INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER NETWORK

BCA-301

BLOCK 2:
LAN, WAN AND TCP/IP

Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Open University

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER
NETWORK

Knowledge Management and

Research Organization
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ROLE OF SELF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL IN DISTANCE LEARNING

The need to plan effective instruction is imperative for a successful

distance teaching repertoire. This is due to the fact that the instructional
designer, the tutor, the author (s) and the student are often separated by
distance and may never meet in person. This is an increasingly common
scenario in distance education instruction. As much as possible, teaching by
distance should stimulate the student's intellectual involvement and
contain all the necessary learning instructional activities that are capable of
guiding the student through the course objectives. Therefore, the course /
self-instructional material are completely equipped with everything that
the syllabus prescribes.
To ensure effective instruction, a number of instructional design
ideas are used and these help students to acquire knowledge, intellectual
skills, motor skills and necessary attitudinal changes. In this respect,
students' assessment and course evaluation are incorporated in the text.
The nature of instructional activities used in distance education self-
instructional materials depends on the domain of learning that they
reinforce in the text, that is, the cognitive, psychomotor and affective. These
are further interpreted in the acquisition of knowledge, intellectual skills
and motor skills. Students may be encouraged to gain, apply and
communicate (orally or in writing) the knowledge acquired. Intellectual-
skills objectives may be met by designing instructions that make use of
students' prior knowledge and experiences in the discourse as the
foundation on which newly acquired knowledge is built.
The provision of exercises in the form of assignments, projects and
tutorial feedback is necessary. Instructional activities that teach motor skills
need to be graphically demonstrated and the correct practices provided
during tutorials. Instructional activities for inculcating change in attitude
and behavior should create interest and demonstrate need and benefits
gained by adopting the required change. Information on the adoption and
procedures for practice of new attitudes may then be introduced.
Teaching and learning at a distance eliminates interactive
communication cues, such as pauses, intonation and gestures, associated
with the face-to-face method of teaching. This is particularly so with the
exclusive use of print media. Instructional activities built into the
instructional repertoire provide this missing interaction between the
student and the teacher. Therefore, the use of instructional activities to
affect better distance teaching is not optional, but mandatory.
Our team of successful writers and authors has tried to reduce this.
 Divide and to bring this Self Instructional Material as the best teaching
and communication tool. Instructional activities are varied in order to assess
the different facets of the domains of learning.
Distance education teaching repertoire involves extensive use of self-
instructional materials, be they print or otherwise. These materials are
designed to achieve certain pre-determined learning outcomes, namely goals
and objectives that are contained in an instructional plan. Since the teaching
process is affected over a distance, there is need to ensure that students actively
participate in their learning by performing specific tasks that help them to
understand the relevant concepts. Therefore, a set of exercises is built into the
teaching repertoire in order to link what students and tutors do in the
framework of the course outline. These could be in the form of students'
assignments, a research project or a science practical exercise. Examples of
instructional activities in distance education are too numerous to list.
Instructional activities, when used in this context, help to motivate students,
guide and measure students' performance (continuous assessment)
PREFACE
We have put in lots of hard work to make this book as user-friendly
as possible, but we have not sacrificed quality. Experts were involved in
preparing the materials. However, concepts are explained in easy language
for you. We have included may tables and examples for easy understanding.
We sincerely hope this book will help you in every way you expect.
All the best for your studies from our team!
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER NETWORK
Contents
BLOCK 1: NETWORK ESSENTIALS AND STANDARDS

UNIT 1 NETWORKING ESSENTIALS

Introduction, Brief history of Networking, Networking,

Networking Fundamentals, Market Leaders, Network Layers,

Models and Architecture, Protocols, Advantages of

Networking, Disadvantages of Networking

UNIT 2 STANDARDS

Introduction, LAN components, Ethernet, Definition: 802.11, IEEE

Standards 802.11, IEEE 802.11 working group standards,
Bluetooth, Is 5 GHz wireless network hardware better than 2.4 GHz

BLOCK 2: LAN, WAN AND TCP/IP

UNIT 1 LAN AND WAN – I

Introduction, LAN Protocols, LAN Media Access Methods, LAN
Topologies, WAN Protocols, Frame Relay, Circuit Switching, WAN
Virtual Circuits
UNIT 2 LAN AND WAN - II
Introduction, Origin and evolution of network operating system,
Functional separation and process scheduling, Virtual memory /
preemptive scheduling programming model, WAN interface
information
UNIT 3 TCP/IP
Introduction, Network Function, TCP Protocol Operation,
Connection Establishment, Features of SPP-over-IP, Repeater
Operation, Maintaining and Forwarding Outgoing Connections,
Some TCP/IP suite members and their functions, IP address
BLOCK 3: NETWORK OS AND NETWORK MANAGEMENT

UNIT 1 NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEMS

Introduction, Windows NT workstation, Browsing, NetBIOS
Interface to Application programs, WINS/NBNS (Windows Internet
Name Service/NetBIOS Name Service), NetBIOS Over TCP/IP,
Workgroup, Multiple Master Domain Model, Multiple Trust Models,
Windows Server Application
UNIT 2 NETWORK MANAGEMENT
Introduction, Function And Characteristics, Routers, Network
Management, Fault Management, Network Management Platform,
Troubleshooting Infrastructure, Fault Detection And Notification,
Proactive Fault Monitoring and Notification, Configuration
Management
UNIT 3 HIGH SPEED NETWORKING
Introduction, The Need for Speed Tests, Benchmarking the
Testing Services, Methodology, Text File Download, Image
Download, DSL and Cable Speeds, Cable Speed: How fast is Cable
Modem Internet?, DSL Speed of Downloading and Uploading.

BLOCK 4: NETWORK COMMUNICATION AND SOCKET PROGRAMMING

UNIT 1 SOFTWARE CONSIDERATIONS IN NETWORKING AND

COMMUNICATION
Introduction, HP-UX IO Cards, Types of communication services,
Communication Media, Terminal emulator, Network Cards,
Wireless Router

UNIT 2 SOCKET PROGRAMMING

Introduction, Connections oriented with server side program,

Connections oriented with client side program, connectionless

server side programs, Connectionless client side programs,

How to Listen for Socket Connections, How to Talk Between

Sockets, What to do when you’re done with A Socket
 Dr. Babasaheb BCA-301
Ambedkar
Open University

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER NETWORK

BLOCK 2: LAN, WAN AND TCP/IP

UNIT 1
LAN AND WAN - I 03

UNIT 2
LAN AND WAN – II 29

UNIT 3
TCP/IP 42
BLOCK 2: LAN, WAN AND TCP/IP
Block Introduction
In this block the whole content has been divided into three units .The first
unit covers the topic LAN and WAN-I, whereas the second unit covers the topic
LAN and WAN - II, under both first and second unit the whole content under
LAN and WAN has been divided under two units and has been discussed in very
detail, whereas the third unit covers the topic TCP/IP which has even been
discussed in very detail. The writer has tried his best to explain the topics, he has
kept the language of the book very simple in order to make it more
understandable.

This block has been written so that those who need information quickly are
able to find what they need, and those who wish to learn more advanced topics
can read deeper into each unit and further into the chapters.

The book begins with an overview of writer, discussing about the LAN
AND WAN.

It is possible to read this block of the book like any other book (from
beginning to end). Each chapter begins with an introduction about the block and
further discussion of the contents it contains. As you get further into a chapter you
will learn more about LAN AND WAN, their role and capabilities, but often you
will be able to head directly to the topic you wish to learn about.

We will also use diagrams where appropriate, and where we believe readers
may find it helpful we will discuss some related theory, including reference to
certain documents that you will be able to get from the books incase you need to
study more about the topics.

Block Objective
After learning this block, you will be able to understand:

 The various LAN protocols and LAN topologies

 Structure and protocol of WAN

 Installation and components of WAN

 TCP/IP Protocol Operation

1
LAN,  Repeater Operation
WAN and
TCP/IP  SPP over IP over GPRS and IP address

Block Structure
Unit1: LAN and WAN - I

Unit 2: LAN and WAN – II

Unit 3: TCP/IP

2
UNIT 1: LAN AND WAN - I
Unit Structure
1.0 Learning Objectives

1.1 Introduction

1.2 LAN Protocols

1.2.1 LAN

1.2.2 LAN protocols and OSI reference Model

1.3 LAN Media Access Methods

1.3.1 LAN transmission methods

1.4 LAN Topologies

1.4.1 LAN devices

1.5 WAN Protocols

1.5.1 HDLC

1.5.2 PPP

1.6 Frame Relay

1.6.1 WAN

1.6.2 Protocol structure

1.6.3 Wide Area Network and WAN protocols

1.6.4 Point to point links

1.7 Circuit Switching

1.7.1 Packet Switching

1.8 WAN Virtual Circuits

1.8.1 WAN Dialup Services

1.8.2 WAN Devices

1.8.3 WAN Switch

1.9 Let Us Sum Up

1.10 Answers for Check Your Progress

3
LAN, 1.11 Glossary
WAN and
1.12 Assignment
TCP/IP
1.13 Activities

1.14 Case Study

1.15 Further Readings

1.0 Learning Objectives

After leaning this unit, you will be able to understand:

 Different LAN protocols

 Different methods used to deal with media contention

 Different LAN topologies

 LAN devices

 WAN protocol and its structure

1.1 Introduction
When we talk about a Wide Area Network (WAN), we are describing a
network of computers or other types of networks that make up abroad area
network. We are describing cross-metro, interstate, regional or national networks.
A great example of awell-known WAN is the open Internet. Therefore, it is
obvious that in order to function, all WANs use protocols. WANs connect LANs
and other types of networks together, using protocols on a specific level. Network
protocols such as TCP/IP deliver the transport and addressing portions of the link.
However, protocols like Packet over SONET/SDH, MPLS, ATM and Frame relay
can be used often by service providers to bring about the links used by WANs. An
important early WAN was X.25 which is often considered to be the initial Frame
Relay protocol. Many of its underlying protocols and functions are still used today
in Frame Relay networks.

4
 LAN and
1.2 LAN Protocols
WAN - I
The figure given below displays the implementation of basic layout of
Ethernet/IEEE 802.3, Token Ring/IEEE 802.5 and Fiber Distributed Data
Interface (FDDI).

Fig. 3.1: Three most commonly used LAN implementations

1.2.1 LAN
A LAN is a high-speed data network that covers a relatively small
geographic area. It typically connects workstations, personal computers, printers,
servers and other devices. LANs offer computer users many advantages, including
shared access to devices and applications, file exchange between connected user
and communication between users‘ via electronic mail and other applications.

1.2.2 LAN Protocols and OSI Reference Model

LAN protocols function at the lowest two layers of the OSI reference model
between the physical layer and the data link layer. Figure 3.2 illustrates how
several popular LAN protocols map to the OSI reference model.

5
LAN,
WAN and
TCP/IP

Fig. 3.2: Popular LAN protocols mapped to the OSI reference model

Check your progress 1

1. A _______________is a high-speed data network that covers a relatively
small geographic area.

a. LAN c. MAN

b. WAN d. SAN

1.3 LAN Media Access Methods

Media contention occurs when two or more network devices have data to
send at the same time. Because multiple devices cannot talk on the network
simultaneously, some type of method must be used to allow access to one device
to the network mediaata time. This is done in two main ways: carrier sense
multiple access collision detects (CSMA/CD) and token passing.

In networks using CSMA/CD technology such as Ethernet, network devices

contend for the network media. When a device has data to send, it first listens to
see if any other device is currently using the network. If not, it starts sending its
data. After finishing its transmission, it listens again to see if a collision occurred.

A collision occurs when two devices send data simultaneously. When a

collision happens, each device waits a random length of time before resending its

6
data. In most cases, a collision between the two devices will not repeat. Because LAN and
of this type of network contention, the busier a network becomes, the more WAN - I
collisions occur. This is why performance of ethernetdegrades rapidly as the
number of devices on a single network increases.

In token-passing networks such as Token Ring and FDDI, a special network

frame called a token is passed around the network from device to device. When a
device has data to send, it must wait until it has the token and then sends its data.
When the data transmission is complete, the token is released so that other devices
may use the network media. The main advantage of token-passing networks is that
they are deterministic.
In other words, it is easy to calculate the maximum time that will pass
before a device has the opportunity to send data. This explains the popularity of
token-passing networks in some real-time environments such as factories, where
machinery must be capable of communicating at a determinable interval.

For CSMA/CD networks, switches segment the network into multiple

collision domains. This reduces the number of devices per network segment that
must contend for the media. By creating smaller collision domains, the
performance of a network can be increased significantly without requiring
addressing changes.

Normally CSMA/CD networks are half-duplex, meaning that while a device

sends information, it cannot receive any at that time. While that device is talking,
it is incapable of also listening for other traffic. This is much like a walkie-talkie.
When one person wants to talk, he presses the transmit button and begins
speaking. While he is talking, no one else on the same frequency can talk. When
the sending person finishes talking, he releases the transmit button and the
frequency is available to others.

When switches are introduced, full-duplex operation is possible. Full-duplex

works much like a telephone- you can listen as well as talk at the same time.
When a network device is attached directly to the port of a network switch, the
two devices may be capable of operating in full-duplex mode. In full-duplex
mode, performance can be increased, but not greatly. A 100-Mbps Ethernet
segment is capable of transmitting 200 Mbps of data, but only 100 Mbps can
travel in one direction at a time. Because most data connections are asymmetric
(with more data travelling in one direction than the other), the gain is not as great
as sometimes claimed.

7
LAN, However, full-duplex operation does increase the throughput of most
WAN and applications because the network media is no longer shared. Two devices on a
TCP/IP full-duplex connection can send dataas soon as it is ready.

Token-passing networks such as Token Ring can also benefit from network
switches. In large networks, the delay between turns to transmit may be
significant because the token is passed around the network.

1.3.1 LAN Transmission Methods

LAN data transmissions fall into three classifications: unicast, multicast and
broadcast. In each type of transmission, a single packet is sent to one or more
nodes.

In aunicast transmission, a single packet is sent from the source to a

destination on a network. First, the source node addresses the packet by using the
address of the destination node. The package is then sent onto the network and
finally, the network passes the packet to its destination.

A multicast transmission consists of a single data packet that is copied and

sent to a specific subset of nodes on the network. First, the source node addresses
the packet by using a multicast address. The packet is then sent into the network,
which makes copies of the packet and sends a copy to each node that is part of the
multicast address.

A broadcast transmission consists of a single data packet that is copied and

sent to all nodes on the network. In these types of transmissions, the source node
addresses the packet by using the broadcast address. The packet is then sent on to
the network, which makes copies of the packet and sends a copy to every node on
the network.

Check your progress 2

1. A _________occurs when two devices send data simultaneously.

a. Collision c. LAN

b. Accident

8
1.4 LAN Topologies LAN and
WAN - I
LAN topologies define the manner in which network devices are organized.
Four common LAN topologies exist: bus, ring, star and tree. These topologies are
logical architectures, but the actual devices need not be physically organized in
these configurations. Logical bus and ring topologies, for example, are commonly
organized physically as a star.

A bus topology is a linear LAN architecture, in which transmissions from

network stations propagate the length of the medium and are received by all other
stations. Of the three most widely used LAN implementations, Ethernet/IEEE
802.3 networks- including 100BaseT- implement abus topology, which is
illustrated in Figure 3.3

Fig.3.3: Some networks implement a local bus topology

A ring topology is a LAN architecture that consists of a series of devices

connected to one another by unidirectional transmission links to form a single
closed loop. Both Token Ring/IEEE 802.5 and FDDI networks implement a ring
topology. Figure 3.4 depicts a logical ring topology.

Fig. 3.4: Logical Ring Topology

9
LAN, A star topology is a LAN architecture in which the endpoints on a network
WAN and are connected to a common central hub or switch by dedicated links. Logical bus
TCP/IP and ring topologies are often implemented physically in a star topology.

A tree topology is a LAN architecture that is identical to the bus topology,

except that branches with multiple nodes are possible in this case. Figure 3.5
illustrates a logical tree topology.

Fig. 3.5: A logical tree topology can contain multiple nodes

1.4.1 LAN Devices

Devices commonly used in LANs include repeaters, hubs, LAN extenders,
bridges, LAN switches and routers.

A repeater is a physical layer device used to interconnect the media

segments of an extended network. A repeater essentially enables a series of cable
segments to be treated as a single cable. Repeaters receive signals from one
network segment and amplify, retime and retransmit those signals to another
network segment. These actions prevent signal deterioration caused by long cable
lengths and large numbers of connected devices.

Repeaters are incapable of performing complex filtering and other traffic

processing. In addition, all electrical signals, including electrical disturbances and
other errors, are repeated and amplified. The total number of repeaters and
network segments that can be connected is limited due to timing and other issues.
Figure 3.6 illustrates a repeater connecting two networks segments.

10
 LAN and
WAN - I

Fig. 3.6: A repeater connects two network segments

A hub is a physical layer device that connects multiple user stations, each
viaa dedicated cable. Electrical interconnections are established inside the hub.
Hubs are used to create a physical star network while maintaining the logical bus
or ring configuration of the LAN. In some respects, a hub functions as a multiport
repeater.

A LAN extender is a remote-access multilayer switch that connects to a host

router. LAN extenders forward traffic from all the standard network layer
protocols (such as IP, IPX and AppleTalk) and filter traffic based on the MAC
address or network layer protocol type. LAN extenders scale well because the host
router filters out unwanted broadcasts and multicasts.

However, LAN extenders are not capable of segmenting traffic or creating

security firewalls. Figure 3.7 illustrates multiple LAN extenders connected to the
host router through a WAN.

Fig. 3.7: Multiple LAN extenders

11
LAN,
WAN and Check your progress 3
TCP/IP 1. LAN __________define the manner in which network devices are
organized.

a. Topologies c. Design

b. Architecture d. Method

1.5 WAN Protocols

Mainly three types of WAN Protocols are used: HDLC, PPP or Frame-relay.
Let us explore the differences and similarities of these protocols.

1.5.1 HDLC
HDLC stands for High-Level Data Link Control protocol. Like the two
other WAN protocols mentioned in this article, HDLC is a Layer 2 protocol.
HDLC is a simple protocol used to connect serial devices point-to-point. For
example, you have point-to-point leased line connecting two locations, in two
different cities.

HDLC would be the protocol with the least amount of configuration

required to connect these two locations. HDLC would be running over the WAN,
between the two locations. Each router would be de-encapsulating HDLC and
turning it off on the LAN.

HDLC performs error correction, just like Ethernet. Cisco‘s version of

HDLC is actually proprietary because they added a protocol type field. Thus,
Cisco HDLC can only work with other Cisco devices. HDLC is actually the
default protocol on all Cisco serial interfaces. If you do ashow running-
configuration on a Cisco router, your serial interfaces (by default) will not have
any encapsulation. This is because they are configured to the default of HDLC. If
you do ashow interface serial 0/0, you will see that you are running HDLC. Here
is an example:

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1.5.2 PPP LAN and
WAN - I
You may have heard of the Point to Point Protocol (PPP) because it is used
for most every dial up connection to the Internet. PPP is documented in RFC
1661. PPP is based on HDLC and is very similar. Both work well to connect
point-to-point leased lines.

The differences between PPP and HDLC are:

 PPP is not proprietary when used on a Cisco router.

 PPP has several sub-protocols that make it function.

 PPP is feature-rich with dial up networking features.

Because PPP has so many dial-up networking features, it has become the
most popular dial up networking protocol in use today. Here are some of the dial-
up networking features it offers:

 Link quality management monitors the quality of the dial-up link and the
number of errors taken. It can bring the link down if the link is receiving too
many errors.

 Multilink can bring up multiple PPP dialup links and bond them together to
function as one.

 Authentication is supported with PAP and CHAP. These protocols take your
username and password to ensure that you are allowed access to the network
into which you are dialling.

 To change from HDLC to PPP, on a Cisco router, use the encapsulation ppp
command.

Check your progress 4

1. PPP stands for ___________________.

a. Point to Point Protocol

b. Person to person protocol

13
LAN,
WAN and
1.6 Frame-Relay
TCP/IP Frame Relay is a Layer 2 protocol and commonly known as a service from
carriers. Frame relay creates a private network through a carrier‘s network. This is
done with permanent virtual circuits (PVC). PVC is a connection from one site to
another site through the carrier‘s network. This is really just a configuration entry
that a carrier makes on their frame relay switches.

Obtaining a frame-relay circuit is done by ordering a T1 or fractional T1

from the carrier. On top of that, you order a frame-relay port, matching the size of
the circuit you ordered. Finally, you order the PVC that connects your frame relay
port to another of your ports inside the network.
The benefits of frame-relay are:

 It has the ability to have a single circuit that connects to the ―frame relay
cloud‖ and gain access to all other sites (as long as you have PVCs). As the
number of locations increases, you would save more and more money
because you do not need as many circuits as you would if you were trying to
fully- mesh your network with point-to-point leased lines.

 It offers improved disaster recovery because all you have to do is to order a

single circuit to the cloud and PVC‘s to gain access to all remote sites.

 By using the PVCs, you can design your WAN whichever way you want.
This means that, you define what sites have direct connections to other sites
and you only pay the small monthly PVC fee for each connection.

Some other terms concerning frame relay that you should know:

 LMI - local management interface: LMI is the management protocol of

frame relay. LMI is sent between the frame relay switches and routers to
communicate what DLCI‘s are available and if there is congestion in the
network.

 DLCI - data link connection identifier: This is a number used to identify

each PVC in the frame relay network.

 CIR - committed information rate: This is the amount bandwidth you pay to
guarantee which you receive, on each PVC. Generally, you have much less
CIR than you have port speed.

 DE - discard eligible: Traffic marked DE (that was above your CIR) can be
discarded by the frame-relay network if there is congestion.

14
 FECN & BECN - forward explicit congestion notification and backward LAN and
explicit congestion notification: These are bits set inside LMI packets to WAN - I
alert the frame-relay devices that there is congestion in the network.

1.6.1 WAN
A WAN is a data communications network that covers a relatively broad
geographic areaand that often uses transmission facilities provided by common
carriers, such as telephone companies. WAN technologies generally function at
the lower three layers of the OSI reference model: the physical layer, the data link
layer and the network layer. Figure 3.8 illustrates the relationship between the
common WAN technologies and the OSI model.

Fig. 3.8: WAN technologies operate at the lowest levels of the OSI model

15
LAN, 1.6.2 Protocol Structure
WAN and
TCP/IP The key WAN protocols are listed as follows:

ATM ATM: Asynchronous Transfer Mode

AAL: ATM Adaptation Layer

AAL0 - AAL5: ATM Adaptation Layer Type 0-5 reserved for

variable bit rate video transfer

LANE-NNI: LAN Emulation - Network to Network Interface

LANE-UNI: LAN Emulation - User to Network Interface

MPOA: Multi Protocol Over ATM

PNNI: Private Network-to-Network Interface

Q.2931: Signalling for ATM

UNI: User Network Interface

SONET SONET: Synchronous Optical Network

EoS: Ethernet over SONET/SDH

Broadband
DOCSIS: Data Over Cable Service Interface Specification
Access

ISDN: Integrated Services Digital Network

Q.931: ISDN network layer interface protocol

LAPD: ISDN Link Access Protocol Channel D (Q.921)

16
 xDSL: Digital Subscriber Line Technologies (DSL, IDSL, LAN and
WAN - I
ADSL, HDSL, SDSL, VDSL, G.Lite)

Frame Relay Frame Relay: WAN protocol for internetworking at layer 2

LAPF: Link Access Procedure/Protocol (ITU Q.922)

PPP PPP: Point to Point Protocol

BAP: PPP Bandwidth Allocation Protocol

BACP: PPP Bandwidth Allocation Control Protocol

BCP: PPP Bridging Control Protocol

CHAP: Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol

EAP: PPP Extensible Authentication Protocol

LCP: PPP Link Control Protocol

MultiPPP: Multilink PPP (MP)

PoS: Packet over SONET/SDH

PPPoE: PPP over Ethernet

PPPoA: PPP over ATM AAL5

X.25 HDLC: High Level Data Link Control protocol

LAPB: Link Access Procedure Balanced for x.25

X.25: ITU-T WAN communication protocol

17
LAN,
WAN and X.75: Signalling system used to connect packet switched
TCP/IP networks (X.25).

SDLC: Synchronous Data Link Control protocol

1.6.3 Wide Area Network and WAN Protocols

A wide area network (WAN) is a computer network covering multiple
distance areas, which may spread across the entire world. WANs often connect
multiple smaller networks, such as local area networks (LANs) or metro area
networks (MANs). World‘s most popular WAN is the Internet. Some segments of
the internet are also WANs in themselves. A wide area network may be privately
owned or rented from service providers, but the term usually connotes the
inclusion of public (shared user) networks.

 A virtual private network (VPN) riding on the public switched data network
(PSDN) is often used by organizations for their private and secured
communications. VPN uses encryption and other techniques to make it
appear that the organisation has a dedicated network while making use of
the shared infrastructure of the WAN.

 WANs generally utilize different networking technologies and equipment

than LANs. Key technologies often found in WANs include SONET, Frame
Relay, X.25, ATM and PPP.

 WAN technologies and protocols are mostly data link layer (layer 2)
protocols, which are defined by many organizations over time. The key
organizations in this space are IETF for PPP, ITU-T for ATM, Frame Relay,
ISO for X.25 and SONET etc.

1.6.4 Point-To-Point Links

A point-to-point link provides a single, pre-established WAN
communications path from the customer premises through a carrier network such
as a telephone company to a remote network. Point-to-point lines are usually
leased from a carrier and thus are often called leased lines. For a point-to-point
line, the carrier allocates pairs of wire and facility hardware to your line only.

18
 LAN and
These circuits are generally priced based on bandwidth required and distance
WAN - I
between the two connected points.

Point-to-point links are generally more expensive than shared services such
as Frame Relay. Figure 3-9 illustrates a typical point-to-point link through a
WAN.

Fig. 3.9: A Typical point-to-point link operates through a WAN to a remote network

Check your progress 5

1. _____________ is a connection from one site to another site through the
carrier‘s network.
a. PVC c. WAN

b. LAN

1.7 Circuit Switching

Switched circuits allow data connections that can be initiated when needed
and terminated when communication is complete. This works much like a normal
telephone line works for voice communication. Integrated Services Digital
Network (ISDN) is a good example of circuit switching. When a router has data
for a remote site, the switched circuit is initiated with the circuit number of the
remote network. In the case of ISDN circuits, the device actually places a call to
the telephone number of the remote ISDN circuit.

When the two networks are connected and authenticated, they can transfer
data. When the data transmission is complete, the call can be terminated. Figure
3.10 illustrates an example of this type of circuit.

19
LAN,
WAN and
TCP/IP

Fig. 3.10: A Circuit-Switched WAN undergoes a process similar to that used

for a telephone call

1.7.1 Packet Switching

Packet switching is a WAN technology in which users share common
carrier resources. Because this allows the carrier to make more efficient use of its
infrastructure, the cost to the customer is generally much better than with point-to-
point lines. In a packet switching setup, networks have connections into the
carrier‘s network and many customers share the carrier‘s network.

The carrier can then create virtual circuits between customers‘ sites by
which packets of dataare delivered from one to the other through the network. The
section of the carrier‘s network that is shared is often referred to as a cloud.

Some examples of packet-switching networks include Asynchronous

Transfer Mode (ATM), Frame Relay, Switched Multimegabit Data Services
(SMDS) and X.25. Figure 3.11 shows an example of packet-switched circuit.

The virtual connections between customer sites are often referred to as a

virtual circuit.

20
 LAN and
WAN - I

Fig. 3.11: Packet switching transfers packets across a carrier network

Check your progress 6

1. ____________allow data connections that can be initiated when needed and
terminated when communication is complete.

a. Switched circuits c. WAN

b. LAN

1.8 WAN Virtual Circuits

A virtual circuit is a logical circuit created within a shared network between
two network devices. Two types of virtual circuits exist: switched virtual circuits
(SVCs) and permanent virtual circuits (PVCs).

SVCsare virtual circuits that are dynamically established on demand and

terminated when transmission is complete. Communication over an SVC consists
of three phases: circuit establishment, data transfer and circuit termination. The
establishment phase involves creating the virtual circuit between the source and
destination devices.

Data transfer involves transmitting databetween the devices over the virtual
circuit and the circuit termination phase involves tearing down the virtual circuit

21
LAN, between the source and destination devices. SVCs are used in situations in which
WAN and data transmission between devices is sporadic, largely because SVCs increase
TCP/IP bandwidth used due to the circuit establishment and termination phases, but they
decrease the cost associated with constant virtual circuit availability.

PVC is a permanently established virtual circuit that consists of one mode:

data transfer. PVCs are used in situations in which data transfer between devices
is constant. PVCs decrease the bandwidth use associated with the establishment
and termination of virtual circuits, but they increase costs due to constant virtual
circuit availability. PVCs are generally configured by the service provider when
an order is placed for service.

1.8.1 WAN Dialup Services

Dialup services offer cost-effective methods for connectivity across WANs.
Two popular dialup implementations are dial-on-demand routing (DDR) and dial
backup.

DDR is a technique whereby a router can dynamically initiate a call on a

switched circuit when it needs to send data. In a DDR setup, the router is
configured to initiate the call when certain criteriaare met, such as a particular
type of network traffic needing to be transmitted. When the connection is made,
traffic passes over the line. The router configuration specifies an idle timer that
tells the router to drop the connection if the circuit has remained idle for a certain
period.
Dial backup is another way of configuring DDR. However, in dial backup,
the switched circuit is used to provide backup service for another type of circuit,
such as point-to-point or packet switching. The router is configured so that when a
failure is detected on the primary circuit, the dial backup line is initiated. The dial
backup line then supports the WAN connection until the primary circuit is
restored. When this occurs, the dial backup connection is terminated.

1.8.2 WAN Devices

WANs use numerous types of devices that are specific to WAN
environments. WAN switches, access servers, modems, CSU/DSUs and ISDN
terminal adapters are discussed in the following sections. Other devices found in

22
WAN environments that are used in WAN implementations include routers, ATM LAN and
WAN - I
switches and multiplexers.

1.8.3 WAN Switch

A WAN switch is a multiport internetworking device used in carrier
networks. These devices typically switch such traffic as Frame Relay, X.25 and
SMDS and operate at the data link layer of the OSI reference model. Figure 3.12
illustrates two routers at remote ends of a WAN that are connected by WAN
switches.

Fig. 3.12: Two routers at remote ends of a WAN can be connected by WAN switches

Access Server
An access serveractsas a concentration point for dial-in and dial-out
connections. Figure 3.13 illustrates an access server concentrating dial-out
connections into a WAN.

Fig. 3.13: An access server concentrates dial-out connections into a WAN

23
LAN, Modem
WAN and
A modem is a device that interprets digital and analog signals, enabling data
TCP/IP
to be transmitted over voice-grade telephone lines. At the source, digital signals
are converted to a form suitable for transmission over analog communication
facilities. At the destination, these analog signals are returned to their digital form.
Figure 3.14 illustrates a simple modem-to-modem connection through a WAN.

Fig. 3.14: A Modem connection through a WAN handles analogand digital signals

CSU/DSU

A channel service unit/digital service unit (CSU/DSU) is a digital-interface

device used to connect a router to a digital circuit like a T1. The CSU/DSU also
provides signal timing for communication between these devices. Figure 3.15
illustrates the placement of the CSU/DSU in a WAN implementation.

Fig. 3.15: The CSU/DSU stands between the switch and the terminal

ISDN Terminal Adapter

An ISDN terminal adapter is a device used to connect ISDN Basic Rate

Interface (BRI) connections to other interfaces, such as EIA/TIA-232 on a router.
A terminal adapter is essentially an ISDN modem; it is called a terminal adapter
because it does not actually convert analog to digital signals. Figure 3.16
illustrates the placement of the terminal adapter in an ISDN environment.

24
 LAN and
WAN - I

Fig. 3.16: The terminal adapter connects the ISDN terminal adapter to other interfaces

Check your progress 7

1. ___________services offer cost-effective methods for connectivity across
WANs.

a. Dialup c. LAN

b. ISDN

1.9 Let Us Sum Up

In this unit, we have learned:

 A LAN is a high-speed data network that covers a relatively small

geographic areawhich connects workstations, personal computers, printers,
servers and other devices.

 LAN protocols function at the lowest two layers of the OSI reference model
between the physical layer and the data link layer.

 LAN data transmissions fall into three classifications: unicast, multicast and
broadcast. In each type of transmission, a single packet is sent to one or
more nodes.

 LAN topologies define the manner in which network devices are organized.
Four common LAN topologies exist: bus, ring, star and tree.

 Devices commonly used in LANs include repeaters, hubs, LAN extenders,

bridges, LAN switches and routers.

 Mainly three types of WAN Protocols are used: HDLC, PPP or Frame-relay.

25
LAN,  Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is a good example of circuit
WAN and switching.
TCP/IP
 In a packet switching setup, networks have connections into the carrier‘s
network and many customers share the carrier‘s network.

 A virtual circuit is a logical circuit created within a shared network between

two network devices. Two types of virtual circuits exist: switched virtual
circuits (SVCs) and permanent virtual circuits (PVCs).

 SVCsare virtual circuits that are dynamically established on demand and

terminated when transmission is complete.

 Communication over an SVC consists of three phases: circuit establishment,

data transfer and circuit termination.

 WANs use numerous types of devices that are specific to WAN

environments. WAN switches, access servers, modems, CSU/DSUs and
ISDN terminal adapters are discussed in the following sections. Other
devices found in WAN environments that are used in WAN
implementations include routers, ATM switches and multiplexers.

 A WAN switch is a multiport internetworking device used in carrier

networks. These devices typically switch such traffic as Frame Relay, X.25
and SMDS and operate at the data link layer of the OSI reference model.

So here a detailed discussion was done on the LAN and WAN

1.10 Answers for Check Your Progress

Check your progress 1

Answers: (1-a)

Check your progress 2

Answers: (1-a)

Check your progress 3

Answers: (1-a)

26
 LAN and
Check your progress 4 WAN - I

Answers: (1-a)

Check your progress 5

Answers: (1-a)

Check your progress 6

Answers: (1-a)

Check your progress 7

Answers: (1-a)

1.11 Glossary
1. Circuit Switching - Communication viaa single dedicated path between the
sender and receiver. The telephone system is an example of a circuit
switched network.

2. Emulator - to imitate (a particular computer system) by using a software

system, often including amicroprogram or another computer that enables it
to do the same work, run the same programs, etc., as the first.

3. Network - a system containing any combination of computers, computer

terminals, printers, audio or visual display devices, or telephones
interconnected by telecommunication equipment or cables: used to transmit
or receive information.

4. Network Layer - The third lowest layer in the OSI seven layer model. The
network layer determines routing of packets of data from sender to receiver
via the data link layer and is used by the transport layer. The most common
network layer protocol is IP.

5. Repeater - A network or communications device which propagates

electrical signals from one cable to another, amplifying them to restore them
to full strength in the process. Repeaters are used to counter the attenuation
which occurs when signals travel long distances

27
LAN, 6. Router - A device which forwards packets between networks. The
WAN and forwarding decision is based on network layer information and routing
TCP/IP tables, often constructed by routing protocols.

7. Socket - The Berkeley Unix mechanism for creating a virtual connection

between processes. Sockets interface UNIX‘s standard I/O with its
network communication facilities. They can be of two types, stream (bi-
directional) or datagram (fixed length destination-addressed messages). The
socket library function socket () creates a communications end-point or
socket and returns a file descriptor with which to access that socket. The
socket has associated with it a socket address, consisting of a port number
and the local host‘s network address.

1.12 Assignment
1. What are some types of WAN circuits?

2. What is DDR and how is it different from dial backup?

3. Describe the type of mediaaccess used by Ethernet.

1.13 Activities
1. What is a CSU/DSU used for?

2. What is the difference between a modem and an ISDN terminal adapter?

1.14 Case Study

Draw the LAN and WAN topology. Write your observations on the cable
wires, how it is connected and significance of various colours of wires.

1.15 Further Readings

1. Computer Networking Essentials, Debra Littlejohn Shinder, Cisco Press,
2001

2. Sams Teach Yourself Network Troubleshooting in 24 Hours, Jonathan

Feldman, Sams Publishing, 2002

28
UNIT 2: LAN AND WAN II
Unit Structure
2.0 Learning Objectives

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Origin and evolution of network operating system

2.3 Functional separation and process scheduling

2.4 Virtual memory/preemptive scheduling programming model

2.5 WAN interface information

2.6 Let Us Sum Up

2.7 Answers for Check Your Progress

2.8 Glossary

2.9 Assignment

2.10 Activities

2.11 Case Study

2.12 Further Readings

2.0 Learning Objectives

After learning this unit, you will be able to understand:

 Wide Area Network (WAN)

 Installation and components of WAN

 Digital phone service is and use of WANs in it

 Using the Internet to assemble WAN

2.1 Introduction
Modern network devices can be described as complex entities comprising
both- silicon and software. Thus, designing an efficient hardware platform is not
by itself, sufficient to achieve an effective, cost-efficient and operationally tenable

29
LAN, product. The control plane plays a vital role in the development of features and in
WAN and ensuring device usability.
TCP/IP
Even though progress from the development of quicker CPU boards and
forwarding planes is visible, structural changes made in software are generally
hidden. Though vendor collateral often offers a list of features in a carrier-class
package, operational experiences might differ considerably.

Products, which have been through several generations of software releases,

provide the finest instances of the difference made by the choice of OS. It is still
usual to find routers or switches that started life under older, monolithic software
and later migrated to designs that are more contemporary. The positive effect
about stability and operational efficiency is simple to notice as well as appreciate.

However, migration from a network operating system to the other is likely

to pose challenges from non-overlapping feature sets, non-contiguous operational
experiences and inconsistent software quality. These potential challenges make it
is very desirable to build a control plane that can power hardware products and
features supported in both current and future markets.

Having developed a flexible, long-lasting and high-quality network the

operating system makes provision for a foundation, which can gracefully evolve
to support novel needs in its height for up as well as down scaling, width for
adoption across many platforms and depth for rich integration of new features and
functions. It takes time, significant investment and in-depth expertise.

Majority of the engineers writing the early releases of JUNOS Software

came from the other companies where they had built network software before.
They had firsthand knowledge of what worked well and what could be improved.
Such engineers found new-fangled ways to solve the limitations that they had
experienced in having built the older operating systems. Resulting innovations in
JUNOS are significant and rooted in its earliest design stages. Still, to ensure that
our products anticipate and fulfil the next generation of market requirements,
JUNOS is periodically re-evaluated to determine whether any changes are needed
to ensure that it continues to provide the reliability, performance and resilience for
which it is known.

30
2.2 Origin and Evolution of Network Operating System LAN and
WAN - II
Modern network operating systems are mostly advanced and specialised
branches of POSIX-compliant software platforms and are rarely developed from
scratch. The main reason behind this situation is the high cost of developing an
excellent operating system all the way from concept to finished product. By
adopting a general-purpose OS architecture, network vendors can focus on
routing-specific code, decrease time to market and benefit from years of
technology and research that went into the design of the original (donor) products.

First-Generation OS: Monolithic Architecture

Typically, first-generation network operating systems for routers and

switches were proprietary images running in a flat memory space, often directly
from flash memory or ROM. While supporting multiple processes for protocols,
packet handling and management, they operated using a co-operative,
multitasking model wherein each process would run to completion or until it
voluntarily relinquished the CPU.

All first-generation network operating systems shared one trait. They

eliminated the risks of running full-size commercial operating systems on
embedded hardware. Memory management, protection and context switching
were either rudimentary or nonexistent, with the primary goals being a small
footprint and speed of operation. Nevertheless, first-generation network operating
systems made networking commercially viable. They were deployed on a wide
range of products. The downside was that these systems were plagued with a host
of problems associated with resource management and fault isolation; a single
runaway process could easily consume the processor or cause the entire system to
fail. Such failures were common in the data networks controlled by older
software. They could be triggered by software errors, rogue traffic and operator
errors.

Legacy platforms of the first generation are still seen in networks

worldwide, although they are gradually being pushed into the lowest end of the
telecom product lines.

Second-Generation OS: Control Plane Modularity

The mid-1990s were marked by a significant increase in the use of data

networks worldwide, which quickly challenged the capacity of existing networks
and routers. By this time, it had become evident that embedded platforms could

31
LAN, run full-size commercial operating systems, at least on high-end hardware, but
WAN and with one catch. They could not sustain packet forwarding with satisfactory data
TCP/IP rates. A breakthrough solution was needed. It came in the concept of a hard
separation between the control and forwarding plane—an approach that became
widely accepted after the success of the industry‘s first application-specific
integrated circuit (ASIC)-driven routing platform, the Juniper Networks M40.
Forwarding packets entirely in silicon was proven viable, clearing the path for
next-generation network operating systems, led by Juniper with its JUNOS
Software.

Today, the original M40 routers are mostly retired, but their legacy lives in
many similar designs and their blueprints are widely recognized in the industry as
the second-generation reference architecture.

Second-generation network operating systems are free from packet

switching and thus are focused on control plane functions. Unlike its first-
generation counterparts, a second-generation OS can fully use the potential of
multitasking, multithreading, memory management and context manipulation, and
all making system-wide failures less common. Most core and edge routers
installed in the past few years are running second-generation operating systems
and these systems are currently responsible for moving the bulk of traffic on the
Internet and in corporate networks.

Third -Generation Os: Flexibility, Scalability and Continuous Operation

Although second-generation designs were very successful, the past 10 years

have brought novel challenges. Increased competition led to the need to lower
operating expenses and a coherent case for network software flexible enough to be
redeployed in network devices across the larger part of the end-to-end packet path.
From multiple-terabit routers to Layer 2 switches and security appliances, the
‗best-in-class‘ catchphrase can no longer justify a splintered operational
experience—true ―network operating systems‖ are clearly needed. Such systems
must also achieve continuous operation, so that software failures in the routing
code, as well as system upgrades, do not affect the state of the network. Meeting
this challenge requires availability and convergence characteristics that go far
beyond the hardware redundancy available in second-generation routers.

Another key goal of third-generation operating systems is to run with zero

downtime (planned and unplanned). Drawing on the lesson learned from previous
designs regarding the difficulty of moving from one OS to another, third-
generation operating systems also should make the migration path completely

32
transparent to customers. They must offer an evolutionary, rather than LAN and
revolutionary approach; upgrade experience typical to the retirement process of WAN - II
legacy software designs.

Check your progress 1

1. _____________ eliminated the risks of running full-size commercial
operating systems on embedded hardware.

a. first-generation network operating systems

b. second generation network operating systems

2.3 Functional Separation and Process Scheduling

Multiprocessing, functional separation and scheduling are fundamental for
almost any software design, including network software. As CPU and memory are
shared resources, all running threads and processes have to access them in a serial
and controlled fashion. Several design choices are available to achieve this goal,
but the two most important ones are the memory model and the scheduling
discipline. The next section briefly explains the intricate relation between
memory, CPU cycles, system performance and stability.

Memory Model

The memory model defines whether processes (threads) run in a common

memory space. If they do, the overhead for switching the threads is minimal and
the code in different threads can share data via direct memory pointers. The
downside is that a runaway process can cause damage in memory that does not
belong to it.

In a more complex memory model, threads can run in their own virtual
machines and the operating system switches the context every time the next thread
needs to run. Due to this context switching, direct communication between threads
is no longer possible and requires special interprocess communication (IPC)
structures like pipes, files and shared memory pools.

33
LAN, Scheduling Discipline
WAN and
Scheduling choices are primarily between cooperative and pre-emptive
TCP/IP
models, which define whether thread switching happens voluntarily. A
cooperative multitasking model allows the thread to run to completion and a pre-
emptive design ensures that every thread gets access to the CPU regardless of the
state of the other threads.

Check your progress 2

1. The ___________defines whether processes (threads) run in a common
memory space.

a. memory model

b. scheduling discipline

2.4 Virtual Memory/Pre-emptive Scheduling

Programming Model
Virtual memory with pre-emptive scheduling is a great design choice for
properly constructed functional blocks, where interaction between different
modules is limited and well defined. This technique is one amongst the main
benefits of the second-generation OS designs and under pins the stability and
robustness of contemporary network operating systems. However, it has its own
drawbacks. Not with standing the overhead associated with context switching,
consider the interaction between two threads, A and B, both relying on the
common resource R. As threads do not detect their relative scheduling in the pre-
emptive model, they can actually access R in a different order and with differing
intensity. For instance, R can be accessed by A, then B, then A, then A and then B
again. If thread B modifies resource R, thread A may get different results at
different times—and without any predictability.

A modern O/S contains much built-in software designed to simplify

networking of a computer. Typical O/S software is inclusive of an implementation
of TCP/IP protocol stack and related utility programs like ping and trace route.
This includes the necessary device drivers and the other software to enable

34
adevice‘s Ethernet interface automatically. Mobile devices also normally provide LAN and
the programs needed to enable Wi-Fi, Bluetooth or other wireless connectivity. WAN - II

The early versions of Microsoft Windows did not provide any computer
networking support. Microsoft added basic networking capability to its operating
system, starting with Windows 95 and Windows for Workgroups. Microsoft also
introduced its Internet Connection Sharing (ICS) feature in Windows 98 Second
Edition (Win98 SE). This can be contrasted with UNIX, which was designed from
the beginning with networking in view. Nearly any consumer O/S today qualifies
as a network operating system due to the popularity of the Internet.

Some security devices allow you to define the properties of a WAN data
link by configuring the WAN interface. The following topic allows you to
configure the properties for the physical line and the encapsulation method to be
used to transfer dataacross the WAN.

Fig 4.1 Transfer of data

Check your progress 3

1. Microsoft added basic networking capability to its operating system, starting
with ________.

a. Windows 95 c. Windows 2000

b. Windows 98 d. Windows Me

35
LAN,
WAN and
2.5 WAN Interface Information
TCP/IP Interface Name (read-only)

The name of a physical interface comprises the media type, slot number (for
some devices) and port number, for instance, serial 1/0 or serial 6/0.

WAN Configuration

 Member Link: Select this option if the interface is to be added to a

multilink interface (also called abundle).

 Multilink Interface: Select the multilink interface to which the WAN

interface is added.

 Main Link: Select this option if the WAN interface is not part of a
multilink interface.

 BRI Mode: Select Leased Line Mode or Dial Using BRI to configure the
device for ISDN support.

 Leased Line Mode: The interface in this mode is a Layer 3 interface. It is

predefined for a data rate of 128 Kbps. There is no signalling on the D-
channel and the leased line is used to deliver data only. Leased line mode
supports PPP encapsulation only.

Dial Using BRI

Check this option to use the ISDN BRI to dial out.Click ‗Apply‘ and edit the
Dialer Enable Options Edit the following to configure the dialer for Basic Rate
Interface (BRI):

 Primary and Alternative Number: Enter the remote destination to call. If

the primary number is not connected, alternative-number is used. The
primary–number and alternative- number is a string of characters 1-15.

 Load Threshold: Enter the threshold (in percent) to set up the second B-
channel. For bandwidth on demand, if traffic is greater than the defined
load-threshold, the second B-channel is setup. The range for this B-channel
is 1 to 100. The default is 80.

 Idle Time: If there is no traffic before the idle-time expires (in seconds), the
connection is lost. The range for idle time is 0 to 60000, where 0 = never
idle. The default is 180.

36
 Retry Times: Enter the number of times to redial if the dial number fails. LAN and
WAN - II
The range is 1-6 and the default is 3.

 Interval: The dial interval (in seconds) between retries. The range is from 1
to 60 and the default is 30.

WAN Encapsulation

 None: Sets no encapsulation method

 PPP: Sets the WAN interface to use Point-to-Point Protocol as the

encapsulation method

 Frame Relay: Sets the WAN interface to use Frame Relay as the
encapsulation method

 Cisco HDLC: Sets the WAN interface to use Cisco HDLC as the
encapsulation method

 Binding a PPP Profile (appears after you select PPP or MLPPP

encapsulation and click Apply): Select the PPP access profile.

 Zone Name: Select the zone to which the interface is bound.

Fixed IP option

 IP Address/Net mask: Enter the IP Address and netmask of the interface.

 Manageable: Select this option to enable management of the device using

the interface IP address.

 Manage IP: The logical IP address through which you can manage the
device. You can set a different Manage IP address on each available
interface. The Manage IP address must be on the same subnet as the
physical IP address.

 Unnumbered: Sets the WAN interface to use a unnumbered interface

 Interface: Selects the unnumbered interface.

37
LAN, Management Services
WAN and
 WebUI: Select this option to enable management through the Web user
TCP/IP
interface (WebUI).

 SNMP: Select this option to enable the use of SNMP. The device supports
the SNMPv1 protocol (described in RFC-1157) and all relevant MIB II
(Management Information Base II) groups defined in RFC-1213.

 Telnet: Select this option to allow management through a terminal

emulation program for TCP/IP networks such as the Internet. Telnet is a
common way to control a network device remotely.

 SSL: Select this option to allow the interface to receive HTTPS traffic for
secure management of the device via the WebUI.

 SSH: Select this option to enable management using a secure command

shell (SSH). You can administer the device from an Ethernet connection or
a dial-in modem using SSH.

Other Services

 Ping: Select this option to allow the device to respond to ICMP echo
requests or ‗pings‘. Ping is a utility that determines whether a specific IP
address is accessible or not.

 Path MTU (IPV4): Sets the device to use the smallest MTU for all the links
in a path.

 Ident-reset: Services like Mail and FTP send identification requests. If they
receive no acknowledgment, they send the request again. While the request
is processing, there is no user access. An ident-reset restores access that has
been blocked by an unacknowledged identification request.

 Maximum Transfer Unit (MTU): The default protocol MTU is 1500 bytes
for serial, T1, E1, ISDN BRI and multilink interfaces and 4470 bytes for T3
interfaces. If the MTU of the network to which the interface connects is
different, enter that value here. You can specify a value between 800 and
8192 bytes.

 DNS Proxy: Select this option if you want the device to proxy (forward)
DNS queries received on this interface to the appropriate DNS server as
configured on the DNS Proxy Configuration page.

38
 WebAuth checkbox: (Appears only when an IP address/net mask is entered LAN and
and applied). Select this option to enable WebAuthauthentication for this WAN - II

interface.

 IP: Enter the IP address that receives authentication requests for the
WebAuth server. The WebAuth IP address must be in the same subnet as
the interface IP address.

 SSL Only checkbox: Select this option to require that all

WebAuthauthentication requests use SSL. The URL that
aWebAuthauthentication user enters in his or her webbrowser must be
https://ip_addr, in which ip_addr the IP address is that receives
authentication requests for the WebAuth server.

Following the configuration of basic WAN interface parameters, specific

WAN interface options can be configured. To configure WAN interface specific
features, click WANat the top of the interface properties. Based on the interface
you are configuring, you will see one amongst the following options:

 Serial Interface Options

 T1 Interface Options

 E1 Interface Options

 T3 Interface Options

 ISDN Options

 Dialer Pool Options

Check your progress 4

1. ________ the WAN interface to use Point-to-Point Protocol as the
encapsulation method.

a. PPP c. Cisco HDLC

b. Frame Relay

39
LAN,
WAN and
2.6 Let Us Sum Up
TCP/IP In this unit, we have learned:

 Virtual memory with pre-emptive scheduling is a great design choice for

properly constructed functional blocks, where interaction between different
modules is limited and well defined.

 A CPU and memory are shared resources, all running threads and processes
have to access them in a serial and controlled fashion.

 A number of design choices are available to achieve this goal, but the two
most important are the memory model and the scheduling discipline.

So in this unit a detailed discussion was made on CPU and Virtual memory.

2.7 Answers for Check Your Progress

Check your progress 1

Answers: (1-a)

Check your progress 2

Answers: (1-a)

Check your progress 3

Answers: (1-a)

Check your progress 4

Answers: (1-a)

2.8 Glossary
1. Socket - The Berkeley Unix mechanism for creating a virtual connection
between processes. Sockets interface Unix‘s standard I/O with its
network communication facilities. They can be of two types, stream (bi-
directional) or datagram (fixed length destination-addressed messages). The
socket library function socket () creates a communications end-point or

40
 socket and returns a file descriptor with which to access that socket. The LAN and
WAN - II
socket has associated with it a socket address, consisting of a port number
and the local host‘s network address.

2. Virtual Circuit - A connection-oriented network service which is

implemented on top of a network which may be either connection-oriented
or connectionless (packet switching).

3. Virtual Memory - a system whereby addressable memory is extended

beyond main storage through the use of secondary storage managed by
system software in such a way that programs can treat all of the designated
storage as addressable main storage.

2.9 Assignment
What is WAN?

2.10 Activities
What kind of phone lines can WAN use?

2.11 Case Study

Based on LAN and WAN models, make a working model in Lab

2.12 Further Readings

1. Computer Networking Essentials, Debra Littlejohn Shinder, Cisco Press,
2001

2. Sams Teach Yourself Network Troubleshooting in 24 Hours, Jonathan

Feldman, Sams Publishing, 2002

41
LAN,
WAN and
UNIT 3: TCP/IP
TCP/IP
Unit Structure
3.0 Learning Objectives

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Network Function

3.3 TCP Protocol Operation

3.4 Connection Establishment

3.5 Features of SPP-over-IP

3.6 Repeater Operation

3.6.1 SPP-over-IP over GPRS

3.6.2 Opening connection from access server

3.6.3 SPP-over-IP and COM ports

3.7 Maintaining and Forwarding Outgoing Connections

3.8 Some TCP/IP suite members and their functions

3.9 IP address

3.10 Let Us Sum Up

3.11 Answers for Check Your Progress

3.12 Glossary

3.13 Assignment

3.14 Activities

3.15 Case Study

3.16 Further Readings

42
 TCP/IP
3.0 Learning Objectives
After learning this unit, you will be able to understand:

 TCP/IP Protocol Operation

 Features of SPP over IP

 Repeater Operation

 SPP over IP over GPRS

 IP address

3.1 Introduction
The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is one of the core protocols of the
Internet Protocol Suite. TCP is one of the two original components of the suite,
complementing the Internet Protocol (IP) and therefore the entire suite is
commonly referred to as TCP/IP. TCP provides the service of exchanging data
reliably directly between two network hosts, whereas IP handles addressing and
routing message across one or more networks.

In particular, TCP provides reliable, ordered delivery of a stream of bytes

from a program on one computer to another program on another computer. TCP is
the protocol that major Internet applications rely on, such as the World Wide
Web, e-mail and file transfer. Other applications, which do not require reliable
data stream service, may use the User Datagram Protocol (UDP), which provides
a datagram service, which emphasises reduced latency over reliability.

3.2 Network Function

TCP provides a communication service at an intermediate level between an
application program and the Internet Protocol (IP). That is, when an application
program desires to send a large chunk of dataacross the Internet using IP, instead
of breaking the data into IP-sized pieces and issuing a series of IP requests, the
software can issue a single request to TCP and let TCP handle the IP details.

IP works by exchanging pieces of information called packets. A packet is a

sequence of bytes and consists of aheader followed by abody. The header

43
LAN, describes the packet‘s destination and optionally, the routers to use for forwarding
WAN and until it arrives at its destination. The body contains the data IP is transmitting.
TCP/IP
Due to network congestion, traffic load balancing or other unpredictable
network behaviour, IP packets can be lost, duplicated, or delivered out of order.
TCP detects these problems, requests retransmission of lost packets, rearranges
out-of-order packets and even helps minimise network congestion to reduce the
occurrence of the other problems.

Once the TCP receiver has finally reassembled a perfect copy of the data
originally transmitted, it passes that datagram to the application program. Thus,
TCP abstracts the application‘s communication from the underlying networking
details.

TCP is used extensively by many of the Internet‘s most popular

applications, including the World Wide Web (WWW), E-mail, File Transfer
Protocol, Secure Shell, peer-to-peer file sharing and some streaming
mediaapplications.

TCP is optimised for accurate delivery rather than timely delivery and
therefore, TCP sometimes incurs relatively long delays (in the order of seconds)
while waiting for out-of-order messages or retransmissions of lost messages.

It is not particularly suitable for real-time applications such as voice over IP.
For such applications, protocols like the Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP)
running over the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) are usually recommended
instead.
TCP is a reliable stream delivery service that guarantees delivery of a data
stream sent from one host to another without duplication or losing data. Since
packet transfer is not reliable, a technique known as positive acknowledgment
with retransmission is used to guarantee reliability of packet transfers. This
fundamental technique requires the receiver to respond with an acknowledgment
message as it receives the data.

The sender keeps a record of each packet it sends and waits for
acknowledgment before sending the next packet. The sender also keeps a timer
from when the packet was sent. It retransmits a packet if the timer expires. The
timer is needed in case a packet is lost or corrupted.

TCP consists of a set of rules: for the protocol, that are used with the
Internet Protocol and for the IP, to send data ‗in a form of message units‘ between
computers over the Internet. At the same time that IP takes care of handling the

44
actual delivery of the data, TCP takes care of keeping track of the individual units TCP/IP
of data transmission, called segments that a message is divided into for efficient
routing through the network.

For example, when an HTML file is sent from a Web server, the TCP
software layer of that server divides the sequence of bytes of the file into
segments and forwards them individually to the IP software layer (Internet Layer).
The Internet layer encapsulates each TCP segment into an IP packet by adding a
header that includes (among other data) the destination IP address.

Even though every packet has the same destination address, they can be
routed on different paths through the network. When the client program on the
destination computer receives them, the TCP layer (Transport Layer) reassembles
the individual segments and ensures they are correctly ordered and error free as it
streams them to an application.

A TCP segment consists of a segment headerandadata section. The TCP

header contains 10 mandatory fields and an optional extension field.

The data section follows the header. Its contents are the payload data carried
for the application. The length of the data section is not specified in the TCP
segment header. It can be calculated by subtracting the combined length of the
TCP header and encapsulating IP segment header from the total IP segment length
(specified in the IP segment header).

Fig. 6.1: Protocols

45
LAN,
WAN and
 Source port (16 bits): Identifies the sending port
TCP/IP
 Destination port (16 bits): Identifies the receiving port

 Sequence number (32 bits): Has a dual role

If the SYN flag is set, then this is the initial sequence number. The sequence
number of the actual first databyte (and the acknowledged number in the
corresponding ACK) is then this sequence number plus 1.

If the SYN flag is clear, then this is the accumulated sequence number of the
first databyte of this packet for the current session.

Fig. 6.2: Windows Socket Applications

Acknowledgment number (32 bits) – If the ACK flag is set then the value of
this field is the next sequence number that the receiver is expecting. This
acknowledges receipt of all prior bytes (if any). The first ACK sent by each end
acknowledges the other end‘s initial sequence number itself, but no data.

Data off set (4 bits) specifies the size of the TCP header in 32-bit words.
The minimum size header is 5 words and the maximum is 15 words thus giving
the minimum size of 20 bytes and maximum of 60 bytes, allowing for up to 40
bytes of options in the header. This field gets its name from the fact that it is also
the off set from the start of the TCP segment to the actual data.

46
 Reserved (4 bits): For future use and should be set to zero TCP/IP

 Flags (8 bits) ( Control bits): Contains 8 1-bit flags

 CWR (1 bit): Congestion Window Reduced (CWR) flag is set by the

sending host to indicate that it received a TCP segment with the ECE flag
set and had responded in congestion control mechanism (added to header by
RFC 3168).

 ECE (1 bit): ECN-Echo indicates

If the SYN flag is set, then the TCP peer is ECN capable. If the SYN flag is
clear, then a packet with Congestion Experienced flag in IP header set is
received during normal transmission (added to header by RFC 3168).

 URG (1 bit): Indicates that the urgent pointer field is significant

 ACK (1 bit): Indicates that the acknowledgment field is significant. All

packets after the initial SYN packet sent by the client should have this flag
set.

 PSH (1 bit): Push function asks to push the buffered data to the receiving
application.

 RST (1 bit): Reset the connection

 SYN (1 bit): Synchronise sequence numbers. Only the first packet sent from
each end should have this flag set. Some other flags change meaning based
on this flag and some are only valid when it is set and others when it is
clear.

 FIN (1 bit): No more data from sender

Fig. 6.3: Network Connection

47
LAN,  Window (16 bits): The size of the ‗receive window‘ which specifies the
WAN and number of bytes (beyond the sequence number in the acknowledgment field)
TCP/IP that the receiver is currently willing to receive.

 Checksum (16 bits): The 16-bit checksum field is used for error-checking
of the header and data.

 Urgent pointer (16 bits): If the URG flag is set, then this 16-bit field is an
offset from the sequence number indicating the last urgent databyte.

 Options (Variable 0-320 bits, divisible by 32): The length of this field is
determined by the data offset field. Options 0 and 1 are a single byte (8 bits)
in length. The remaining options indicate the total length of the option
(expressed in bytes) in the second byte. Some options may only be sent
when SYN is set; they are indicated below as SYN.

 0 (8 bits): End of options list

 1 (8 bits): No operation (NOP, Padding). This may be used to align option

fields on 32-bit boundaries for better performance.

 2, 4, SS (32 bits): Maximum segment size

 3, 3, S (24 bits): Window scale

 4, 2 (16 bits): Selective Acknowledgement permitted. 5, N, BBBB, EEEE,

... (variable bits, N is either 10, 18, 26, or 34)- Selective Acknowledgement
(SACK) these first two bytes are followed by a list of 1-4 blocks being
selectively acknowledged, specified as 32-bit begin/end pointers.

 8, 10,TTTT, EEEE (80 bits): Timestamp and echo of previous timestamp

14, 3, S (24 bits) - TCP Alternate Checksum Request

 15, N, ... (variable bits): TCP Alternate Checksum Data

(The remaining options are obsolete, experimental, not yet standardised, or
unassigned)

Check your progress 1

1. TCP is used extensively by many of the Internet‘s most popular applications.

a. WWW

b. Chatapplications

48
 TCP/IP
3.3 TCP Protocol Operation
TCP protocol operations may be divided into three phases. Connections
must be properly established in a multi-step handshake process (connection
establishment) before entering the data transfer phase. After data transmission is
completed, the connection termination closes establishes virtual circuits and
releases all allocated resources.

A TCP connection is managed by an operating system through a

programming interface that represents the local end-point for communications, the
Internet socket. During the lifetime of a TCP connection, it undergoes a series of
state changes:

 LISTEN: In case of a server, waiting for a connection request from any

remote client.

 SYN-SENT: Waiting for the remote peer to send back a TCP segment with
the SYN and ACK flags set (usually set by TCP clients).

 SYN-RECEIVED: Waiting for the remote peer to send back an

acknowledgment after having sent back a connection acknowledgment to
the remote peer (usually set by TCP servers).

 ESTABLISHED: The port is ready to receive/send data from/to the remote

peer.

 FIN-WAIT-1

 FIN-WAIT-2

 CLOSE-WAIT

 CLOSING

 LAST-ACK

 TIME-WAIT: represents waiting for enough time to pass to be sure the

remote peer received the acknowledgment of its connection termination
request. According to RFC 793, a connection can stay in TIME-WAIT for a
maximum of four minutes.

 CLOSED

49
LAN,
WAN and Check your progress 2
TCP/IP 1. In case of a server, waiting for a connection request from any remote client.

a. LISTEN c. SYN-RECEIVED

b. SYS-SENT

3.4 Connection Establishment

To establish a connection, TCP uses a three-way handshake. Before a client
attempts to connect with a server, the server must first bind to a port to open it up
for connections: this is called a passive open. Once the passive open is
established, a client may initiate an active open.

To establish a connection, the three-way (or 3-step) handshake occurs:

 The active open is performed by the client sending a SYN to the server. It
sets the segment‘s sequence number to a random value A.

 In response, the server replies with a SYN-ACK. The acknowledgment

number is set to one more than the received sequence number (A + 1) and
the sequence number that the server chooses for the packet is another
random number, B.

 Finally, the client sends an ACK back to the server. The sequence number is
set to the received acknowledgement value i.e. A + 1 and the
acknowledgement number is set to one more than the received sequence
number i.e. B + 1.

At this point, both the client and server have received an acknowledgment
of the connection.

50
 TCP/IP

Fig. 6.4: TCP PORTS

SPP-over-IP
SPP-over-IP is a special functionality of iWRAP Bluetooth servers running
in Access Servers. It offers a transparent way to transmit data from Bluetooth
Serial Port Profile (SPP) enabled devices to server computers or PCs. Several
transport medium are supported, such as Ethernet, Wi-Fi or and GPRS.

How SPP-over-IP Works

The SPP-over-IP application enables transparent data transfer between any

Bluetooth Serial Port Profile (SPP) complaint device and a server, laptop or
desktop connected to the same network. This enables plug and play connectivity
from a Bluetooth network to any standard TCP/IP based network.

Check your progress 3

1. To establish a connection, TCP uses a ________hand shake.

a. three-way c. two way

b. oneway

51
LAN,
WAN and
3.5 Features of SPP-Over-IP
TCP/IP  Access Server 2291 supports 7 incoming SPP connections.

 Access Server 2293 supports 21 incoming SPP connections.

 SPP-over-IP can be used over Ethernet, Wi-Fi or GRPS networks.

 SPP-over-IP also works over Bluetooth Personal Area Networking (PAN)

connections, so not all Access Servers need to be physically (cable)
connected to the TCP/IP network, but some Access Servers can linked using
the Bluetooth PAN connection. This is referred to as repeater operation.

 If SPP-over-IP application cannot open the TCP connection to defined IP

address and port, the SPP connection will not be accepted.

 If the TCP server on PC is closed, all SPP connections will be closed as

well.

 When access server is in its default configuration, it tries to enable sniff

power saving mode on all idle Bluetooth connections to minimise power
consumption.

 SPP-over-IP can also be used to opposite direction, i.e. access server opens
the Bluetooth connections to dedicated Bluetooth devices.

 SPP-over-IP can also be combined with the Tactical Software‘s Serial/IP®

software. Serial/IP software converts automatically TCP connections to
virtual COM ports on the host PC, so legacy applications utilising COM-
ports instead of TCP/IP can also be used.

Standard operation

With the standard configuration, SPP-over-IP works as described below:

 Listens for incoming Serial Port Profile (SPP) connections

 Takes control of all incoming connections

 Opens a TCP connection to the defined IP address and TCP port

 Forwards all incoming data from the SPP device to the established TCP
connection and vice versa

All the server computer needs to do is to listen for incoming TCP connections
from access server to a specified TCP port and receive/send the application data.

52
 TCP/IP
Check your progress 4
1. Access Server 2293 supports _______incoming SPP connections.

a. 21 c. 42

b. 7

3.6 Repeater Operation

The SPP-over-IP application can also be used in a so-called repeater mode.
This feature is useful when not all access servers can be directly connected to the
TCP/IP network, but they can be connected to other access servers by using
Bluetooth PAN-connection. PAN enables transmitting TCP/IP packets wirelessly
over Bluetooth. The figure below illustrates this configuration:

Fig. 6.5: Repeater Mode in SPP-over-IP

3.6.1 SPP-over-IP over GPRS

SPP-over-IP software can also be used over GPRS instead of wired Ethernet
connection. This requires that access server is equipped with a working
GSM/GPRS compact flash card.

53
LAN,
WAN and
TCP/IP

Fig. 6.6: SPP-over-IP over GPRS

Notice when using GPRS:

Data upload rate is around 8-12kbps (depending on GPRS card).

Data download rate is around 32-48kbps (depending on GPRS card).

Data transmission delays can be very high, sometimes even seconds.

GPRS connection may be unreliable and break easily. This should be taken
account when designing the system. If GPRS connection breaks, all the TCP and
Bluetooth connections will also be closed.

3.6.2 Opening Connections from Access Server

In the basic SPP-over-IP use case, Access server is in passive mode and
only accepts incoming connections. Using connector service, Access server can
open and maintain outgoing Bluetooth connections to defined Bluetooth devices.

54
 TCP/IP

Fig. 6.7: Access Server Opening the Connections

3.6.3 SPP-OVER-IP and Com Ports

SPP-over-IP can also be used together with Tactical Software‘s Serial/IP®
software. Serial/IP software simply converts the TCP connections into virtual
COM ports on the host computer. This is very useful in applications, which do not
have support for TCP/IP but support COM ports instead.

Fig. 6.8: SPP-over-IP with Serial/IP

55
LAN, Configuring SPP-over-IP
WAN and
This briefly instructs you to configure SPP-over-IP to work in different
TCP/IP
network setups or use cases. SPP-over-IP is easiest to configure through WWW
setup, which allows you to access all the necessary configurations.

Forwarding Incoming Connections

The basic SPP-over-IP operation, listening to incoming Bluetooth

connections and forwarding them to a TCP/IP socket on a remote host (or a local
application), is configured at Setup → iWRAP settings → Bluetooth profiles →
Connection forwarding.

Check your progress 5

1. SPP-over-IP software can also be used over GPRS instead of
________Ethernet connection.

a. Wired c. Bluetooth

b. Wifi

3.7 Maintaining and Forwarding Outgoing Connections

The SPP-over-IP connector, which opens and maintains outgoing Bluetooth
connections and forwards them to a TCP/IP socket on a remote host (or a local
application), is configured as follows:

Setup → Applications → Connector

Repeater configuration

If you want to configure access server also to act as a repeater, you must
make some additional configurations. Add the line below to your Bluetooth
startup script, editable at Setup → iWRAP settings → Edit startup script. Line
starting with # is comment, which can be left out:

56
 TCP/IP
# Automatically connect to Access Server with PAN-NAP enabled using
baseband 1

10101 SET CONTROL AUTOEXEC CALL 00:07:80:bf:01 PAN-NAP

You must replace the Bluetooth address used in the example

(00:07:80:80:bf:01) with the Bluetooth address of the access server, on which you
want to receive the PAN connection.

Note: The server receiving the PAN connection must have the PAN-NAP
profile enabled. This is by default is not the case, so in setup or its WWW
interface, ensure that the setting at → Bluetooth settings → Bluetooth profiles →
Enable PAN network access point profile says yes. No other configuration is
needed.

Check your progress 6

1. The server receiving the PAN connection must have the PAN-NAP profile
_______________.

a. enabled

b. disabled

3.8 Some TCP/IP Suite Members and Their Functions

Table 6.1. TCP/IP Suite Members and Their Functions

Name Function

TCP Transmission control protocol Ensures that connections are

made and maintained between computers

IP Internet protocol- handles software computer addresses

RIP Address resolution protocol- it relates IP address with

hardware (MAC)

57
LAN,
OSPF Open shortest path first- A descendant of RIP that increases
WAN and
its speed and reliability
TCP/IP

ICMP Internet control message protocol Handles errors and sends

error messages for TCP/IP

BGP/EGP Border gateway protocol/exterior gateway protocol handles

how data is passed between networks.

SNMP Simple network management allows network administration

to connect to and manage network devices.

PPP Point to point protocol: It provides for dial up networked

connections to networks.PPP is commonly used by internet
service providers to allow customers to connect to their
services.

SMTP Simple mail transport protocol- How email is passed between

servers on a TCP/IP network.

POP3/IMAP4 Post office protocol version 3/Internet message advertising

protocol version 4-Both set up ways for clients to connect to
the servers and collect email.

Check your progress 7

1. __________Ensures that connections are made and maintained between
computers.

a. TCP c. PPP
b. SMTP

3.9 IP Address
An Internet Protocol address (IP address) is a numerical label that is
assigned to any device participating in a computer network that uses the Internet
Protocol for communication between its nodes. An IP address serves two principal

58
functions: host or network interface identification and location addressing. Its role
TCP/IP
has been characterisedas follows: ―A name indicates what we seek. An address
indicates where it is. A route indicates how to get there‖.

The designers of TCP/IP defined an IP address as a 32-bit number and this

system, known as Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4), is still in use today.
However, due to the enormous growth of the Internet and the predicted depletion
of available addresses, a new addressing system (IPv6), using 128 bits for the
address, was developed in 1995, standardisedby RFC 2460 in 1998 and is in
worldwide production deployment.

Although IP addresses are stored as binary numbers, they are usually

displayed in human-readable notations, such as 208.77.188.166 (for IPv4) and
2001:db8:0:1234:0:567:1:1 (for IPv6).

The Internet Protocol is used to route data packets between networks; IP

addresses specify the locations of the source and destination nodes in the topology
of the routing system. For this purpose, some of the bits in an IP address are used
to designate a sub network. The number of these bits is indicated in CIDR
notation, appended to the IP address. E.g. 208.77.188.166/24.

As the development of private networks raised the threat of IPv4 address

exhaustion, RFC 1918 set aside a group of private address spaces that may be
used by anyone on private networks. Such networks require ‗network address
translator gateways‘ to connect to the global Internet.

The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) manages the IP address

space allocations globally and cooperates with five regional Internet registries
(RIRs) to allocate IP address blocks to local Internet registries (Internet service
providers) and other entities.

Check your progress 8

1. The designers of _________defined an IP address as a 32-bit number and
this system, known as Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4), is still in use
today.
a. TCP/IP c. PPP

b. LAN

59
LAN,
WAN and
3.10 Let Us Sum Up
TCP/IP In this unit, we have learned:

 A TCP segment consists of a segment header and a data section. The TCP
header contains 10 mandatory fields and an optional extension field. The
data section follows the header.

 Its contents are the payload data carried for the application. The length of
the data section is not specified in the TCP segment header. An Internet
Protocol address (IP address) is a numerical label that is assigned to any
device participating in a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol
for communication between its nodes.

 An IP address serves two principal functions: host or network interface

identification and location addressing. Its role has been characterisedas
follows: ―A name indicates what we seek. An address indicates where it is‖.

 Acknowledgment number (32 bits) – If the ACK flag is set then the value of
this field is the next sequence number that the receiver is expecting. This
acknowledges receipt of all prior bytes (if any).

 Data offset (4 bits) – This specifies the size of the TCP header in 32-bit
words. The minimum size header is 5 words and the maximum is 15 words.

3.11 Answers for Check Your Progress

Check your progress 1

Answers: (1-a)

Check your progress 2

Answers: (1-a)

Check your progress 3

Answers: (1-a)

60
 TCP/IP
Check your progress 4

Answers: (1-a)

Check your progress 5

Answers: (1-a)

Check your progress 6

Answers: (1-a)

Check your progress 7

Answers: (1-a)

Check your progress 8

Answers: (1-a)

3.12 Glossary
1. Modem (Modulator/demodulator) - An electronic device for converting
between serial data (typically EIA-232) from a computer and an audio
signal suitable for transmission over a telephone line connected to another
modem. In one scheme the audio signal is composed of silence (no data) or
one of two frequencies representing zero and one.

2. Network - a system containing any combination of computers, computer

terminals, printers, audio or visual display devices, or telephones
interconnected by telecommunication equipment or cables: used to transmit
or receive information.

3. Network Layer - The third lowest layer in the OSI seven layer model. The
network layer determines routing of packets of data from sender to receiver
via the data link layer and is used by the transport layer. The most common
network layer protocol is IP.

4. Repeater - A network or communications device which propagates

electrical signals from one cable to another, amplifying them to restore them

61
LAN, to full strength in the process. Repeaters are used to counter the attenuation
WAN and which occurs when signals travel long distances
TCP/IP
5. Router - A device which forwards packets between networks. The
forwarding decision is based on network layer information and routing
tables, often constructed by routing protocols.

6. Socket - The Berkeley Unix mechanism for creating a virtual connection

between processes. Sockets interface Unix‘s standard I/O with its
network communication facilities. They can be of two types, stream (bi-
directional) or datagram (fixed length destination-addressed messages). The
socket library function socket() creates a communications end-point or
socket and returns a file descriptor with which to access that socket. The
socket has associated with it a socket address, consisting of a port number
and the local host‘s network address.

3.13 Assignment
1. Explain TCP protocol operation.

2. What are the features of SPP over IP?

3.14 Activities
1. Explain the repeater operation.

2. Explain SPP over IP over COM ports.

3.15 Case Study

Obtain more information of TCP/IP and prepare a report on the same.

3.16 Further Readings

1. Computer Networking Essentials, Debra Littlejohn Shinder, Cisco Press,
2001

2. Sams Teach Yourself Network Troubleshooting in 24 Hours, Jonathan

Feldman, Sams Publishing, 2002

62
Block Summary
This block was written so that those readers who need information quickly
are able to find it instantly, and those who wish to learn more advanced topics can
even read deeper into each unit and further into the chapters. Books reference list
was also provided at the end of each unit in order to help those students who wish
to learn more more due to their interest in that very line.

The book begins with an overview of writer, discussing about the LAN
AND WAN.

Efforts were made by the writer as you get further into a chapter you will
learn more about LAN AND WAN, their role and capabilities, but often you will
be able to head directly to the topic you wish to learn about.

Sufficient diagrams were even used wherever it was felt appropriate by the
writer, and where according to him readers may find it helpful related to the
theory, including reference to certain documents that you will be able to get from
the books incase you need to study more about the topics.

63
LAN,
WAN and
Block Assignment
TCP/IP Short Answer Questions
Define the following terms-

1. Point-to-point protocol
2. Wan devices

3. HDLC

4. Circuit switching

5. Packet switching

6. Frame relay

7. WAN configuration

8. Ping

9. DNS proxy

10. SNMP

11. SSL

12. IP address

13. SPP
14. IP

15. Repeater

16. TCP/IP

Long Answer Questions

1. Describe the type of mediaaccess used by Token Ring.

2. Describe unicast, multicast and broadcast transmissions.

3. How do you maintain forwarding and outgoing connection?

64
Enrolment No.
1. How many hours did you need for studying the units?

Unit No 1 2 3 4

Nos of Hrs

2. Please give your reactions to the following items based on your reading of
the block:

3. Any Other Comments

………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………

65
 Education is something
which ought to be
brought within
the reach of every one.

- Dr. B. R. Ambedkar

Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Open University

Jyotirmay’ Parisar, Opp. Shri Balaji Temple, Sarkhej-Gandhinagar Highway, Chharodi,
Ahmedabad-382 481.