some theoretical
explanation on measurement techniques and some examples.
PNN measurement: The theory on thermal decay time
During a PNN measurement a neutron generator emits high-energy (14.1 MeV)
neutrons. Interaction of these neutrons with other particles results in scattering
where the neutrons move on average away from the source. With each collision,
the neutron loses some of its kinetic energy until it has a value just above the thermal
energy (0.025 eV). This energy level is equal to the thermal vibration energy of the
nuclei in the formation. Following collisions will, statistically, maintain the neutron's
energy which is now in equilibrium with the thermal energy of the formations nuclei.
In this short thermal energy phase, each neutron behaves like a gas atom and
experiences repeated collisions and changes in direction. Finally, neutron capture
by the formation’s atoms terminates this process. Neutron-capture results in the
excitement of atoms that - after a short time - fall back into ground state
accompanied by Gamma Ray emission.
On the whole, there are two ways to record the thermal neutron decay function. One
way is to record free thermal neutrons (directly) or to measure the Gamma Rays
(indirectly). In theory, these two ways are equivalent and should give similar results.
The practice, there are significant advantages using a direct neutron measurement.
The main difference between pnnPlus PNN and “standard” PNL tools is that pnnPlus
PNN measures thermal neutrons that are not captured.
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PNN Frequently Asked Questions
Development of Pulsed Neutron measurement
During the late 60ies and early 70ies many laboratory and field tests (Dresser Atlas,
Schlumberger) studied the decay spectrum of neutrons in pulsed neutron systems
and the detection of thermal neutrons in particular. The conclusion at that time was
to use indirect detection by Gamma Rays because the efficiency of this
measurement was between 30 and 40% as opposed to the efficiency of thermal
neutron detectors (16%).
Nowadays the situation has changed significantly - mainly because the quality of
detectors has improved greatly over the years. Today’s neutron detectors are highly
efficient (>95%) while Gamma Ray technology has not improved on such a high
level.
Figure 1: Here a typical indirect thermal-neutron decay measured by Gamma Ray (left) and a typical
directly measured PNN thermal neutron decay (right) can be compared.
Left: Note that the indirect detection is limited by the natural (background) Gamma Ray radiation of
the formation;
Right: Direct detection of residual neutrons by PNN. Here four different zones (shale, water, oil, and
gas) may be identified in one well.
The natural Gamma Ray emission is by default removed by filtering in indirect
measurements but this process is influenced by statistics and values at or close to
the background level have high uncertainties. Small differences in the neutron
decay function at the end of the spectrum may sometimes be essential for the
detection of saturated zones in particular in cases of a small difference between the
capture-cross sections of formation waters with low salinity and hydrocarbon (such
as heavy oil).
The direct measurement of free residual neutrons with pnnPlus PNN (right part of
Figure 1) is not influenced by the background and the entire decay function can be
used for processing and interpretation which results in a higher accuracy and lower
detection limit.
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PNN Frequently Asked Questions
In summary, at a lower capture cross section (<20 to 25 count units) pnnPlus PNN
gives a better resolution and better statistics compared to Gamma Ray tools
because residual neutrons are detected directly as opposed to low Gamma Ray
emission that may be further blurred by natural background, in particular under
conditions with low salinity formation water and in tight or low porosity situations.
In high capture cross section situations, such as high salinity formation water or
shale the relationship is reversed. Because of the high difference in capture cross
section between high saline waters and oil this is negligible and pnnPlus PNN can
be used reliably in this conditions. (see question 2)
Figure 2: Schematics of the difference between the direct PNN (red) and indirect Gamma Ray type
(blue) of detection at different capture cross-sections
A master log (Figure 3)
to compare the
differences between
Gamma Ray and PNN
shows that low salinity
water and oil are easily
identified by PNN.
Figure 3: Master Log of
Gamma Ray (TD log) and
residual neutron (PNN)
detection
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PNN Frequently Asked Questions
After statistical processing even small differences between zones with low salinity
water and heavy oil can be interpreted reliably. In such cases a quantitative
interpretation is followed by a qualitative interpretation.
Examples
A sound interpretation requires not only a
statistically satisfying measurement but also data
that are minimally influenced by the borehole and
its influenced zone and with a maximum of
formation influence where ideally the impact of
diffusion is removed. The processing of the PNN
measurement enables us to visualize the vast
amount data and to remove these influences
before interpretation. One of most important steps
is the construction of Sigma matrix files (Figure 4)
which enables us to identify the borehole effect and
to remove it. Additionally, the diffusion effect can
be identified and removed from the final curve
(Sigma).
The borehole influence (zone 2, Figure 4) may be
recognized and removed. In this case Sigma is
calculated after this zone (zone 3, to the right). To
the far right side the statistical influence increases
and this zone should be avoided (zone 4, Figure
4).
Figure 4: Sigma image with different extracted zones: 1. zone
influenced by late thermalization; 2: borehole influence zone;
3: formation response zone, 4: zone with statistical influence
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PNN Frequently Asked Questions
The borehole influence may occasionally result in a lower Sigma compared to the
formation. In this case the diffusion effect is possibly higher. It may be different for
various zones of the logged interval. There is no automated way to recognize and
remove the borehole influence.
Figure 5: Different borehole conditions within one interval – an example for the removal of borehole
influence.
Another method to improve the statistics of PNN measurements is to execute stop-
check measurements at selected points (at the supposed contact zone between
water and oil). Throughout this measurement the PNN tool remains static and
records the thermal neutron decay as long as necessary (usually 5 minutes) to
obtain the formations capture cross section that is then with virtually no statistical
influence (Figure 6). This is essential in difficult cases where a similar kind of
measurement is impossible with a Gamma Ray type of tool because of constant
activation during measurement.
Figure 6: stop check method to determine the formations
capture cross section. Note the homogeneous
distribution without any statistical influence. Compare
with Figure 4, zone 4.
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PNN Frequently Asked Questions
1. You claim that pnnPlus PNN system is more sensitive compared to the regular
PNL capture tools under low salinity and low porosity conditions. The capture cross
section of fresh water is similar to oil; what is the lower limit of salinity where
pnnPlus PNN System can be used reliably and the difference between oil and
water can be detected?
A1: The procedures mentioned above result in a robust calculation of the Sigma
curve which enables us to interpret the saturation in low salinity formation water and
low porosity at a resolution that is not possible with standard Gamma Ray detection
tools. Up to now we have excellent results from lake Maracaibo, Venezuela where
salinities are as low as 3 000 to 5 000 ppm.
Formation waters below 15000 ppm are considered to be low saline; at these
concentrations pnnPlus PNN can distinguish oil and water reliably.
Depending on the salinity, the capture cross section of water varies between 22
(distilled water) and 138 (oversaturated water) capture units (cu). In comparison,
Sigma for gas ranges between 5 and 16 cu depending on its composition, pressure,
and temperature and between 16 and 22 cu for oil which depends mostly on the gas
oil ratio and its density. In a reservoir with 0 ppm salinity and heavy oil such as
bitumen or asphalt it will be impossible to separate oil zones from water zones.
Therefore the theoretical limit of a reliable PNN measurement lies at 22 capture
units.
In most cases the capture cross section of oil lies between 18 and 20 and the
water capture cross section in complex situations between 24 and 25. Under
these conditions with moderate porosities (around 15 and 20 %) we get reliable
results with pnnPlus PNN tool.
2. Salinity influences the result of a PNN measurement: How big is the influence at
certain salinity levels?
A2. As already stated in A1, the salinity of the formation water is one main factor in
the interpretation of water saturation from PNN measurement. For details please
see A1.
To better illustrate this issue Figure 7a, b, and c give examples of a PNN log in
measured under different salinities
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PNN Frequently Asked Questions
Figure 7.a PNN interpretation example in low formation water salinity (2-4000) ppm.
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PNN Frequently Asked Questions
Figure 7.b PNN interpretation example in high formation water salinity (90000-100000) ppm.
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PNN Frequently Asked Questions
Figure 7.c.PNN interpretation example in extremely high formation water salinity (>200000) ppm.
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PNN Frequently Asked Questions
3. How does pnnPlus PNN tool work at salinities of 50 000 ppm or even in
saturated formation water? How does it work in porosities of ~30 %? How does
it perform in gas wells?
A3. Reliable results are easily obtained at high salinities and high porosities.
pnnPlus PNN detects neutrons at two detectors where the ratio and the separation
between long and short space count rates can be used to determine the hydrogen
index accurately. In the same way, low porosity or gas zones can be easily
recognized. Figure 7 shows one of many examples where one well was logged with
PNN and TDT in one Egyptian Red Sea well to compare results. In this example the
gas-oil contact can be seen at 2007 m and a small sand interlayer between 1999 m
and 2003 m was identified by PNN and interpreted to be gas saturated which was
not in agreement with the TDT interpretation (Figure 8). The final perforation of the
interval in question resulted in gas and verified pnnPlus PNN measurement and
interpretation.
Figure 8: PNN and TDT measurement in the Red sea. Note sand interlayer identified by PNN.
4. pnnPlus PNN pulses for 3 microseconds and counts for only 2.16 miliseconds.
Why don’t you increase the pulse frequency? This might increase the logging
speed. Or do you want to record the background for some reason?
A4. Our generator has a high output in neutrons and a low frequency. Physically it
is not possible to fire this generator above 30 Hz. We have experimented with
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PNN Frequently Asked Questions
different frequencies and came to conclusion that 15 –20 Hz is the best because it
results in good statistics for the measurement and saves generator lifetime. Under
favorable conditions (gas well, higher porosities) the PNN may be run up to 3 m/min
(10 ft/min). The rig-time is relatively short because no tedious calibration before and
after logging is required. Further, measurement in shut-in or flowing conditions
(Figure 9a; independent of the fluid in the well) saves workover operations.
5. Is there a way to tell gas from low porosity tight streaks on the log?
A5. pnnPlus PNN recognizes tight formations (with virtually zero porosity) by their
low hydrogen index (HI) calculated from the ratio (total or partial) between long and
short space detector count rates. Both, gas saturation and tight streaks lack
hydrogen; therefore it is not possible to distinguish both reliably by solely PNN.
Some differences exist but they are small and require advanced processing and a
detailed knowledge on the well and the site. On the whole, by comparison of
openhole logs (basic or expanded sets) and PNN we developed a procedure to
distinguish gas from tight streaks and we are able to identify gas layers in more than
95% cases given a complete set of openhole data.
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PNN Frequently Asked Questions
6. Is pnnPlus PNN better under low salinity/ low porosity conditions because of
better statistics?
A6. Robust Sigma curves, without any borehole or diffusion effect, have a small
statistical influence and reliably distinguish oil from low salinity formation water.
Figure 0 shows an example with a formation water salinity of 4000 ppm where it is
simple to find the oil saturated zone without processing.
Figure 10: Note the differences in the Sigma curve (violet) in the (1) original water saturated zone, (2)
depleted zone, and (3) in the zone with good oil saturation.
7. Do you calculate the volume of shale by Gamma Ray?
A7. Shaliness can be calculated from a Gamma Ray curve recorded during PNN
measurement. pnnPlus PNN tool has a Gamma Ray section far from the generator
to measure the natural radioactivity for correlation with open hole data. This can
also be used for the calculation of shaliness if no significant amounts of radioactive
minerals accumulated during production. If this is the case other curves are used
for the calculation of shaliness. One way is to use Sigma values from the PNN
measurement but this is always influenced by hydrocarbon saturation. Certain
channels from PNN measurement may be selected which result in an overlap in
shale zones and can be used for the calculation of the volume of shale. Additionally,
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PNN Frequently Asked Questions
the Ratio between short and long space detector can be used for the calculation of
shaliness.
In practice, the best way to calculate shaliness is from openhole curves (GAMMA
RAY or any suitable other curve). In an ideal case the customer’s petrophysical
interpretation is used for the PNN interpretation. If a petrophysical interpretation is
not available we also provide a petrophysical interpretation - given that openhole
curves are supplied - and use this as input for PNN analysis. If we lack openhole
information we will use solely PNN data. In the past we successfully used this
approach. However, the best way is to have an independent petrophysical
interpretation or at least the volume of shale and porosity from open hole analysis.
8. How reliable is the porosity measurement? Is it a calibrated porosity and is it
necessary to calibrate the tool at the shop in a fixture for either porosity or
Sigma?
A8. The assembly of two differently spaced neutron detectors makes this tool
compared to other tools an excellent hydrogen index indicator and therefore an
excellent porosity tool (much better than a GAMMA RAY type of tool, see also Q2).
pnnPlus PNN is not calibrated because we rarely use the tool for porosity
determination. A calibration is possible in fields with similar wells if there is an
openhole compensated neutron measurement from an offset well that can be
correlated. The neutron porosity is influenced by the gas saturation and this has to
be considered. If we know beforehand that the porosity is of interest it is possible to
calibrate the PNN tool. Figure 11 shows the comparison of a PNN Ratio curve with
an openhole compensated neutron porosity curve. Note the high correlation of both
that proves the hydrogen index measured by pnnPlus PNN a reliable porosity
indicator.
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PNN Frequently Asked Questions
Figure 11: Left: PNN ratio curve in comparison with a CN curve; Right: comparison of CN (blue) and
PNN Ratio (red)
9. Are there problems with communication between the tool and the surface unit
in plastic coated pipes; are there any other situations where the
communication may be affected?
A9. A plastic pipe does not influence the communication but it may influence the
CCL curve. Up to now we never measured with Nickel cables but it should be no
problem. It is easy for the logging engineer to adjust to the particular logging line.
The communication works reliably up to a length of the logging line of 42000 ft and
a 3/16” diameter with a single conductor line where the two drums of 21000 ft lines
were connected serially.
10. How does PNN Sigma compare to other Sigmas from capture tools? We will
be running a second or third log to evaluate hydrocarbon movement over
time.
A10. The processing of pnnPlus PNN can be normalized to match any Sigma curve
from other measurements such as TDT or PDK. pnnPlus measured several wells
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PNN Frequently Asked Questions
after TDT and the PNN Sigma compared well to the TDT Sigma. Therefore PNN
can follow up in time lapse measurements after any other pulsed neutron
measurement. For example, TDT was logged three years after the openhole
campaign and PNN was logged 15 years after TDT (Figure 11).
Figure 12: Time lapse measurement; note the matching Sigma curves (left) in the shale interval above
the reservoir; the change of reservoir saturation in the perforated zone was recorded. Interpretation
of Sigma PNN (right) using the same parameters as in Sigma TDT
11. Is it possible to use the real time Sigma (field Sigma) accurately? Is
processing necessarily required for a reliable Sigma?
A11. There is no automated way to predict borehole effects because they are
influenced by several parameters such as fluid in the borehole, casing, cement,
tubing, fluid between tubing and casing, etc… Therefore, in most of the cases a final
Sigma needs processing. However, in a field with uniform conditions processing
parameters can be established such that the processed Sigma and field Sigma are
very similar. In extreme cases an interpreter at the well site may provide immediate
processing and interpretation. It is possible to provide reliable information within one
hour. The main difference between a field Sigma and the processed Sigma are the
absolute values but the amplitudes are similar. We insist on a processed Sigma
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PNN Frequently Asked Questions
although in most cases there will be no big differences. The impact of unpredictable
small-scale changes and borehole effects on the results might cause more
expenses than one additional day rigtime.
On the whole, parameters for a good real-time Sigma processing can be established
in explored fields.
12. How do you quantify hold up?
A12. We advise to judge borehole Sigma and count rates only qualitatively. If a
hold up is essential we recommend using data from the same well which are
calibrated for 100% of water or any other fluid. If it is possible to know hold ups
above all intervals you may quantify.
13. How do you calculate water flow?
A13. The presence of water between the casing and the formation can be confirmed
by activation logging where the PNN tool moves downwards. In addition, stop check
measurements can be used to calculate the velocity of moving fluid. For
quantification the cross section has to be determined. This is highly efficient for
detection of flow but in the present setup of pnnPlus PNN we detect only the upward
flow direction.
One way to detect downward flow would be to place the Gamma Ray section below
the source section but this is not included in the current arrangement of the tool
mainly for economical reasons.
14. Did you ever think of making a Gamma Ray section with 2 detectors that
would detect the Gamma Rays of capture and give a conventional pulsed
neutron response? You could even place a longer spaced third detector on
the tool for detection of gas. In this way you could use the tool however you
wanted to use it. Lower salinities use the NN section; higher salinities use the
GG section. There are even some clients that would run both tools on the
same well to see what each tool would tell them. It seems to me the tools are
made and all you would need is an added detector section. For this kind of
tool I would even be willing to share some of the development costs for
exclusive use.
A14. Any tool that is of interest for customer may be interesting to be built and we
would be ready to work on it if really there is economical justification. Anyway as we
discussed with our colleges technically it seems that it is easy just instead of neutron
to put GAMMA RAY detectors but as we understand it and from our point of view
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PNN Frequently Asked Questions
there are some significant difficulties. Definitely it will be time to discuss about this
with our designing people during our visit when our possible projects start more
seriously. But we need to say that from our point of view (interpreting) PNN is
completely compatible tool with GAMMA RAY type of tools for working in higher
salinity’s and we already have had measurements in oversaturated fluid in borehole
together with very saline formation water and with good results. And this is really
the worst case for PNN tool because in very saline fluid in borehole count rate is
significantly decreased because of thermal neutron capture before they come to
detector.
Log examples of, decays and Images in high salinity formations and salts follows:
Salt
Normal
Formation
Figure 13
Salt layers and domes will be easily recognized and measured with very high Sigma
values while zones and reservoirs without salt may be evaluated standard way. Only
problem will be if there is precipitation of salt inside pore space of reservoir rock. In
this case interpretation is questionable
15. Are there any technical papers published on pnnPlus PNN?
A15. Up to now there are no published papers in peer reviewed journals. We
contributed abstracts and papers to petroleum or geological congresses in different
countries. Further, Hotwell organized two PNN conferences in 2006 and 2007.
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PNN Frequently Asked Questions
Papers dealing with PNN theory and the application of pnnPlus PNN tool are
compiled in both abstract volumes.
16. What is the depth of investigation and the vertical resolution of pnnPlus PNN?
A16. The depth of investigation lies between 8” and 12” but on the whole it is not
trivial to determine the depth of investigation because it depends on different
conditions (such as the borehole, formation). The vertical resolution is 1.5’; for
intervals as thick as 3’ we are sure to get consistent results.
17. How does the porosity calculated from a PNN measurement differ from a
porosity calculated from openhole measurements?
A17. Details on the porosity measurement by pnnPlus PNN can be found in A7.
In general, the same approach to determine porosity will result in no differences.
Some inconsistencies might arise if porosity is calculated by a different approach or
diverging matrix parameters are used. Using similar matrix parameters and a
different approach to determine the influence of dispersed or laminar shale inside
sandstones (Figure 15) will give a different result of porosity. The differences are
higher in shaly zones and do not exist in clean zones (Figure 14, Figure 15). The
effective porosity is used for the quantitative interpretation of PNN measurements
and is not influenced by shaliness.
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PNN Frequently Asked Questions
Figure 14 The openhole (customer) porosity interpretation is based on Gamma Ray in track 4 (green);
pnnPlus porosity is the red curve in track 3. Clean zones have no significant differences in porosities;
in shaly zones the differences are higher.
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PNN Frequently Asked Questions
Figure 15: Like in Figure 14, porosities are the same in clean zones but differ in shaly zones. Effective
porosity is used for quantitative PNN interpretation and this should not be influenced by the volume
of shale.
18. If the salinity is very low and not suitable for pnnPlus PNN, is there a way to
back calculate during analysis?
A18. In cases of very low salinity combined with very low porosity, a well interpreted
openhole dataset has to be used that provides a reliable porosity, shaliness, and
matrix minerals. Small incorrectness of any of these parameters may influence the
final interpretation of water saturation. Local experience and the design of adjusted
interpretation modules may produce correct parameters.
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PNN Frequently Asked Questions
19. Is there a way to measure the formations matrix of a well that had production
recovery using polymer?
A19. The matrix itself should not be influenced by polymer injection and recovery
but the pore space filled with polymer is influenced. This part of the pores is
considered not as pore space anymore but as matrix with a different capture cross
section. The influence depends on polymer chemistry - this should be known.
Further, the modeling of polymer distribution during injection helps to select correct
parameters.
Up to now, we did not measure in zones with extensive polymer injection. The
polymers final influence may vary locally.
20. How does pnnPlus process Sigma; how is it corrected and calibrated to
obtain reliable results
A20. A1 deals in part with this question: PNN system description and some small
issues about data processing are described in A1.
Further details and definitions are given below:
Capture Cross Section
The rate of thermal neutron decay in the formation can be measured and used to
differentiate between hydrocarbons in the pore space and water - in particular salt
water. A mineral's ability to absorb thermal neutrons is defined as its capture cross
section, Sigma.
Sigma is measured in capture units (c.u.). A high Sigma value represents a high
capture of thermal neutrons. By measuring the rate at which thermal neutrons are
absorbed by the formation (either by measuring the thermal neutrons themselves
or by measuring the Gamma Rays given off during thermal neutron absorption), the
capture cross section of the formation and formation fluids can be predicted.
Tables with capture cross-section list many of the elements and compounds found
in reservoirs throughout the world. Lithology and formation fluids containing chlorine
atoms are the most effective capturers of thermal neutrons. Good thermal neutron
absorbers such as cadmium are rarely found in oilfield geology. Boron is sometimes
used during measurement, but its concentration is very low compared to salt water.
Rock salt has a high Sigma value due to its chlorine content (Table 1). Salt-water
values may range from 25,000 ppm (30 c.u.) to 275,000 ppm (130 c.u.) chloride
equivalents.
Quarz 4.3 Halite 754
Calcite 7.1 Gypsum 19
Dolomite 4.7 Anhydrite 12
Siderite 52 Barite 6.8
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PNN Frequently Asked Questions
Ankerite 22 Kaolinite 14
Feldspars 16 Chlorite 25
Plagioclase 7.3 Illite 18
Muscovite 17 Montmorillonite 14
Biotite 30 Glauconite 21
Table1: Sigma values for different Minerals
Sigma processing from PNN measurement
After PNN logging the data need processing. By using pnnPlus processing software
HWProc parameters such as Tau (τ), Sigma (Σ), and Ratio (r) for different channels
can be selected. The correct values of these parameters result in a qualitative and
quantitative interpretation.
Processing principles
pnnPlus PNN system measures the decay function of thermal neutrons on two
detectors. 60 time channels at each detector record the number of neutrons. Each
channel is 36 μs wide. A1 lists the advantages of measuring the thermal neutrons
compared to Gamma Ray detection that are a product of thermal capture.
PNN Measurement
The neutron generator emits pulsed high energy neutrons (14 MeV) into the
formation. This pulse is repeated at a fast rate. The thermal neutrons are measured
at the two detectors in each 60 time channels. The entire measurement is recorded
and available for processing at any time after the logging job is completed. This is
an advantage of pnnPlus PNN system, because if some information on the
formation and distribution of the fluids inside the reservoir is missed during real time
processing these data will be available during full analysis.
Decay function: Mathematical Background
Neutrons are rapidly slowed down to their thermal state by collisions with nuclei in
the formation. They are eventually captured depending on
v * Σabs (1)
where v represents the thermal neutron velocity which depends on temperature,
and Σabs is the macroscopic capture cross section of the formation. If neutron capture
is the only phenomenon, the number of neutrons decays exponentially. The rate of
decay increases when oil is replaced by water in the pores of a rock, because water
has a higher Sigma than oil (Figure 16b).
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PNN Frequently Asked Questions
Figure 16a: decay of thermal neutrons over time; 16b difference in neutron decay in shale, oil, water,
or gas saturated reservoir rock.
The number of neutrons (counts) at time t1 is given by:
N1 = N0e(-v*Σabs*t1) (2)
where
N0 - number of thermal neutrons per unit volume at time t0 (neutron burst)
N1 - number of thermal neutrons remaining per unit volume at time t1
t1 < t0
t1 time since t0
Σabs - sum of the atomic cross sections of all the atomic nuclei in a defined volume
for a neutron velocity of v=2200 m/s (at 75oF) [cm2/cm3].
the measurement is repeated at time t2 the relationship is the following
N2 = N0e (-v* Σabs*t2) (3)
where:
N2 - number of thermal neutrons remaining per unit volume at time t2;
t2 - time since t0.
The decrease of the thermal neutron density can be quantified
N2=N1e-v Σabs(t2-t1) (4)
From which it can be derived as follows:
Σabs=1/(v*(t2-t1))*ln(N1/N2) (5)
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PNN Frequently Asked Questions
Replacing the natural logarithm with logarithms to the base of 10 at v = 2200 m/s, t
[s] and Sigma [cm-1]
Σabs=10.5/ t * log10(N1/N2) (6)
Because of exponential decay, it can be presented by introducing an intrinsic decay
time, τint, that corresponds to the time until the initial number of neutrons N 0 per cm
of formation decays by 63%, or to 37 % of its original number (which is 1/e):
Nt=N0e-t/ τint (7)
Where Nt is number of neutrons per cm3 at time t. Combining eq. (2) and eq. (7)
results in
τint=1/v*Σabs (8)
The decay (neutron die-away time, or life time) is hardly dependent on temperature.
With t in s, and v=0.22 cm/ s, equation 8 becomes:
τint=4.55/ Σabs [cm2/cm3] (9)
This is then more conveniently scaled in units of 10 -3cm-1 (the conversion of capture
units c.u. into Sigma units s.u.:
τint=4550/Σabs [c.u.] (10)
This is used in pnnPlus HWProc for an accurate calculation of die-away time (τ) and
bulk capture cross-section (Σ).
PNN measures the density of the thermal neutrons on both detectors in 60 time
channels (Figure 17).
Figure 17 PNN tool timing sequence.
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PNN Frequently Asked Questions
There are 60 time channels and each channel is 36 μs wide. During acquisition all
raw data acquired by sensors are stored without any filtering and removal of data.
Logging – Linear Scale Processing – Logarithmic Scale
Figure 18 PNN measured decay during logging (a) and during processing (b)
During logging the thermal neutron decay is plotted in linear scale (Figure 18a) and
during the processing on natural logarithmic scale (Figure 18b). From this decay
curve the Sigma curve is extracted. All calculations are according to the physical
considerations and mathematical formulae mentioned above. The most important
step is to select parameters to remove the borehole influence, diffusion of thermal
neutrons, and statistical influences. To obtain an accurate capture cross section of
the formation, the Sigma is taken from the zone with maximum formation influence.
In the field a number of different zones with differing borehole influences may exist,
but all can be summed up into three varieties with all variations between them
(Figure 19).
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PNN Frequently Asked Questions
Sigma-Borehole > Sigma-Formation Sigma-Borehole = Sigma-Formation
Sigma-Borehole < Sigma-Formation
Figure 19 Three end members of Sigma influenced by borehole conditions.
Casing or equipment in the borehole may result in a borehole Sigma larger than the
formation Sigma (Figure 19a). If those influences can be identified it is easy to
extract the formation Sigma without borehole influence in pnnPlus processing
software HWProc.
Sometimes the formation and the borehole Sigma is similar and therefore not
sensitive to the selection of processing parameters (Figure 19b).
The most difficult case is when the borehole Sigma is smaller than the formation
Sigma. In this case significant neutron diffusion may exist and data from the
formation itself have to be used carefully. It is necessary to start the processing
further in the time domain and to select a later starting channel. If all this is
considered parameters may be selected to get a Sigma only influenced by the
formation.
The next step in Sigma processing is to select the processing modes. There are
four different modes, but all of them give similar result if parameters for removal of
borehole influences are selected logically.
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PNN Frequently Asked Questions
All of these effects (Figure 19a, b, c) may be present in one well in different degrees.
pnnPlus HWProc processing software allows full control of the data and each
subdivision can be examined to permit a good selection of parameters. In some
cases it is confusing to look at decays in the time and depth domain; therefore we
view an overall depth-time image of different parameters like: count rate (on short
or long-space detector), the ratio between short and long count rates, Sigma
images, and water saturation images.
In order to view these images we create matrix-files. By viewing these images it is
easy to get an overview on the well and to identify different zones for reasonable
parameter selection.
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PNN Frequently Asked Questions
Figure 20: Example of a Sigma image with seven different borehole influenced zones
It is easy to recognize several different zones in Figure 20 with diverse borehole
conditions. Sigma is calculated from fixed gates through the whole zone. This gives
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PNN Frequently Asked Questions
good processing parameters for the most bottom zone at this well while in all other
zones parameters are not good and Sigma with too high borehole influence is
processed. In this case it is necessary to make different zones processing and
patching final calculated curves. There is a better way to do this and this can be
done by pnnPlus Sigma auto-processing module which automatically calculates the
best possible and not borehole or diffusion influenced Sigma curves.
If you have any other question, don’t hesitate to contact us:
by e-mail:
[email protected]by phone :
+43 2687 48058
or by fax:
+43 2687 48059
Yours truly,
the pnnPlus PNN Team
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