S V ENGINEERING COLLEGE

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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION

ENGINEERING

LECTURE NOTES

19A04302T- ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS

Regulation – R19

Academic Year (2020 – 21)

Year / Semester: II / I
 JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY ANANTAPUR
B.Tech – II-I Sem LTPC
3 0 0 3
19A04302T ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS

Unit I
Semiconductor Diode: Open circuited PN junction, PN junction as a rectifier, Current
components in a PN diode, Diode Equation and its mathematical derivation, Volt-Ampere
Characteristics, Energy band diagram of PN diode, Temperature dependence of Volt-Ampere
Characteristics, Diode resistance (Static and Dynamic resistance), Transition capacitance,
Diffusion capacitance, Step graded junction.
Unit II
Special Devices: Avalanche breakdown, V-I Characteristics of Zener diode, Zener breakdown,
Principle of operation and characteristics of Tunnel diode with the help of Energy band
diagram, Photo diode, LED, PIN diode and Varactor diode, Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
and its V-I characteristics, DIAC, TRIAC, Schottky Barrier diode, solar cell, Uni-Junction
Transistor (UJT) and its V-I Characteristics, Problem solving.
Unit III
Diode Applications: Diode as switch, Rectifier – Half wave and Full wave rectifier, Bridge
rectifier, Ripple factor, PIV, Filters – Inductor and Capacitor Filter, L-section filter, pi-Filter,
Zener as voltage regulator, Clipping and Clamping circuits, Detector, Voltage doubler,
Problem solving related to diode applications.
Unit IV
Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT):
Transistor – Structure, current components and their relationship, PNP and NPN transistors-
Active mode of operation, symbols and conventions, Transistor equations, Transistor as an
amplifier, input and output characteristics of Common Base, Common Emitter and Common
collector configurations. DC analyses of Common Base, Common Emitter and Common
collector circuits.
BJT Biasing: Load line and modes of operations, operating point, Bias stability, fixed bias,
self-bias, stabilization against variations in Ico, VBE, β, Bias compensation, Thermal runaway,
condition for Thermal stability, Problem solving.
Applications: As a switch, as an amplifier
Unit V
Field-Effect Transistors (FET) : Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field-effect Transistor
(MOSFET) - structures and V-I characteristics of n-channel Enhancement mode MOSFET, p-
channel Enhancement mode MOSFET, n-channel depletion mode MOSFET, p-channel
depletion mode MOSFET, symbols and conventions, Complementary MOSFETs
(CMOSFETs) - structure, V-I characteristics, symbols and conventions, structure and V-I
characteristics of n- channel and p-channel Junction Field Effect Transistors (JFET), Problem
solving.
Biasing Circuits Using MOSFETS and JFETS: Different configurations using MOSFETs
and JFET, load line and modes of operation, different biasing circuits (self-bias, voltage
divider bias) using MOSFETs and JFETs, DC Analysis of n-channel and p-channel MOSFETs
(both Enhancement and Depletion modes),DC analysis of n-channel and p-channel JFETs,
Problem solving.
Applications: MOSFETs, JFET as switch and small signal amplifier, CMOS as a switch.
Text Books:
1. Donald A Neamen, “Electronic Circuits – analysis and design”, 3rd Edition,
McGraw Hill (India), 2019.
2. J. Milliman and C Halkias, “Integrated electronics”, 2nd Edition, Tata
McGraw Hill, 1991.
References:
1. Behzad Razavi, “Microelectronics”, 2nd edition, Wiley, 2013.
2. R.L. Boylestad and Louis Nashelsky, “Electronic Devices and Circuits,” 9 th
Edition, Pearson, 2006.
3. Jimmie J Cathey, “Electronic Devices and Circuits,” Schaum’s outlines series, 3rd
edition, McGraw-Hill (India), 2010.
 CONTENTS
1 Unit-I Page No
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Unit-I notes 2
1.3 Part A Questions 24
1.4 Part B Questions 25
2 Unit-II 26-48
2.1 Introduction 26
2.2 Unit-II notes 27
2.3 Part A Questions 47
2.4 Part B Questions 48
3 Unit-III : 49-75
3.1 Introduction 49
3.2 Unit-III notes 50
3.3 Part A Questions 74
3.4 Part B Questions 75
4 Unit-IV 76-172
4.1 Introduction 76
4.2 Unit-IV notes 77
4.3 Part A Questions 170
4.4 Part B Questions 171
5 Unit-V 173-220
5.1 Introduction 173
5.2 Unit-V notes 174
5.3 Part A Questions 219
5.4 Part B Questions 220

3
 UNIT 1
PN JUNCTION DIODE
1.0 INTRODUCTON
Based on the electrical conductivity all the materials in nature are classified as insulators,
semiconductors, and conductors.

Insulator: An insulator is a material that offers a very low level (or negligible) of conductivity when
voltage is applied. Eg: Paper, Mica, glass, quartz. Typical resistivity level of an insulator is of the order of
1010 to 1012 Ω-cm. The energy band structure of an insulator is shown in the fig.1.1. Band structure of a
material defines the band of energy levels that an electron can occupy. Valance band is the range of
electron energy where the electron remain bended too the atom and do not contribute to the electric
current. Conduction bend is the range of electron energies higher than valance band where electrons
are free to accelerate under the influence of external voltage source resulting in the flow of charge.
The energy band between the valance band and conduction band is called as forbidden band
gap. It is the energy required by an electron to move from balance band to conduction band i.e. the
energy required for a valance electron to become a free electron.
1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J
For an insulator, as shown in the fig.1.1 there is a large forbidden band gap of greater than 5Ev. Because
of this large gap there a very few electrons in the CB and hence the conductivity of insulator is poor.
Even an increase in temperature or applied electric field is insufficient to transfer electrons from VB to
CB.

CB
CB CB

o
Forbidden band Eo =≈6eV
gap Eo ≈6eV

VB
VB
VB

Insulator Semiconductor Conductor

FiG:1.1 Energy band diagrams insulator, semiconductor and conductor

1
Conductors: A conductor is a material which supports a generous flow of charge when a voltage is
applied across its terminals. i.e. it has very high conductivity. Eg: Copper, Aluminum, Silver, Gold. The
resistivity of a conductor is in the order of 10-4 and 10-6 Ω-cm. The Valance and conduction bands
overlap (fig1.1) and there is no energy gap for the electrons to move from valance band to conduction
band. This implies that there are free electrons in CB even at absolute zero temperature (0K). Therefore
at room temperature when electric field is applied large current flows through the conductor.

Semiconductor: A semiconductor is a material that has its conductivity somewhere between the
insulator and conductor. The resistivity level is in the range of 10 and 104 Ω-cm. Two of the most
commonly used are Silicon (Si=14 atomic no.) and germanium (Ge=32 atomic no.). Both have 4 valance
electrons. The forbidden band gap is in the order of 1eV. For eg., the band gap energy for Si, Ge and
GaAs is 1.21, 0.785 and 1.42 eV, respectively at absolute zero temperature (0K). At 0K and at low
temperatures, the valance band electrons do not have sufficient energy to move from V to CB. Thus
semiconductors act a insulators at 0K. as the temperature increases, a large number of valance electrons
acquire sufficient energy to leave the VB, cross the forbidden bandgap and reach CB. These are now free
electrons as they can move freely under the influence of electric field. At room temperature there are
sufficient electrons in the CB and hence the semiconductor is capable of conducting some current at
room temperature.
Inversely related to the conductivity of a material is its resistance to the flow of charge or
current. Typical resistivity values for various materials’ are given as follows.

Insulator Semiconductor Conductor

-6 12
10 Ω-cm (Cu) 50Ω-cm (Ge) 10 Ω-cm (mica)

50x103 Ω-cm (Si)

Typical resistivity values

1.0.1 Semiconductor Types

A pure form of semiconductors is called as intrinsic semiconductor. Conduction in intrinsic sc is

either due to thermal excitation or crystal defects. Si and Ge are the two most important
semiconductors used. Other examples include Gallium arsenide GaAs, Indium Antimonide (InSb) etc.

2
 Let us consider the structure of Si.A Si atomic no. is 14 and it has 4 valance electrons. These 4
electrons are shared by four neighboring atoms in the crystal structure by means of covalent bond. Fig.
1.2a shows the crystal structure of Si at absolute zero temperature (0K). Hence a pure SC acts has poor
conductivity (due to lack of free electrons) at low or absolute zero temperature.

Covalent bond

Valence electron

Fig. 1.2a crystal structure of Si at 0K

At room temperature some of the covalent bonds break up to thermal energy as shown
in fig 1.2b. The valance electrons that jump into conduction band are called as free electrons
that are available for conduction.

Free electron

Valance electron

hole

Fig. 1.2b crystal structure of Si at room

temperature0K

3
 The absence of electrons in covalent bond is represented by a small circle usually
referred to as hole which is of positive charge. Even a hole serves as carrier of electricity in a
manner similar to that of free electron.

The mechanism by which a hole contributes to conductivity is explained as follows:

When a bond is in complete so that a hole exists, it is relatively easy for a valance
electron in the neighboring atom to leave its covalent bond to fill this hole. An electron moving
from a bond to fill a hole moves in a direction opposite to that of the electron. This hole, in its
new position may now be filled by an electron from another covalent bond and the hole will
correspondingly move one more step in the direction opposite to the motion of electron. Here
we have a mechanism for conduction of electricity which does not involve free electrons. This
phenomenon is illustrated in fig1.3

Electron movement

Hole movement

Fig. 1.3a

Fig. 1.3b

4
 Fig. 1.3c

Fig 1.3a show that there is a hole at ion 6.Imagine that an electron from ion 5 moves
into the hole at ion 6 so that the configuration of 1.3b results. If we compare both fig1.3a &fig
1.3b, it appears as if the hole has moved towards the left from ion6 to ion 5. Further if we
compare fig 1.3b and fig 1.3c, the hole moves from ion5 to ion 4. This discussion indicates the
motion of hole is in a direction opposite to that of motion of electron. Hence we consider holes
as physical entities whose movement constitutes flow of current.

In a pure semiconductor, the number of holes is equal to the number of free electrons.

1.0.2 EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR:

Intrinsic semiconductor has very limited applications as they conduct very small
amounts of current at room temperature. The current conduction capability of intrinsic
semiconductor can be increased significantly by adding a small amounts impurity to the
intrinsic semiconductor. By adding impurities it becomes impure or extrinsic semiconductor.
This process of adding impurities is called as doping. The amount of impurity added is 1 part in
106 atoms.

N type semiconductor: If the added impurity is a pentavalent atom then the resultant
semiconductor is called N-type semiconductor. Examples of pentavalent impurities are
Phosphorus, Arsenic, Bismuth, Antimony etc.

A pentavalent impurity has five valance electrons. Fig 1.3a shows the crystal structure of N-
type semiconductor material where four out of five valance electrons of the impurity
atom(antimony) forms covalent bond with the four intrinsic semiconductor atoms. The fifth
electron is loosely bound to the impurity atom. This loosely bound electron can be easily

5
 Fifth valance electron of SB

CB
Ec
Ed
B
Donor energy level B
Ev
B VB

Fig. 1.3a crystal structure of N type SC Fig. 1.3bEnergy band diagram of N type
SC

excited from the valance band to the conduction band by the application of electric field or
increasing the thermal energy. The energy required to detach the fifth electron form the
impurity atom is very small of the order of 0.01ev for Ge and 0.05 eV for Si.

The effect of doping creates a discrete energy level called donor energy level in the
forbidden band gap with energy level E d slightly less than the conduction band (fig 1.3b). The
difference between the energy levels of the conducting band and the donor energy level is the
energy required to free the fifth valance electron (0.01 eV for Ge and 0.05 eV for Si). At room
temperature almost all the fifth electrons from the donor impurity atom are raised to
conduction band and hence the number of electrons in the conduction band increases
significantly. Thus every antimony atom contributes to one conduction electron without
creating a hole.

In the N-type sc the no. of electrons increases and the no. of holes decreases compared to
those available in an intrinsic sc. The reason for decrease in the no. of holes is that the larger
no. of electrons present increases the recombination of electrons with holes. Thus current in N
type sc is dominated by electrons which are referred to as majority carriers. Holes are the
minority carriers in N type sc

P type semiconductor: If the added impurity is a trivalent atom then the resultant
semiconductor is called P-type semiconductor. Examples of trivalent impurities are Boron,
Gallium , indium etc.

6
 The crystal structure of p type sc is shown in the fig1.3c. The three valance electrons of the
impurity (boon) forms three covalent bonds with the neighboring atoms and a vacancy exists in
the fourth bond giving rise to the holes. The hole is ready to accept an electron from the
neighboring atoms. Each trivalent atom contributes to one hole generation and thus introduces
a large no. of holes in the valance band. At the same time the no. electrons are decreased
compared to those available in intrinsic sc because of increased recombination due to creation
of additional holes.

hole

Fig. 1.3c crystal structure of P type sc

Thus in P type sc , holes are majority carriers and electrons are minority carriers. Since
each trivalent impurity atoms are capable accepting an electron, these are called as acceptor
atoms. The following fig 1.3d shows the pictorial representation of P type sc

hole (majority carrier)

Electron (minority carrier)

Acceptor atoms

Fig. 1.3d crystal structure of P type sc

 The conductivity of N type sc is greater than that of P type sc as the mobility of

electron is greater than that of hole.

 For the same level of doping in N type sc and P type sc, the conductivity of an Ntype
sc is around twice that of a P type sc

7
1.0.3 CONDUCTIVITY OF SEMICONDUCTOR:

In a pure sc, the no. of holes is equal to the no. of electrons. Thermal agitation continue
to produce new electron- hole pairs and the electron hole pairs disappear because of
recombination. with each electron hole pair created , two charge carrying particles are formed .
One is negative which is a free electron with mobility µn . The other is a positive i.e., hole with
mobility µp . The electrons and hole move in opppsitte direction in a an electric field E, but since
they are of opposite sign, the current due to each is in the same direction. Hence the total
current density J within the intrinsic sc is given by

J = Jn + J p

=q n µn E + q p µp E

= (n µn + p µp)qE

=σ E

Where n=no. of electrons / unit volume i.e., concentration of free electrons

P= no. of holes / unit volume i.e., concentration of holes

E=applied electric field strength, V/m

q= charge of electron or hole I n Coulombs

Hence, σ is the conductivity of sc which is equal to (n µn + p µp)q. he resistivity of sc is

reciprocal of conductivity.

Ρ = 1/ σ

It is evident from the above equation that current density with in a sc is directly
proportional to applied electric field E.

For pure sc, n=p= ni where ni = intrinsic concentration. The value of ni is given by

ni2=AT3 exp (-EGO/KT)

therefore, J= ni ( µn + µp) q E

Hence conductivity in intrinsic sc is σi= ni ( µn + µp) q

Intrinsic conductivity increases at the rate of 5% per o C for Ge and 7% per o C for Si.

8
Conductivity in extrinsic sc (N Type and P Type):

The conductivity of intrinsic sc is given by σi= ni ( µn + µp) q = (n µn + p µp)q

For N type , n>>p

Therefore σ= q n µn

For P type ,p>>n

Therefore σ= q p µp

1.0.4 FERMI LEVEL:

1.0.5 CHARGE DENSITIES IN P TYPE AND N TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR:

Mass Action Law:

Under thermal equilibrium for any semiconductor, the product of the no. of holes and
the concentration of electrons is constant and is independent of amount of donor and acceptor
impurity doping.

n.p= ni2

where n= eleetron concentration

p = hole concentration

ni2= intrinsic concentration

Hence in N type sc , as the no. of electrons increase the no. of holes decreases. Similarly
in P type as the no. of holes increases the no. of electrons decreases. Thus the product is
constant and is equal to ni2 in case of intrinsic as well as extrinsic sc.

The law of mass action has given the relationship between free electrons concentration
and hole concentration. These concentrations are further related by the law of electrical
neutrality as explained below.

Law of electrical neutrality:

Sc materials are electrically neutral. According to the law of electrical neutrality, in an

electrically neutral material, the magnitude of positive charge concentration is equal to tat of
negative charge concentration. Let us consider a sc that has ND donor atoms per cubic
centimeter and NA acceptor atoms per cubic centimeter i.e., the concentration of donor and
acceptor atoms are ND and NA respectively. Therefore ND positively charged ions per cubic

9
centimeter are contributed by donor atoms and NA negatively charged ions per cubic
centimeter are contributed by the acceptor atoms. Let n, p is concentration of free electrons
and holes respectively. Then according to the law of neutrality

ND + p =NA + n …………………………………eq 1.1

For N type sc, NA =0 and n>>p. Therefore ND ≈ n ………………………………….eq 1.2

Hence for N type sc the free electron concentration is approximately equal to the
concentration of donor atoms. In later applications since some confusion may arise as to which
type of sc is under consideration a the given moment, the subscript n or p is added for Ntype or
P type respectively. Hence eq1.2 becomes ND ≈ nn

Therefore current density in N type sc is J = ND µn q E

And conductivity σ= ND µn q

For P type sc, ND = 0 and p>>n. Therefore NA ≈ p

Or NA ≈ pp

Hence for P type sc the hole concentration is approximately equal to the concentration
of acceptor atoms.

Therefore current density in N type sc is J = NA µp q E

And conductivity σ= NA µp q

Mass action law for N type, nn pn= ni2

pn= ni2/ ND since (nn≈ ND)

Mass action law for P type, np pp= ni2

np= ni2/ NA since (pp≈ NA)

1.1 QUANTITATIVE THEORY OF PN JUNCTION DIODE:

1.1.1 PN JUNCTION WITH NO APPLIED VOLTAGE OR OPEN CIRCUIT CONDITION:

In a piece of sc, if one half is doped by p type impurity and the other half is doped by n
type impurity, a PN junction is formed. The plane dividing the two halves or zones is called PN
junction. As shown in the fig the n type material has high concentration of free electrons, while
p type material has high concentration of holes. Therefore at the junction there is a tendency of

10
free electrons to diffuse over to the P side and the holes to the N side. This process is called

diffusion. As the free electrons move across the junction from N type to P type, the donor
atoms become positively charged. Hence a positive charge is built on the N-side of the junction.
The free electrons that cross the junction uncover the negative acceptor ions by filing the holes.
Therefore a negative charge is developed on the p –side of the junction..This net negative
charge on the p side prevents further diffusion of electrons into the p side. Similarly the net
positive charge on the N side repels the hole crossing from p side to N side. Thus a barrier sis
set up near the junction which prevents the further movement of charge carriers i.e. electrons
and holes. As a consequence of induced electric field across the depletion layer, an electrostatic
potential difference is established between P and N regions, which are called the potential
barrier, junction barrier, diffusion potential or contact potential, Vo. The magnitude of the
contact potential Vo varies with doping levels and temperature. Vo is 0.3V for Ge and 0.72 V for
Si.

The electrostatic field across the junction caused by the positively charged N-Type
region tends to drive the holes away from the junction and negatively charged p type regions
tend to drive the electrons away from the junction. The majority holes diffusing out of the P
region leave behind negatively charged acceptor atoms bound to the lattice, thus exposing a
negatives pace charge in a previously neutral region. Similarly electrons diffusing from the N
region expose positively ionized donor atoms and a double space charge builds up at the
junction as shown in the fig. 1.7

11
 It is noticed that the space charge layers are of opposite sign to the majority carriers
diffusing into them, which tends to reduce the diffusion rate. Thus the double space of the layer
causes an electric field to be set up across the junction directed from N to P regions, which is in
such a direction to inhibit the diffusion of majority electrons and holes as illustrated in fig 1.7.
The shape of the charge density, ρ, depends upon how diode id doped. Thus the junction region
is depleted of mobile charge carriers. Hence it is called depletion layer, space region, and
transition region. The depletion region is of the order of 0.5µm thick. There are no mobile
carriers in this narrow depletion region. Hence no current flows across the junction and the
system is in equilibrium. To the left of this depletion layer, the carrier concentration is p= NA
and to its right it is n= ND.

12
1.1.2 FORWARD BIASED JUNCTION DIODE

When a diode is connected in a Forward Bias condition, a negative voltage is applied to the N-type material and a
positive voltage is applied to the P-type material. If this external voltage becomes greater than the value of the
potential barrier, approx. 0.7 volts for silicon and 0.3 volts for germanium, the potential barriers opposition will be
overcome and current will start to flow. This is because the negative voltage pushes or repels electrons towards the
junction giving them the energy to cross over and combine with the holes being pushed in the opposite direction
towards the junction by the positive voltage. This results in a characteristics curve of zero current flowing up to this
voltage point, called the "knee" on the static curves and then a high current flow through the diode with little increase
in the external voltage as shown below.

13
Forward Characteristics Curve for a Junction Diode

The application of a forward biasing voltage on the junction diode results in the depletion layer becoming very thin
and narrow which represents a low impedance path through the junction thereby allowing high currents to flow. The
point at which this sudden increase in current takes place is represented on the static I-V characteristics curve above
as the "knee" point.

Forward Biased Junction Diode showing a Reduction in the Depletion Layer

This condition represents the low resistance path through the PN junction allowing very large currents to flow through
the diode with only a small increase in bias voltage. The actual potential difference across the junction or diode is
kept constant by the action of the depletion layer at approximately 0.3v for germanium and approximately 0.7v for
silicon junction diodes. Since the diode can conduct "infinite" current above this knee point as it effectively becomes a

14
short circuit, therefore resistors are used in series with the diode to limit its current flow. Exceeding its maximum
forward current specification causes the device to dissipate more power in the form of heat than it was designed for
resulting in a very quick failure of the device.

1.1.2 PN JUNCTION UNDER REVERSE BIAS CONDITION:

A silicon p–n junction in reverse bias.

Reverse Biased Junction Diode

When a diode is connected in a Reverse Bias condition, a positive voltage is applied to the N-type material and a
negative voltage is applied to the P-type material. The positive voltage applied to the N-type material attracts
electrons towards the positive electrode and away from the junction, while the holes in the P-type end are also
attracted away from the junction towards the negative electrode. The net result is that the depletion layer grows wider
due to a lack of electrons and holes and presents a high impedance path, almost an insulator. The result is that a
high potential barrier is created thus preventing current from flowing through the semiconductor material.

Reverse Biased Junction Diode showing an Increase in the Depletion Layer

This condition represents a high resistance value to the PN junction and practically zero current flows through the
junction diode with an increase in bias voltage. However, a very small leakage current does flow through the junction

15
which can be measured in microamperes, (μA). One final point, if the reverse bias voltage Vr applied to the diode is
increased to a sufficiently high enough value, it will cause the PN junction to overheat and fail due to the avalanche
effect around the junction. This may cause the diode to become shorted and will result in the flow of maximum circuit
current, and this shown as a step downward slope in the reverse static characteristics curve below.

Reverse Characteristics Curve for a Junction Diode

Sometimes this avalanche effect has practical applications in voltage stabilising circuits where a series limiting
resistor is used with the diode to limit this reverse breakdown current to a preset maximum value thereby producing a
fixed voltage output across the diode. These types of diodes are commonly known as Zener Diodes and are
discussed in a later tutorial.

1.2 VI CHARACTERISTICS AND THEIR TEMPERATURE

DEPENDENCE:
Diode terminal characteristics equation for diode junction current:
v
vT
I D  I 0 (e  1)
Where VT = kT/q;
VD_ diode terminal voltage, Volts
Io _ temperature-dependent saturation current, µA
T _ absolute temperature of p-n junction, K
k _ Boltzmann’s constant 1.38x 10 -23J/K)

16
q _ electron charge 1.6x10-19 C
 = empirical constant, 1 for Ge and 2 for Si

Temperature Effects on Diode

Temperature can have a marked effect on the characteristics of a silicon semiconductor diode as
shown in Fig. 1.24. It has been found experimentally that the reverse saturation current Io will just about
double in magnitude for every 10°C increase in temperature.

17
It is not uncommon for a germanium diode with an Io in the order of 1 or 2 A at 25°C to have a leakage
current of 100 A _ 0.1 mA at a temperature of 100°C. Typical values of Io for silicon are much lower than
that of germanium for similar power and current levels. The result is that even at high temperatures the
levels of Io for silicon diodes do not reach the same high levels obtained.for germanium—a very
important reason that silicon devices enjoy a significantly higher level of development and utilization in
design. Fundamentally, the open-circuit equivalent in the reverse bias region is better realized at any
temperature with silicon than with germanium. The increasing levels of Io with temperature account for
the lower levels of threshold voltage, as shown in Fig. 1.24. Simply increase the level of Io in and not rise
in diode current. Of course, the level of TK also will be increase, but the increasing level of Io will
overpower the smaller percent change in TK. As the temperature increases the forward characteristics are
actually becoming more “ideal,”

1.3 IDEAL VERSUS PRACTICAL RESISTANCE LEVELS

DC or Static Resistance
The application of a dc voltage to a circuit containing a semiconductor diode will result in an
operating point on the characteristic curve that will not change with time. The resistance of the diode at
the operating point can be found simply by finding the corresponding levels of VD and ID as shown in
Fig. 1.25 and applying the following Equation:

The dc resistance levels at the knee and below will be greater than the resistance levels obtained for the
vertical rise section of the characteristics. The resistance levels in the reverse-bias region will naturally be
quite high. Since ohmmeters typically employ a relatively constant-current source, the resistance
determined will be at a preset current level (typically, a few mill amperes).

Figure 1.25 determining the dc resistance of a diode at a particular operating point.

18
AC or Dynamic Resistance
It is obvious from Eq. 1.5 that the dc resistance of a diode is independent of the shape of the
characteristic in the region surrounding the point of interest. If a sinusoidal rather than dc input is applied,
the situation will change completely. The varying input will move the instantaneous operating point up
and down a region of the characteristics and thus defines a specific change in current and voltage as
shown in Fig. 1.27. With no applied varying signal, the point of operation would be the Q-point appearing
on Fig. 1.27 determined by the applied dc levels. The designation Q-point is derived from the word
quiescent, which means “still or unvarying.” A straight-line drawn tangent to the curve through the Q-
point as shown in Fig. 1.28 will define a particular change in voltage and current that can be used to
determine the ac or dynamic resistance for this region of the diode characteristics. In equation form,

1.4 DIODE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS

An equivalent circuit is a combination of elements properly chosen to best represent the actual
terminal characteristics of a device, system, or such in a particular operating region. In other words, once
the equivalent circuit is defined, the device symbol can be removed from a schematic and the equivalent
circuit inserted in its place without severely affecting the actual behaviour of the system. The result is
often a network that can be solved using traditional circuit analysis techniques.

Piecewise-Linear Equivalent Circuit

One technique for obtaining an equivalent circuit for a diode is to approximate the characteristics
of the device by straight-line segments, as shown in Fig. 1.31. The resulting equivalent circuit is naturally
called the piecewise-linear equivalent circuit. It should be obvious from Fig. 1.31 that the straight-line
segments do not result in an exact duplication of the actual characteristics, especially in the knee region.
However, the resulting segments are sufficiently close to the actual curve to establish an equivalent circuit
that will provide an excellent first approximation to the actual behaviour of the device. The ideal diode is

19
included to establish that there is only one direction of conduction through the device, and a reverse-bias
condition will result in the open- circuit state for the device. Since a silicon semiconductor, diode does not
reach the conduction state until VD reaches 0.7 V with a forward bias (as shown in Fig. 1.31), a battery
VT opposing the conduction direction must appear in the equivalent circuit as shown in Fig. 1.32. The
battery simply specifies that the voltage across the device must be greater than the threshold battery
voltage before conduction through the device in the direction dictated by the ideal diode can be
established. When conduction is established, the resistance of the diode will be the specified value of rav.

The approximate level of rav can usually be determined from a specified operating point on the
specification sheet. For instance, for a silicon semiconductor diode, if IF _ 10 mA (a forward conduction
current for the diode) at VD _ 0.8 V, we know for silicon that a shift of 0.7 V is required before the
characteristics rise.

20
1.5 TRANSITION AND DIFFUSION CAPACITANCE
Electronic devices are inherently sensitive to very high frequencies. Most shunt capacitive effects
that can be ignored at lower frequencies because the reactance XC=1/2πfC is very large (open-circuit
equivalent). This, however, cannot be ignored at very high frequencies. XC will become sufficiently small
due to the high value of f to introduce a low-reactance “shorting” path. In the p-n semiconductor diode,
there are two capacitive effects to be considered. In the reverse-bias region we have the transition- or
depletion region capacitance (CT), while in the forward-bias region we have the diffusion (CD) or storage
capacitance. Recall that the basic equation for the capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor is defined by
C=€A/d, where € is the permittivity of the dielectric (insulator) between the plates of area A separated by
a distance d. In the reverse-, bias region there is a depletion region (free of carriers) that behaves
essentially like an insulator between the layers of opposite charge. Since the depletion width (d) will
increase with increased reverse-bias potential, the resulting transition capacitance will decrease. The fact
that the capacitance is dependent on the applied reverse-bias potential has application in a number of
electronic systems. Although the effect described above will also be present in the forward-bias region, it
is over shadowed by a capacitance effect directly dependent on the rate at which charge is injected into

21
the regions just outside the depletion region. The capacitive effects described above are represented by a
capacitor in parallel with the ideal diode, as shown in Fig. 1.38. For low- or mid-frequency applications
(except in the power area), however, the capacitor is normally not included in the diode symbol.

Diode capacitances: The diode exhibits two types of capacitances transition capacitance and diffusion

capacitance.

. Transition capacitance: The capacitance which appears between positive ion layer in n-region and

negative ion layer in p-region.

· Diffusion capacitance: This capacitance originates due to diffusion of charge carriers in the

opposite regions.

The transition capacitance is very small as compared to the diffusion capacitance.

In reverse bias transition, the capacitance is the dominant and is given by:

where CT - transition capacitance

A - diode cross sectional area

W - depletion region width

In forward bias, the diffusion capacitance is the dominant and is given by:

where CD - diffusion capacitance

dQ - change in charge stored in depletion region

V - change in applied voltage

- time interval for change in voltage

g - diode conductance

22
 r - diode resistance

The diffusion capacitance at low frequencies is given by the formula:

The diffusion capacitance at high frequencies is inversely proportional

to the frequency and is given by the formula:

Note: The variation of diffusion capacitance with applied voltage is used in the

design of varactor.

23
 PART A QUESTIONS
1. Define pn junction diode?
2. Define forbidden energy gap?
3. Si is preferred over Ge in the manufacture of semiconductor devices? Why?
4. What is meant by depletion region?
5. What is biasing? Explain biasing of a pn junction diode?
6. Define diffusion current?
7. Compare drift current with diffusion current?
8. List various current components of pn diode?
9. Derive the equation for diode current?
10. Explain V-I characteristics of diode with neat diagrams?
11. Define cut in voltage?
12. Derive the expression for Temperature dependence of V-I characteristics?
13. Define static and dynamic resistance of diode?
14. Explain diode capacitance?
15. Explain band structure diagram of open circuited pn junction diode?

24
 PART B QUESTIONS
1. Explain about formation of p-n Junction

2. Explain about open circuited p-n junction

3. Explain the operation of p-n junction diode

4. Explain the operation of forward bias and reverse biased p-n junction diode

5. Derive PN junction diode equation

6. Discuss PN diode VI characteristics with neat sketch.

7. Discuss temperature dependence of PN diode VI characteristics.

8. Explain Energy band diagram of PN diode

9. Describe Temperature dependence of Volt-Ampere Characteristics

10. Explain Diode resistance (Static and Dynamic resistance)

11. Explain the Concepts of Transition capacitance, Diffusion capacitance

25
 UNIT 2
SPECIAL DEVICES
BREAK DOWN MECHANISMS
When an ordinary P-N junction diode is reverse biased, normally only very small reverse saturation
current flows. This current is due to movement of minority carriers. It is almost independent of the voltage
applied. However, if the reverse bias is increased, a point is reached when the junction breaks down and
the reverse current increases abruptly. This current could be large enough to destroy the junction. If the
reverse current is limited by means of a suitable series resistor, the power dissipation at the junction will
not be excessive, and the device may be operated continuously in its breakdown region to its normal
(reverse saturation) level. It is found that for a suitably designed diode, the breakdown voltage is very
stable over a wide range of reverse currents. This quality gives the breakdown diode many useful
applications as a voltage reference source.

The critical value of the voltage, at which the breakdown of a P-N junction diode occurs is called the
breakdown voltage. The breakdown voltage depends on the width of the depletion region, which, in
turn, depends on the doping level. The junction offers almost zero resistance at the breakdown point.

There are two mechanisms by which breakdown can occur at a reverse biased P-N junction :

1. avalanche breakdown and

2. Zener breakdown.

Avalanche breakdown and

The minority carriers, under reverse biased conditions, flowing through the junction acquire a
kinetic energy which increases with the increase in reverse voltage. At a sufficiently high reverse
voltage (say 5 V or more), the kinetic energy of minority carriers becomes so large that they knock
out electrons from the covalent bonds of the semiconductor material. As a result of collision, the
liberated electrons in turn liberate more electrons and the current becomes very large leading to
the breakdown of the crystal structure itself. This phenomenon is called the avalanche breakdown.
The breakdown region is the knee of the characteristic curve. Now the current is not controlled by
the junction voltage but rather by the external circuit.

Zener breakdown

Under a very high reverse voltage, the depletion region expands and the potential barrier increases
leading to a very high electric field across the junction. The electric field will break some of the covalent
bonds of the semiconductor atoms leading to a large number of free minority carriers, which suddenly
increase the reverse current. This is called the Zener effect. The breakdown occurs at a particular and

26
constant value of reverse voltage called the breakdown voltage, it is found that Zener breakdown occurs
at electric field intensity of about 3 x 10^7 V/m.

Either of the two (Zener breakdown or avalanche breakdown) may occur independently, or both
of these may occur simultaneously. Diode junctions that breakdown below 5 V are caused by Zener effect.
Junctions that experience breakdown above 5 V are caused by avalanche effect. Junctions that breakdown
around 5 V are usually caused by combination of two effects. The Zener breakdown occurs in heavily
doped junctions (P-type semiconductor moderately doped and N-type heavily doped), which produce
narrow depletion layers. The avalanche breakdown occurs in lightly doped junctions, which produce wide
depletion layers. With the increase in junction temperature Zener breakdown voltage is reduced while
the avalanche breakdown voltage increases. The Zener diodes have a negative temperature coefficient
while avalanche diodes have a positive temperature coefficient. Diodes that have breakdown voltages
around 5 V have zero temperature coefficient. The breakdown phenomenon is reversible and harmless
so long as the safe operating temperature is maintained.

ZENER DIODES

The Zener diode is like a general-purpose signal diode consisting of a silicon PN junction. When
biased in the forward direction it behaves just like a normal signal diode passing the rated current,
but as soon as a reverse voltage applied across the zener diode exceeds the rated voltage of the
device, the diodes breakdown voltage VB is reached at which point a process called Avalanche
Breakdown occurs in the semiconductor depletion layer and a current starts to flow through the
diode to limit this increase in voltage.

The current now flowing through the zener diode increases dramatically to the maximum circuit
value (which is usually limited by a series resistor) and once achived this reverse saturation
current remains fairly constant over a wide range of applied voltages. This breakdown voltage

27
point, VB is called the "zener voltage" for zener diodes and can range from less than one volt to
hundreds of volts.

The point at which the zener voltage triggers the current to flow through the diode can be very
accurately controlled (to less than 1% tolerance) in the doping stage of the diodes semiconductor
construction giving the diode a specific zener breakdown voltage, (Vz) for example, 4.3V or 7.5V.
This zener breakdown voltage on the I-V curve is almost a vertical straight line.

Zener Diode I-V Characteristics

The Zener Diode is used in its "reverse bias" or reverse breakdown mode, i.e. the diodes anode
connects to the negative supply. From the I-V characteristics curve above, we can see that the
zener diode has a region in its reverse bias characteristics of almost a constant negative voltage
regardless of the value of the current flowing through the diode and remains nearly constant even
with large changes in current as long as the zener diodes current remains between the breakdown
current IZ(min) and the maximum current rating IZ(max).

This ability to control itself can be used to great effect to regulate or stabilise a voltage source
against supply or load variations. The fact that the voltage across the diode in the breakdown
region is almost constant turns out to be an important application of the zener diode as a voltage

28
regulator. The function of a regulator is to provide a constant output voltage to a load connected
in parallel with it in spite of the ripples in the supply voltage or the variation in the load current and
the zener diode will continue to regulate the voltage until the diodes current falls below the
minimum IZ(min) value in the reverse breakdown region.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF TUNNEL DIODE:

A tunnel diode or Esaki diode is a type of semiconductor diode which is capable of very fast
operation, well into the microwave frequency region, by using quantum mechanical effects.

It was invented in August 1957 by Leo Esaki when he was with Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo, now known
as Sony. In 1973 he received the Nobel Prize in Physics, jointly with Brian Josephson, for
discovering the electron tunneling effect used in these diodes. Robert Noyce independently came
up with the idea of a tunnel diode while working for William Shockley, but was discouraged from
pursuing it.

Fig:Tunnel diode schematic symbol

These diodes have a heavily doped p–n junction only some 10 nm (100 Å) wide. The heavy doping
results in a broken bandgap, where conduction band electron states on the n-side are more or less
aligned with valence band hole states on the p-side.

Tunnel diodes were manufactured by Sony for the first time in 1957 followed by General Electric
and other companies from about 1960, and are still made in low volume today. Tunnel diodes are
usually made from germanium, but can also be made in gallium arsenide and silicon materials.
They can be used as oscillators, amplifiers, frequency converters and detectors.

Tunnelling Phenomenon:

In a conventional semiconductor diode, conduction takes place while the p–n junction is forward
biased and blocks current flow when the junction is reverse biased. This occurs up to a point known
as the “reverse breakdown voltage” when conduction begins (often accompanied by destruction of
the device). In the tunnel diode, the dopant concentration in the p and n layers are increased to the
point where the reverse breakdown voltage becomes zero and the diode conducts in the reverse
direction. However, when forward-biased, an odd effect occurs called “quantum mechanical
tunnelling” which gives rise to a region where an increase in forward voltage is accompanied by a
decrease in forward current. This negative resistance region can be exploited in a solid state version
of the dynatron oscillator which normally uses a tetrode thermionic valve (or tube).

29
Forward bias operation

Under normal forward bias operation, as voltage begins to increase, electrons at first tunnel
through the very narrow p–n junction barrier because filled electron states in the conduction band
on the n-side become aligned with empty valence band hole states on the p-side of the p-n junction.
As voltage increases further these states become more misaligned and the current drops – this is
called negative resistance because current decreases with increasing voltage. As voltage increases
yet further, the diode begins to operate as a normal diode, where electrons travel by conduction
across the p–n junction, and no longer by tunneling through the p–n junction barrier. Thus the most
important operating region for a tunnel diode is the negative resistance region.

Reverse bias operation

When used in the reverse direction they are called back diodes and can act as fast rectifiers with
zero offset voltage and extreme linearity for power signals (they have an accurate square law
characteristic in the reverse direction).

Under reverse bias filled states on the p-side become increasingly aligned with empty states on the
n-side and electrons now tunnel through the pn junction barrier in reverse direction – this is the
Zener effect that also occurs in zener diodes.

Technical comparisons

A rough approximation of the VI curve for a tunnel diode, showing the negative differential
resistance region.The Japanese physicist Leo Esaki invented the tunnel diode in 1958.It consists
of a p-n junction with highly doped regions. Because of the thinness of the junction, the electrons

30
can pass through the potential barrier of the dam layer at a suitable polarization, reaching the
energy states on the other sides of the junction. The current-voltage characteristic of the diode is
represented in Figure 1. In this sketch i p and Up are the peak, and iv and Uv are the valley values
for the current and voltage respectively. The form of this dependence can be qualitatively
explained by considering the tunneling processes that take place in a thin p-n junction.

Energy band structure of tunnel diode:

For the degenerated semiconductors, the energy band diagram at thermal equilibrium is presented
in Figure 2.

In Figure 3 the tunneling processes in different points of the current voltage characteristic for the
tunnel diode are presented.

31
In Fig. 3a, the thermal equilibrium situation corresponding to point 1
from the Fig. 1 diagram presented; in this case the electrons will uniformly tunnel in both
directions, so the current will be null. At a direct polarization, a non-zero electron flow will tunnel
from the occupied states of the conduction band of the n region to the empty states
of the valence band from the p region. The current attains a maximum when the overlap of the
empty and occupied states reaches the maximum value; a minimum value is reached when there
are no states for tunneling on the sides of the barrier. In this case, the tunnel current should drop
to zero.

Advantages of tunnel diodes:

 Environmental immunity i.e peak point is not a function of temperature.

 low cost.
 low noise.
 low power consumption.
 High speed i.e tunneling takes place very fast at the speed of light in the order of
nanoseconds
 simplicity i.e a tunnel diode can be used along with a d.c supply and a few passive elements
to obtain various application circuits.

Applications for tunnel diodes:

 local oscillators for UHF television tuners

 Trigger circuits in oscilloscopes
 High speed counter circuits and very fast-rise time pulse generator circuits
 The tunnel diode can also be used as low-noise microwave amplifier.

32
 8.2 VARACTOR DIODE:

Varactor diode is a special type of diode which uses transition capacitance property i.e voltage
variable capacitance .These are also called as varicap,VVC(voltage variable capacitance) or tuning
diodes.

The varactor diode symbol is shown below with a diagram representation.

Fig:symbol of varactor diode

When a reverse voltage is applied to a PN junction , the holes in the p-region are attracted to the
anode terminal and electrons in the n-region are attracted to the cathode terminal creating a region
where there is little current.This region ,the depletion region, is essentially devoid of carriers and
behaves as the dielectric of a capacitor.

The depletion region increases as reverse voltage across it increases; and since capacitance varies
inversely as dielectric thickness, the junction capacitance will decrease as the voltage across the
PN junction increases. So by varying the reverse voltage across a PN junction the junction
capacitance can be varied .This is shown in the typical varactor voltage-capacitance curve below.

Fig:voltage- capacitance curve

Notice the nonlinear increase in capacitance as the reverse voltage is decreased. This nonlinearity
allows the varactor to be used also as a harmonic generator.

Major varactor considerations are:

(a) Capacitance value
(b) Voltage
(c) Variation in capacitance with voltage.

33
(d) Maximum working voltage
(e) Leakage current

Applications:

 Tuned circuits.
 FM modulators
 Automatic frequency control devices
 Adjustable bandpass filters
 Parametric amplifiers
 Television receivers.

8.3 SCHOTTKY DIODE:

A Schottky diode is a majority carrier device, where electron-hole recombination is usually not
important. Hence, Schottky diodes have a much faster response under forward bias conditions
than p-n junction diodes. Therefore, Schottky diodes are used in applications where the speed of
a response is important, for example, in microwave detectors, mixers, and varactors. schottky
diodes are specially manufactured to solve the problem of fast switching which consists of a
metal to semiconductor junction.The symbol of schottky diode is as follows:

Fig:symbol of schottky diode

Structure and principle of operation

1. Structure

The structure of a metal-semiconductor junction is shown in Figure 1. It consists of a metal contacting a

piece of semiconductor. An ideal Ohmic contact, a contact such that no potential exists between the metal
and the semiconductor, is made to the other side of the semiconductor. The sign convention of the applied
voltage and current is also shown on Figure 1.

34
 Figure 1 : Structure and sign convention of a metal-semiconductor junction
Flatband diagram and built-in potential
The barrier between the metal and the semiconductor can be identified on an energy band diagram. To
construct such diagram we first consider the energy band diagram of the metal and the semiconductor, and
align them using the same vacuum level as shown in Figure 2 (a). As the metal and semiconductor are
brought together, the Fermi energies of the metal and the semiconductor do not change right away. This
yields the flatband diagram of Figure 2 (b).

Figure 2 : Energy band diagram of the metal and the semiconductor before (a) and after (b) contact is
made.

The barrier height, B, is defined as the potential difference between the Fermi energy of the metal and the
band edge where the majority carriers reside. From Figure 2 (b) one finds that for an n-type semiconductor
the barrier height is obtained from:

(1.1)

Where M is the work function of the metal and is the electron affinity. The work function of selected
metals as measured in vacuum can be found in Table 1. For p-type material, the barrier height is given by
the difference between the valence band edge and the Fermi energy in the metal:

35
 (1.2)

A metal-semiconductor junction will therefore form a barrier for electrons and holes if the Fermi energy of
the metal as drawn on the flatband diagram is somewhere between the conduction and valence band edge.

In addition, we define the built-in potential, I, as the difference between the Fermi energy of the metal and
that of the semiconductor.

(1.3)

(1.4)

Energy band diagram of a metal-semiconductor contact in thermal equilibrium.

The flatband diagram, shown in Figure 2 (b), is not a thermal equilibrium diagram, since the Fermi energy
in the metal differs from that in the semiconductor. Electrons in the n-type semiconductor can lower their
energy by traversing the junction. As the electrons leave the semiconductor, a positive charge, due to the
ionized donor atoms, stays behind. This charge creates a negative field and lowers the band edges of the
semiconductor. Electrons flow into the metal until equilibrium is reached between the diffusion of electrons
from the semiconductor into the metal and the drift of electrons caused by the field created by the ionized
impurity atoms. This equilibrium is characterized by a constant Fermi energy throughout the structure.

36
 Figure 3 : Energy band diagram of a metal-semiconductor contact in thermal equilibrium.

It is of interest to note that in thermal equilibrium, i.e. with no external voltage applied, there is a region in
the semiconductor close to the junction which is depleted of mobile carriers. We call this the depletion
region. The potential across the semiconductor equals the built-in potential

Forward and reverse bias

Operation of a metal-semiconductor junction under forward and reverse bias is illustrated with Figure 4. As
a positive bias is applied to the metal (Figure 4 (a)), the Fermi energy of the metal is lowered with respect to
the Fermi energy in the semiconductor. This results in a smaller potential drop across the semiconductor.
The balance between diffusion and drift is disturbed and more electrons will diffuse towards the metal than
the number drifting into the semiconductor. This leads to a positive current through the junction at a voltage
comparable to the built-in potential.

37
 Figure 4 : Energy band diagram of a metal-semiconductor junction under (a) forward and (b) reverse
bias

As a negative voltage is applied (Figure 4 (b)), the Fermi energy of the metal is raised with respect to the
Fermi energy in the semiconductor. The potential across the semiconductor now increases, yielding a larger
depletion region and a larger electric field at the interface. The barrier, which restricts the electrons to the
metal, is unchanged so that the flow of electrons is limited by that barrier independent of the applied
voltage. The metal-semiconductor junction with positive barrier height has therefore a pronounced
rectifying behavior. A large current exists under forward bias, while almost no current exists under reverse
bias.

Characteristics of Schottky Diode:

Due to minority carrier free region, schottky diode cannot store the charge.Hence due to lack of charge
storage,it can switch off very fast than a conventional diode.it can be easily switched off for the frequencies
above 300MHz.The barrier at the junction for a schottky diode is less than that of normal p-n diode in both
forward and reverse bias region.The barrier potential and breakdown voltage in forward bias and reverse
bias region respectively are also less than p-n junction diode.The barrier potential is 0.25V as compared to
0.7V for normal diode.

Applications:

38
Due to fast switching characteristics this diode is very useful for high frequency applications such as digital
computer,high speed TTl,radar systems,mixers,detectors in communication equipments and analog to
digital converters.

8.4 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF SCR

A silicon-controlled rectifier (or semiconductor-controlled rectifier) is a four-layer solid state
device that controls current. The name "silicon controlled rectifier" or SCR is General Electric's
trade name for a type of thyristor. The SCR was developed by a team of power engineers led by
Gordon Hall and commercialized by Frank W. "Bill" Gutzwiller in 1957.symbol of SCR is given
below:

Fig : symbol of SCR

Construction of SCR

An SCR consists of four layers of alternating P and N type semiconductor materials. Silicon is
used as the intrinsic semiconductor, to which the proper dopants are added. The junctions are either
diffused or alloyed. The planar construction is used for low power SCRs (and all the junctions are
diffused). The mesa type construction is used for high power SCRs. In this case, junction J2 is
obtained by the diffusion method and then the outer two layers are alloyed to it, since the PNPN
pellet is required to handle large currents. It is properly braced with tungsten or molybdenum plates
to provide greater mechanical strength. One of these plates is hard soldered to a copper stud, which
is threaded for attachment of heat sink. The doping of PNPN will depend on the application of
SCR, since its characteristics are similar to those of the thyratron. Today, the term thyristor applies
to the larger family of multilayer devices that exhibit bistable state-change behaviour, that is,
switching either ON or OFF.

39
The operation of a SCR and other thyristors can be understood in terms of a pair of tightly coupled
bipolar junction transistors, arranged to cause the self-latching action.The following figures are
construction of SCR,its two transistor model and symbol respectively

Fig: Construction,Two transistor model of SCR and symbol of SCR

. SCR Working Principle

The SCR is a four-layer, three-junction and a three-terminal device and is shown in fig.a. The end
P-region is the anode, the end N-region is the cathode and the inner P-region is the gate. The anode
to cathode is connected in series with the load circuit. Essentially the device is a switch. Ideally it
remains off (voltage blocking state), or appears to have an infinite impedance until both the anode
and gate terminals have suitable positive voltages with respect to the cathode terminal. The
thyristor then switches on and current flows and continues to conduct without further gate signals.
Ideally the thyristor has zero impedance in conduction state. For switching off or reverting to the
blocking state, there must be no gate signal and the anode current must be reduced to zero. Current
can flow only in one direction.

In absence of external bias voltages, the majority carrier in each layer diffuses until there is a built-
in voltage that retards further diffusion. Some majority carriers have enough energy to cross the
barrier caused by the retarding electric field at each junction. These carriers then become minority

40
carriers and can recombine with majority carriers. Minority carriers in each layer can be
accelerated across each junction by the fixed field, but because of absence of external circuit in
this case the sum of majority and minority carrier currents must be zero.

A voltage bias, as shown in figure, and an external circuit to carry current allow internal currents
which include the following terms:

The current Ix is due to

 Majority carriers (holes) crossing junction J1

 Minority carriers crossing junction J1
 Holes injected at junction J2 diffusing through the N-region and crossing junction J1 and
 Minority carriers from junction J2 diffusing through the N-region and crossing junction J1.

V I characteristics of SCR:

As already mentioned, the SCR is a four-layer device with three terminals, namely, the anode, the
cathode and the gate. When the anode is made positive with respect to the cathode, junctions J 1
and J3 are forward biased and junction J2 is reverse-biased and only the leakage current will flow
through the device. The SCR is then said to be in the forward blocking state or in the forward mode
or off state. But when the cathode is made positive with respect to the anode, junctions J 1 and J3
are reverse-biased, a small reverse leakage current will flow through the SCR and the SGR is said
to be in the reverse blocking state or in reverse mode.

When the anode is positive with respect to cathode i.e. when the SCR is in forward mode, the SCR
does not conduct unless the forward voltage exceeds certain value, called the forward breakover
voltage, VFB0. In non-conducting state, the current through the SCR is the leakage current which

41
is very small and is negligible. If a positive gate current is supplied, the SCR can become
conducting at a voltage much lesser than forward break-over voltage. The larger the gate current,
lower the break-over voltage. With sufficiently large gate current, the SCR behaves identical to
PN rectifier. Once the SCR is switched on, the forward voltage drop across it is suddenly reduced
to very small value, say about 1 volt. In the conducting or on-state, the current through the SCR is
limited by the external impedance.

When the anode is negative with respect to cathode, that is when the SCR is in reverse mode or in
blocking state no current flows through the SCR except very small leakage current of the order of
few micro-amperes. But if the reverse voltage is increased beyond a certain value, called the
reverse break-over voltage, VRB0 avalanche break down takes place. Forward break-over voltage
VFB0 is usually higher than reverse breakover voltage,VRBO.

From the foregoing discussion, it can be seen that the SCR has two stable and reversible operating
states. The change over from off-state to on-state, called turn-on, can be achieved by increasing
the forward voltage beyond VFB0. A more convenient and useful method of turn-on the device
employs the gate drive. If the forward voltage is less than the forward break-over voltage, VFB0, it
can be turned-on by applying a positive voltage between the gate and the cathode. This method is
called the gate control. Another very important feature of the gate is that once the SCR is triggered
to on-state the gate loses its control.

The switching action of gate takes place only when

(i) SCR is forward biased i.e. anode is positive with respect to cathode, and

(ii) Suitable positive voltage is applied between the gate and the cathode.

Once the SCR has been switched on, it has no control on the amount of current flowing through
it. The current through the SCR is entirely controlled by the external impedance connected in the
circuit and the applied voltage. There is, however, a very small, about 1 V, potential drop across
the SCR. The forward current through the SCR can be reduced by reducing the applied voltage or
by increasing the circuit impedance. There is, however, a minimum forward current that must be
maintained to keep the SCR in conducting state. This is called the holding current rating of SCR.
If the current through the SCR is reduced below the level of holding current, the device returns to
off-state or blocking state.

The SCR can be switched off by reducing the forward current below the level of holding current
which may be done either by reducing the applied voltage or by increasing the circuit impedance.

Note : The gate can only trigger or switch-on the SCR, it cannot switch off.

Alternatively the SCR can be switched off by applying negative voltage to the anode (reverse
mode), the SCR naturally will be switched off.

Here one point is worth mentioning, the SCR takes certain time to switch off. The time, called the
turn-off time, must be allowed before forward voltage may be applied again otherwise the device

42
will switch-on with forward voltage without any gate pulse. The turn-off time is about 15 micro-
seconds, which is immaterial when dealing with power frequency, but this becomes important in
the inverter circuits, which are to operate at high frequency.

Merits of SCR

1.Very small amount of gate drive is required.

2.SCRs with high voltage and current ratings are available.
3.On state losses of SCR are less.

Demerits of SCR

1.Gate has no control,once SCR is turned on.

2.External circuits are required for turning it off.
3.Operationg frequencies are low.
4.Additional protection circuits are required.

Application of SCRs

SCRs are mainly used in devices where the control of high power, possibly coupled with high
voltage, is demanded. Their operation makes them suitable for use in medium to high-voltage AC
power control applications, such as lamp dimming, regulators and motor control.

SCRs and similar devices are used for rectification of high power AC in high-voltage direct
current power transmission

8.5 PHOTO DIODE:

The photo diode is a semiconductor p-n junction device whose region of operation is limited to
the reverse biased region.The figure below shows the symbol of photodiode

Fig:Symbol for photodiode.

Principle of operation:

43
A photodiode is a type of photo detector capable of converting light into either current or
voltage, depending upon the mode of operation. The common, traditional solar cell used to
generate electric solar power is a large area photodiode. A photodiode is designed to operate in
reverse bias. The deletion region width is large.Under normal conditions it carries small reverse
current due to minority charge carriers.When light is incident through glass window on the p-n
junction,photons in the light bombard the p-n junction and some energy s imparted to the valence
electrons.So valence electrons break covalent bonds and become free electrons.Thus more
electron-hole pairs are generated.Thus total number of minority charge carriers increases and
hence reverse current increases.This is the basic principle of operation of photo diode.


Characteristics of photodiode:

When the P-N junction is reverse-biased, a reverse saturation current flows due to thermally
generated holes and electrons being swept across the junction as the minority carriers. With the
increase in temperature of the junction more and more hole-electron pairs are created and so the
reverse saturation current I0 increases. The same effect can be had by illuminating the junction.
When light energy bombards a P-N junction, it dislodges valence electrons. The more light striking
the junction the larger the reverse current in a diode. It is due to generation of more and more
charge carriers with the increase in level of illumination. This is clearly shown in ‘ figure for
different intensity levels. The dark current is the current that exists when no light is incident. It is
to be noted here that current becomes zero only with a positive applied bias equals to VQ. The
almost equal spacing between the curves for the same increment in luminous flux reveals that the
reverse saturation current I0 increases linearly with the luminous flux as shown in figure. Increase
in reverse voltage does not increase the reverse current significantly, because all available charge
carriers are already being swept across the junction. For reducing the reverse saturation current I 0
to zero, it is necessary to forward bias the junction by an amount equal to barrier potential. Thus
the photodiode can be used as a photoconductive device.

44
Fig: characteristics of photodiode

On removal of reverse bias applied across the photodiode, minority charge carriers continue to be
swept across the junction while the diode is illuminated. This has the effect of increasing the
concentration of holes in the P-side and that of electrons in the N-side But the barrier potential is
negative on the P-side and positive on the N-side, and was created by holes flowing from P to N-
side and electrons from N to P-side during fabrication of junction. Thus the flow of minority
carriers tends to reduce the barrier potential.

When an external circuit is connected across the diode terminals, the minority carrier; return to the
original side via the external circuit. The electrons which crossed the junction from P to N-side
now flow out through the N-terminal and into the P-terminal This means that the device is behaving
as a voltage cell with the N-side being the negative terminal and the P-side the positive terminal.
Thus, the photodiode is & photovoltaic device as well as photoconductive device.

Advantages:
The advantages of photodiode are:
1.It can be used as variable resistance device.
2.Highly sensitive to the light.
3.The speed of operation is very high.

Disadvantages:
1.Temperature dependent dark current.
2.poor temperature stability.
3.Current needs amplification for driving other circuits.

Applications:

45
1.Alarm system.
2.counting system.

Problems:
1.In a particular application single phase half wave rectifier using SCR is used.The average load
voltage is 80V.If supply voltage is 230V,50Hz a.c.find the firing angle of the SCR.

2.In a particular application single phase half wave rectifier using SCR s used.The supply voltage
is 325sin𝜔t where 𝜔 =100πrad/sec.Find the time for which SCR remains OFF if forward breakover
voltage is 125V.

Important Questions:
1.Briefly discuss about photodiode.

2.Draw the basic structure of a varator diode and explain its characteristics.

3.Explain qualitatively the V-I characteristics of a tunnel diode.

4.Draw the basic structure of a SCR and explain its characteristics.

46
 PART A QUESTIONS

1. What is zener diode?

2. Explain break down mechanisms of diode?
3. What is avalanche breakdown?
4. List the applications of Zener diode?
5. Explain the construction and operation of LED?
6. Explain the construction and operation of LCD?
7. Explain the construction and operation of photo diode?
8. List the advantages and disadvantages of photodiode?
9. Explain the construction and operation of varactor diode?
10. What is a varactor diode?
11. With neat diagrams explain the band structures, energy band diagram of Tunnel diode and its
characteristics?
12. Define Tunneling phenomenon.
13. What is DIAC? Explain construction and operation.
14. Explain construction and operation of TRIAC? Give the applications?
15. How DIAC & TRIAC works?
16. Explain construction and operation of SCR?
17. What is SCR and its applications?
18. Explain construction and operation of UJT?
19. List the applications of UJT.

PART B QUESTIONS

47
1. With V-I characteristics explain zener diode and its application

2. Explain how zener diode acts as voltage regulator

3. Explain the principle of operation and VI characteristics of UJT.

4. Discuss Zener and Avalanche break down mechanisms

5. Explain the principle of operation of operation and characteristics of Tunnel Diode with
the help of energy band diagrams.

6. Explain the principle of operation of operation and characteristics of Photo Diode LED,
PIN Diode

7. Explain the principle of operation of operation and characteristics of Silicon Controlled

Rectifier

8. Explain the principle of operation of operation and characteristics of DIAC, TRIAC.

9. Explain the principle of operation of operation and characteristics of Uni-Junction

Transistor (UJT).

10. Explain the principle of operation of operation and characteristics of Schottky Barrier
diode, Solar cell, Varactor diode.

48
 UNIT III
RECTIFIERS & FILTERS:
INTRODUCTION
For the operation of most of the electronics devices and circuits, a d.c. source is required. So it is advantageous
to convert domestic a.c. supply into d.c.voltages. The process of converting a.c. voltage into d.c. voltage is
called as rectification. This is achieved with i) Step-down Transformer, ii) Rectifier, iii) Filter and iv) Voltage
regulator circuits.
These elements constitute d.c. regulated power supply shown in the fig 1 below.

 Transformer – steps down 230V AC mains to low voltage AC.

 Rectifier – converts AC to DC, but the DC output is varying.
 Smoothing – smooth the DC from varying greatly to a small ripple.
 Regulator – eliminates ripple by setting DC output to a fixed voltage.

The block diagram of a regulated D.C. power supply consists of step-down transformer, rectifier, filter,
voltage regulator and load. An ideal regulated power supply is an electronics circuit designed to provide a
predetermined d.c. voltage Vo which is independent of the load current and variations in the input voltage ad
temperature. If the output of a regulator circuit is a AC voltage then it is termed as voltage stabilizer, whereas
if the output is a DC voltage then it is termed as voltage regulator.

RECTIFIER:
Any electrical device which offers a low resistance to the current in one direction but a high resistance to
the current in the opposite direction is called rectifier. Such a device is capable of converting a sinusoidal
input waveform, whose average value is zero, into a unidirectional Waveform, with a non-zero average
component. A rectifier is a device, which converts a.c. voltage (bi-directional) to pulsating d.c. voltage
(Unidirectional).

49
Characteristics of a Rectifier Circuit:
Any electrical device which offers a low resistance to the current in one direction but a high resistance to the
current in the opposite direction is called rectifier. Such a device is capable of converting a sinusoidal input
waveform, whose average value is zero, into a unidirectional waveform, with a non-zero average component.

A rectifier is a device, which converts a.c. voltage (bi-directional) to pulsating d.c..Load currents: They are two
types of output current. They are average or d.c. current and RMS currents.

Average or DC current: The average current of a periodic function is defined as the area of one cycle of the
curve divided by the base.
It is expressed mathematically as

Area over one period

i) Average value/dc value/mean value=
Total time period
T
1
T 0
Vdc  V d ( wt )

ii) Effective (or) R.M.S current:

The effective (or) R.M.S. current squared ofa periodic function of time is given by the area of one cycle of the
curve, which represents the square of the function divided by the base.

T
1
Vrms 
T0 V 2 d ( wt )

iii) Peak factor:

It is the ratio of peak value to Rms value

peakvalue
Peak factor =
rmsvalue
iv) Form factor:

It is the ratio of Rms value to average value

50
 Rmsvalue
Form factor=
averagevalue

v) Ripple Factor (  ) : It is defined as ration of R.M.S. value of a.c. component to the d.c. component in the
output is known as “Ripple Factor”.
Vac

Vdc

Vac  Vrms
2
Vdc2

vi) Efficiency (  ):

It is the ratio of d.c output power to the a.c. input power. It signifies, how efficiently the rectifier circuit
converts a.c. power into d.c. power.

o / p power

i / p power

vii) Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV):

It is defined as the maximum reverse voltage that a diode can withstand without destroying
the junction.

viii) Transformer Utilization Factor (UTF):

The d.c. power to be delivered to the load in a rectifier circuit decides the rating of the
Transformer used in the circuit. So, transformer utilization factor is defined as

Pdc
TUF 
p ac(rated)

ix) % Regulation:

The variation of the d.c. output voltage as a function of d.c. load current is called regulation. The percentage

51
regulation is defined as

VNL  VFL
% Re gulation  *100
VFL

For an ideal power supply, % Regulation is zero.

CLASSIFICATION OF RECTIFIERS:
Using one or more diodes in the circuit, following rectifier circuits can be designed.

1) Half - Wave Rectifier

2) Full – Wave Rectifier
3) Bridge Rectifier

HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER:
A Half – wave rectifier as shown in fig 2 is one, which converts a.c. voltage into a pulsating voltage using only
one half cycle of the applied a.c. voltage.

The a.c. voltage is applied to the rectifier circuit using step-down transformer-rectifying element i.e., p-n
junction diode and the source of a.c. voltage, all connected is series. The a.c. voltage is applied to the rectifier
circuit using step-down transformer

52
 V=Vm sin (wt)
The input to the rectifier circuit, Where Vm is the peak value of secondary a.c. voltage.

Operation:
For the positive half-cycle of input a.c. voltage, the diode D is forward biased and hence it conducts. Now a
current flows in the circuit and there is a voltage drop across R L. The waveform of the diode current (or) load
current is shown in fig 3.
For the negative half-cycle of input, the diode D is reverse biased and hence it does not
Conduct. Now no current flows in the circuit i.e., i=0 and Vo=0. Thus for the negative half- cycle no power is
delivered to the load.

Analysis:

In the analysis of a HWR, the following parameters are to be analyzed.

1. DC output current
2. DC Output voltage
3. R.M.S. Current
4. R.M.S. voltage
5. Rectifier Efficiency (η )

6. Ripple factor (γ )
7. Peak Factor
8. % Regulation
9. Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF)

53
 10. form factor
11. o/p frequency

Let a sinusoidal voltage Vi be applied to the input of the rectifier.

Then V=Vm sin (wt) Where Vm is the maximum value of the secondary voltage. Let the diode be idealized to
piece-wise linear approximation with resistance Rf in the forward direction i.e., in the ON state and R r (=∞) in
the reverse direction i.e., in the OFF state. Now the current ‘i’ in the diode (or) in the load resistance RL is
given by V=Vm sin (wt)

i) AVERAGE VOLTAGE

T
1
T 0
Vdc  V d ( wt )

2
1
Vdc   V ( )d
T 0
2
1
2 
Vdc  V ( )d

1
2 0
Vdc  Vm sin( wt )

Vm
Vdc 


ii).AVERAGE CURRENT:

Im
I dc 


iii) RMS VOLTAGE:

T
1
Vrms  
T 0
V 2 d ( wt )

54
 2
1
Vrms 
2  (V
0
m sim ( wt )) 2 d ( wt )

Vm
Vrms 
2

IV) RMS CURRENT

Im
I rms 

V) PEAK FACTOR

peakvalue
Peak factor =
rmsvalue

Vm
Peak Factor =
(Vm / 2)

Peak Factor =2

vi) FORM FACTOR

Rmsvalue
Form factor=
averagevalue

(Vm / 2)
Form factor=
Vm / 

Form Factor =1.57

vii) Ripple Factor:

55
 Vac

Vdc

Vac  Vrms
2
Vdc2

2
Vrms Vdc2

Vac

2
Vrms
 1
Vdc2

  1.21

viii) Efficiency ( ):

o / ppower
 *100
i / ppower

p ac
= *100
Pdc
 =40.8

ix) Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF):

The d.c. power to be delivered to the load in a rectifier circuit decides the rating of the transformer used in the
circuit. Therefore, transformer utilization factor is defined as
p dc
TUF 
Pac(rated)

TUF =0.286.
The value of TUF is low which shows that in half-wave circuit, the transformer is not fully utilized.
If the transformer rating is 1 KVA (1000VA) then the half-wave rectifier can deliver
1000 X 0.287 = 287 watts to resistance load.

x) Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV):

56
It is defined as the maximum reverse voltage that a diode can withstand without destroying the junction. The
peak inverse voltage across a diode is the peak of the negative half- cycle. For half-wave rectifier, PIV is Vm.

DISADVANTAGES OF HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER:

1. The ripple factor is high.

2. The efficiency is low.
3. The Transformer Utilization factor is low.
Because of all these disadvantages, the half-wave rectifier circuit is normally not used as a
power rectifier circuit.

FULL WAVE RECTIFIER:

A full-wave rectifier converts an ac voltage into a pulsating dc voltage using both half cycles of the applied ac
voltage. In order to rectify both the half cycles of ac input, two diodes are used in this circuit. The diodes feed
a common load RL with the help of a center-tap transformer. A center-tap transformer is the one, which
produces two sinusoidal waveforms of same magnitude and frequency but out of phase with respect to the
ground in the secondary winding of the transformer. The full wave rectifier is shown in the fig 4 below

57
Fig. 5 shows the input and output wave forms of the ckt.
During positive half of the input signal, anode of diode D1 becomes positive and at the
same time the anode of diode D2 becomes negative. Hence D1 conducts and D 2 does not
conduct. The load current flows through D1 and the voltage drop across RL will be equal to the input voltage.
During the negative half cycle of the input, the anode of D 1 becomes negative and the anode of D2
becomes positive. Hence, D1 does not conduct and D2 conducts. The load current flows through D2 and the
voltage drop across RL will be equal to the input voltage. It is noted that the load current flows in the both the
half cycles of ac voltage and in the same direction through the load resistance.

i) AVERAGEVOLTAGE

ii) AVERAGE CURRENT

58
iii) RMS VOLTAGE:

T
1
T 0
Vrms  V 2 d ( wt )

2
1
Vrms 
2  (V
0
m sim ( wt )) 2 d ( wt )

IV) RMS CURRENT

2I m
I rms 


V) PEAK FACTOR

peakvalue
Peak factor =
rmsvalue

59
 Vm
Peak Factor =
(Vm / 2)

Peak Factor =2

vi) FORM FACTOR

Rms value
Form factor=
average value

(V m / 2 )
Form factor=
2V m / 

Form Factor =1.11

vii) Ripple Factor:

viii) Efficiency ( ):

o / ppower
 *100
i / ppower

60
ix) Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF):

The d.c. power to be delivered to the load in a rectifier circuit decides the rating of the transformer used in the
circuit. So, transformer utilization factor is defined as
p dc
TUF 
Pac(rated)

x) Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV):

It is defined as the maximum reverse voltage that a diode can withstand without destroying the junction. The
peak inverse voltage across a diode is the peak of the negative half- cycle. For half- wave rectifier, PIV is 2Vm

61
xi) % Regulation

.
Advantages

1) Ripple factor = 0.482 (against 1.21 for HWR)

2) Rectification efficiency is 0.812 (against 0.405 for HWR)
3) Better TUF (secondary) is 0.574 (0.287 for HWR)
4) No core saturation problem
Disadvantages:
1) Requires center tapped transformer.

BRIDGE RECTIFIER.

Another type of circuit that produces the same output waveform as the full wave rectifier circuit above, is that of the
Full Wave Bridge Rectifier. This type of single phase rectifier uses four individual rectifying diodes connected in a
closed loop "bridge" configuration to produce the desired output. The main advantage of this bridge circuit is that it
does not require a special centre tapped transformer, thereby reducing its size and cost. The single secondary
winding is connected to one side of the diode bridge network and the load to the other side as shown below.

The Diode Bridge Rectifier

62
The four diodes labelled D1 to D4 are arranged in "series pairs" with only two diodes conducting current during each
half cycle. During the positive half cycle of the supply, diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series while diodes D3 and D4
are reverse biased and the current flows through the load as shown below (fig 7).

The Positive Half-cycle

The Negative Half-cycle

During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in series (fig 8), but diodes D1 and D2
switch "OFF" as they are now reverse biased. The current flowing through the load is the same direction as before.

As the current flowing through the load is unidirectional, so the voltage developed across the load is also
unidirectional the same as for the previous two diode full-wave rectifier, therefore the average DC voltage across the
load is 0.637Vmax. However in reality, during each half cycle the current flows through two diodes instead of just one
so the amplitude of the output voltage is two voltage drops ( 2 x 0.7 = 1.4V ) less than the input VMAX amplitude. The
ripple frequency is now twice the supply frequency (e.g. 100Hz for a 50Hz supply)

63
FILTERS

The output of a rectifier contains dc component as well as ac component. Filters are used to
minimize the undesirable ac i.e., ripple leaving only the dc component to appear at the output.

Some important filters are:

1. Inductor filter
2. Capacitor filter

64
 3. LC or L section filter
4. CLC or Π-type filter

CAPACITOR FILTER

This is the most simple form of the filter circuit and in this arrangement a high value capacitor
C is placed directly across the output terminals, as shown in figure. During the conduction period
it gets charged and stores up energy to it during non-conduction period. Through this process, the
time duration during which Ft is to be noted here that the capacitor C gets charged to the peak
because there is no resistance (except the negligible forward resistance of diode) in the charging
path. But the discharging time is quite large (roughly 100 times more than the charging time
depending upon the value of RL) because it discharges through load resistance RL.

The function of the capacitor filter may be viewed in terms of impedances. The large value
capacitor C offers a low impedance shunt path to the ac components or ripples but offers high
impedance to the dc component. Thus ripples get bypassed through capacitor C and only dc
component flows through the load resistance RL

Capacitor filter is very popular because of its low cost, small size, light weight and good
characteristics.

65
66
CAPACITOR FILTER WITH HWR

CAPACITOR FILTER WITH FWR

67
68
The worthnoting points about shunt capacitor filter are:

1.For a fixed-value filter capacitance larger the load resistance RL larger will be the discharge
time constant CRL and therefore, lower the ripples and more the output voltage. On the other
hand lower the load resistance (or more the load current), lower will be the output voltage.

2.Similarly smaller the filter capacitor, the less charge it can hold and more it will discharge.
Thus the peak-to-peak value of the ripple will increase, and the average dc level will decrease.
Larger the filter capacitor, the more charge it can hold and the less it will discharge. Hence the
peak-to-peak value of the ripple will be less, and the average dc level will increase. But, the
maximum value of the capacitance that can be employed is limited by another factor. The larger
the capacitance value, the greater is the current required to charge the capacitor to a given
voltage. The maximum current that can be handled by a diode is limited by the figure quoted by
the manufacturer. Thus the maximum value of the capacitance, that can be used in the shunt filter
capacitor is limited.

Series Inductor Filter.

69
In this arrangement a high value inductor or choke L is connected in series with the rectifier
element and the load, as illustrated in figure. The filtering action of an inductor filter depends
upon its property of opposing any change in the current flowing through it. When the output
current of the rectifier increases above a certain value, energy is stored in it in the form of
magnetic field and this energy is given up when the output current falls below the average value.
Thus by placing a choke coil in series with the rectifier output and load, any sudden change in
current that might have occurred in the circuit without an inductor is smoothed out by the
presence of the inductor L.

The function of the inductor filter may be viewed in terms of impedances. The choke offers high
impedance to the ac components but offers almost zero resistance to the desired dc components.
Thus ripples are removed to a large extent. Nature of the output voltage without filter and with
choke filter is shown in figure.

For dc (zero frequency), the choke resistance R c in series with the load resistance RL forms a
voltage divider and dc voltage across the load is given as

where Vdc is dc voltage output from a full-wave rectifier. Usually choke coil resistance Rc, is
much small than RL and, therefore, almost entire of the dc voltage is available across the load
resistance RL.

Since the reactance of inductor increases with the increase in frequency, better filtering of the
higher harmonic components takes place, so effect of third and higher harmonic voltages can be
neglected.

As obvious from equation , if choke coil resistance Rc is negligible in comparison to load

resistance RL, then the entire dc component of rectifier output is available across 2 RL and is
equal to — VL max. The ac voltage partly drops across XL and partly over RL.

L-SECTION FILTER:

A simple series inductor reduces both the peakand effective values of the output current and
output voltage. On the other hand a simple shunt capacitor filter reduces the ripple voltage but
increases the diode current. The diode may get damaged due to large current and at the same
time it causes greater heating of supply transformer resulting in reduced efficiency.

In an inductor filter, ripple factor increases with the increase in load resistance RL while in a
capacitor filter it varies inversely with load resistance RL.

From economical point of view also, neither series inductor nor shunt capacitor type filters are
suitable.

Practical filter-circuits are derived by combining the voltage stabilizing action of shunt
capacitor with the current smoothing action of series choke coil. By using combination of
inductor and capacitor ripple factor can be lowered, diode current can be restricted and
simultaneously ripple factor can be made almost independent of load resistance (or load current).

70
Two types of most commonly used combinations are choke-input or L-section filter-and
capacitor-input or Pi-Filter.

Choke-input filter is explained below:

Choke-input filter consists of a choke L connected in series with the rectifier and a capacitor C
connected across the load . This is also sometimes called the L-section filter because in this
arrangement inductor and capacitor are connected, as an inverted L. ln figure only one filter
section is shown. But several identical sections are often employed to improve the smoothing
action. (The choke L on the input side of the filter readily allows dc to pass but opposes the flow
of ac components because its dc resistance is negligibly small but ac impedance is large. Any
fluctuation that remains in the current even after passing through the choke are largely by-passed
around the load by the shunt capacitor because Xc is much smaller than RL. Ripples can be
reduced effectively by making XL greater than Xc at ripple frequency. However, a small ripple
still remains in the filtered output and this is considered negligible if it than l%. The rectified and
filtered output voltage waveforms from a full-wave re with choke-input filter are shown in
figure.

71
Π-SECTION FILTER:

Capacitor-Input or Pi-Filter.

Such a filter consists of a shunt capacitor C1 at the input followed by an L-section filter formed
by series inductor L and shunt capacitor C2. This is also called the n-filter because the shape of
the circuit diagram for this filter appears like Greek letter n (pi). Since the rectifier feeds directly
into the capacitor so it is also called capacitor input filter.

As the rectified output is fed directly into a capacitor C1. Such a filter can be used with a half-
wave rectifier (series inductor and L-section filters cannot be used with half-wave rectifiers).
Usually electrolytic capacitors are used even though their capacitances are large but they occupy
minimum space. Usually both capacitors C1 and C2 are enclosed in one metal container. The
metal container serves as, the common ground for the two capacitors.

A capacitor-input or pi- filter is characterized by a high voltage output at low current drains.
Such a filter is used, if, for a given transformer, higher voltage than that can be obtained from an
L-section filter is required and if low ripple than that can be obtained from a shunt capacitor
filter or L-section filter is desired. In this filter, the input capacitor C1 is selected to offer very
low reactance to the ripple frequency. Hence major part of filtering is accomplished by the input

72
capacitor C1. Most of the remaining ripple is removed by the L-section filter consisting of a
choke L and capacitor C2.)

The action of this filter can best be understood by considering the action of L-section filter,
formed by L and C2, upon the triangular output voltage wave from the input capacitor C 1 The
charging and discharging action of input capacitor C1 has already been discussed. The output
voltage is roughly the same as across input capacitor C1 less the dc voltage drop in inductor. The
ripples contained in this output are reduced further by L-section filter. The output voltage of pi-
filter falls off rapidly with the increase in load-current and, therefore, the voltage regulation with
this filter is very poor.

SALIENT FEATURES OF L-SECTION AND PI-FILTERS.

1. In pi-filter the dc output voltage is much larger than that can be had from an L-section filter
with the same input voltage.

2.In pi-filter ripples are less in comparison to those in shunt capacitor or L-section filter. So
smaller valued choke is required in a pi-filter in comparison to that required in L-section filter.

3.In pi-filter, the capacitor is to be charged to the peak value hence the rms current in supply
transformer is larger as compared in case of L-section filter.

4.Voltage regulation in case of pi-filter is very poor, as already mentioned. So n-filters are
suitable for fixed loads whereas L-section filters can work satisfactorily with varying loads
provided a minimum current is maintained.

5.In case of a pi-filter PIV is larger than that in case of an L-section filter.

COMPARISON OF FILTERS
1) A capacitor filter provides Vm volts at less load current. But regulation is poor.
2) An Inductor filter gives high ripple voltage for low load currents. It is used for
high load currents
3) L – Section filter gives a ripple factor independent of load current. Voltage
Regulation can be improved by use of bleeder resistance
4) Multiple L – Section filter or π filters give much less ripple than the single L –
Section Filter.

73
 PART A QUESTIONS

1. Define rectifier?

2. Classify rectifiers?

3. Explain construction and operation of a Half Wave rectifier?

4. Derive the expressions for ripple factor and maximum efficiency of HWR?

5. Define ripple factor?

6. Define rectifier efficiency?

7. Why we use centre tapped transformer for FWR?

8. List the values of ripple factor for HWR,FWR & Bridge rectifier?

9. List the values of efficiency for HWR,FWR & Bridge rectifier?

10. What is the average value of current for both HWR & FWR?

11. What is the RMS value of current for both HWR & FWR?

12. Write the ripple factor of capacitor filter for both HWR & FWR?

13. Write the ripple factor of inductor filter for both HWR & FWR?

14. Write the ripple factor of L-section filter for both HWR & FWR?

15. Write the ripple factor of pi-section filter for both HWR & FWR?

16. Define Transformer utilization factor( TUF) ?

17. List the values of TUF for HWR,FWR & Bridge rectifier?

18. List the values of PIV for HWR,FWR & Bridge rectifier?

19. Define peak inverse voltage?

20. Classify filters?

74
21. List the applications of rectifier circuit?

22. Compare ripple factors of various filters?

PART B QUESTIONS

1. Explain construction and operation of a Half Wave rectifier?

2. Derive the expressions for ripple factor and maximum efficiency of HWR?
3. Explain construction and operation of a full Wave rectifier?
4. Explain construction and operation of a bridge rectifier?

5. Write the ripple factor of capacitor filter for both HWR & FWR?
6. Write the ripple factor of inductor filter for both HWR & FWR?
7. Write the ripple factor of L-section filter for both HWR & FWR?
8. Write the ripple factor of pi-section filter for both HWR & FWR?
9. Derive the ripple factor and efficiency for full wave rectifier with inductor filter?

10. Derive the ripple factor and efficiency for full wave rectifier with capacitor filter?
11. Explain construction and operation of full wave rectifier with L-section filter?
12. Explain construction and operation of full wave rectifier with pi-section filter?
13. Describe multiple pi-section filter of HWR?
14. Draw the FWR with π - section filter and explain its operation with a neat diagram.

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 2 MARKS QUESTIONS

1. Define Transistor?

2. Why transistor is considered as current controlled device?

3. Mention the applications of BJT?

4. What are the bias conditions of the base-emitter and base-collector junctions for a

transistor to operate as an amplifier?

5. Write the formula for β in terms of α, and in terms of ϒ of a NPN transistor?

6. For a transistor α is 0.99, what is β?

7. Write the expressions for Ebers-Moll Equations?

8. Discuss Early Effect phenomenon in CB Configuration of a transistor?

9. Mention the two types of break down in BJT?

10. Define Punch-Through or Reach-Through?

11. In a CB circuit, IE is 10 mA and IC is 9.8 mA. Find the value of IB?

12. A transistor has β = 100. If the Ic is 40mA, find the value of emitter current?

13. Calculate the collector current and emitter current for a transistor with αdc = 0.99 and

ICBO = 5μA. IB is measured as 20 μA?

14. Write the transistor parameters for CE configuration?

15. Which transistor configuration provides voltage and current gain greater than Unity?

16. What are the transistor parameters that vary with the temperature?

17. What is Bias? What is the need for biasing a transistor?

18. What do you understand by DC & AC load line?

19. What is the meant by operating point Q?

20. What are the different types of biasing?

21. Define stability factor ‘S’?

22. What are the disadvantages of collector feedback bias?

23. Define the stability factors S’ and S’’?

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24. Give the stability factor S for the fixed bias circuit?

25. Give the stability factor S for the Collector to base bias circuit?

26. Give the stability factor S for the Voltage divider bias circuit?

27. Why fixed bias circuit is not used in practice?

28. What is all the compensation techniques used for bias stability?

29. List the advantages of fixed bias method?

30. Define thermal resistance& thermal runaway?

31. Why bias compensation is necessary?

32. Define thermal runaway and thermal stability?

33. Write disadvantages of voltage divider bias?

34. What are the requirements of biasing circuits?

35. What are the advantages of self-bias?

10 MARKS QUESTIONS

1. With reference to a BJT, explain the following terms in detail?

a) Emitter Efficiency b) Base Transportation Factor and c) Large signal current gain.

2. a) Write the current components of PNP transistor and explain?

b) For a transistor the leakage current is 0.1μA in CB configuration, while it is 19μA when it is
connected in CE configuration. Calculate α and β of the same transistor?

3. a) A transistor operating in CB configuration has IC = 2.98mA, IE = 3.00 mA and ICO =0.01 ma.
What current will flow in the collector circuit of this transistor when Connected in CE
configuration with a base current of 30μA?

b) What is early effect? How does it modify the VI characteristics of a BJT?

4. a) Describe the operation of a PNP BJT in common collector configuration?

b) Draw the common collector transistor characteristics?

5. a) With neat sketch explain the different current components of transistor?

b) Explain input characteristics of transistor CB configuration?

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6. a) With a neat diagram explain how a transistor acts as an amplifier?

b) Explain the characteristics of CE configuration?

7. Derive Ebers-Moll Equations of BJT.

8. Compare CB, CE and CC configurations of BJT

9. Explain diode compensation circuit for variation in Ic for self-bias circuit?

10. How self-bias circuit will eliminate the drawbacks in fixed bias circuit?

11. Discuss the criteria of fixed operating point?

12. What is thermal runaway? What is the condition for thermal stability in ce configuration?

13. What are the drawbacks of transistor fixed bias circuit?

14. Derive the expression for stability factor S in self bias circuit?

15. What are the drawbacks of transistor fixed bias circuit?

16. Derive the expression for stability factor S in self bias circuit?

17. Mention the merits and demerits of collector to base feedback bias?

18. Differentiate between thermistor and sensistor compensation techniques?

19. Describe thermal instability, what are the factors affecting the stability factor?

20. Draw the transistor biasing circuit using fixed bias arrangement and explain its principle with
suitable analysis?

21. Explain diode compensation circuit for variation in Ic for self-bias circuit?

22. How self-bias circuit will eliminate the drawbacks in fixed bias circuit?

23. Discuss the criteria of fixed operating point?

24. How self-bias can eliminate the drawbacks of of fixed bias circuit?

25. Discuss about stabilization in a transistor against variations in Ico, VBE and β?

26. Differentiate the bias stabilization and compensation techniques?

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MOSFET- BIASING
Note: The transfer characteristics of the enhancement-type MOSFET are quite different
from those encountered for the JFET and depletion-type MOSFETs, resulting in a graphical
solution quite different from the preceding
sections.

Recall that for the n-channel

enhancement-type MOSFET,
the drain current is
zero for levels of gate-to-source
voltage, VGS less than the threshold
level VGS(Th).
For levels of VGS greater than

Transfer characteristics of n-channel E-MOSFETs

(i) Feedback Biasing Arrangement

A popular biasing arrangement for enhancement-type MOSFETs is provided in the figure.
The resistor RG brings a suitably large voltage to the gate to drive the MOSFETs “ON”.
Since IG = 0 mA and VRG = 0 V, we can draw the dc equivalent network.

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A direct connection now exists between drain and gate, resulting in

For the output circuit,

Then, it also become

Network equation or
straight line equation

A procedure as previously described can be employed to draw a straight line by determining the two
pints that will define the plot on the graph.
Substituting ID = 0 mA;

Substituting VGS = 0 V;

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(ii) Voltage-Divider Biasing Arrangement
A second popular biasing arrangement for the enhancement-type MOSFETs.
The fact that IG = 0 mA results in the following equation for VGG as
derived from the application of the voltage-divider rule.

Applying KVL around the indicated loop will result in

For the output section;

Once IDQ and VGSQ are known, all the remaining quantities such as
VDS, VD and VS can be determined

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DC Biasing the MOSFET

The universal voltage divider biasing circuit is a popular biasing technique used to establish a desired
DC operating condition of bipolar transistor amplifiers as well as mosfet amplifiers. The advantage
of the voltage divider biasing network is that the MOSFET, or indeed a bipolar transistor, can be
biased from a single DC supply. But first we need to know where to bias the gate for our mosfet
amplifier.

A mosfet device has three different regions of operation. These regions are called the: Ohmic/Triode
region, Saturation/Linear region and Pinch-off point. For a mosfet to operate as a linear amplifier,
we need to establish a well-defined quiescent operating point, or Q-point, so it must be biased to
operate in its saturation region. The Q-point for the mosfet is represented by the DC
values, ID and VGS that position the operating point centrally on the mosfets output characteristics
curve.

As we have seen above, the saturation region begins when VGS is above the VTH threshold level.
Therefore if we apply a small AC signal which is superimposed on to this DC bias at the gate input,
then the MOSFET will act as a linear amplifier as shown.

eMOSFET DC Bias Point

The common-source NMOS circuit above shows that the sinusoidal input voltage, Vi is in series with
a DC source. This DC gate voltage will be set by the bias circuit. Then the total gate-source voltage
will be the sum of VGS and Vi.

The DC characteristics and therefore Q-point (quiescent point) are all functions of gate voltage VGS,
supply voltage VDD and load resistance RD.

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The MOS transistor is biased within the saturation region to establish the desired drain current which
will define the transistors Q-point. As the instantaneous value of VGS increases, the bias point moves
up the curve as shown allowing a larger drain current to flow as VDS decreases.

Likewise, as the instantaneous value of VGS decreases (during the negative half of the input sine
wave), the bias point moves down the curve and a smaller VGS results in a smaller drain current and
increased VDS.

Then in order to establish a large output swing we must bias the transistor well above threshold level
to ensure that the transistor stays in saturation over the full sinusoidal input cycle. However, there is a
limit on the amount of gate bias and drain current we can use. To allow for maximum voltage swing
of the output, the Q-point should be positioned approximately halfway between the supply
voltage VDD and the threshold voltage VTH.

So for example, lets assume we want to construct a single stage NMOS common-source amplifier.
The threshold voltage, VTH of the eMOSFET is 2.5 volts and the supply voltage, VDD is +15 volts.
Then the DC bias point will be 15 – 2.5 = 12.5v or 6 volts to the nearest integer value.

The MOSFETS ID – VDS Characteristics

We have seen above that we can construct a graph of the mosfets forward DC characteristics by
keeping the supply voltage, VDD constant and increasing the gate voltage, VG. But in order to get a
complete picture of the operation of the n-type enhancement MOS transistor to use within a mosfet
amplifier circuit, we need to display the output characteristics for different values of
both VDD and VGS.

As with the NPN Bipolar Junction Transistor, we can construct a set of output characteristics
curves showing the drain current, ID for increasing positive values of VG for an n-channel
enhancement-mode MOS transistor as shown.

N-type eMOSFET Characteristics Curves

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Note that a p-channel eMOSFET device would have a very similar set of drain current characteristics
curves but the polarity of the gate voltage would be reversed.

Basic Common Source MOSFET Amplifier

Previously we look at how to establish the desired DC operating condition to bias the n-type
eMOSFET. If we apply a small time-varying signal to the input, then under the right circumstances
the mosfet circuit can act as a linear amplifier providing the transistors Q-point is somewhere near
the center of the saturation region, and the input signal is small enough for the output to remain
linear. Consider the basic mosfet amplifier circuit below.

Basic MOSFET Amplifier

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This simple enhancement-mode common source mosfet amplifier configuration uses a single supply
at the drain and generates the required gate voltage, VG using a resistor divider. We remember that
for a MOSFET, no current flows into the gate terminal and from this we can make the following
basic assumptions about the MOSFET amplifiers DC operating conditions.

Then from this we can say that:

and the mosfets gate-to-source voltage, VGS is given as:

As we have seen above, for proper operation of the mosfet, this gate-source voltage must be greater
than the threshold voltage of the mosfet, that is VGS > VTH. Since IS = ID, the gate voltage, VG is
therefore equal too:

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To set the mosfet amplifier gate voltage to this value we select the values of the
resistors, R1 and R2 within the voltage divider network to the correct values. As we know from
above, “no current” flows into the gate terminal of a mosfet device so the formula for voltage
division is given as:

MOSFET Amplifier Gate Bias Voltage

Note that this voltage divider equation only determines the ratio of the two bias
resistors, R1 and R2 and not their actual values. Also it is desirable to make the values of these two
resistors as large as possible to reduce their I2*R power loss and increase the mosfet amplifiers input
resistance.

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 2 MARKS QUESTIONS

1. Why is FET is known as unipolar device ?

2. Distinguish FET and BJT
3. Distinguish JFET and MOSFET
4. What is meant by pinch off voltage and amplification factor
5. What are the features of JFET
6. Define drain resistance of transconductance
7. What are the applications of JFET?
8. What are the parameters of JFET.
9. Give small signal model of JEFT
10. Draw the drain characteristics of JFET & mark the regions of operation.
11. Give the drain current Equation of JFET.
12. Define cut off voltage.
13. Distinguish ohmic region & saturation region.
14. Draw transfer char of JFET.
15. Compare the common source, common drain & common gate amplifiers.
16. Draw the circuit diagram of Source Follower
17. Compare DMOSFET & EMOSFET.
18. Give classification of FET.
19. Why do depletion regions do not touch of pinch off?
20. Depletion MOSFET is called normally ON MOSFET. Why?
21. Draw the char of n-channel Enhancement MOSFET.
22. Give the symbol of n&p channel FET,MOSFET.

23. Give the application of EMOSFET & DMOSFET.

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 10 MARKS QUESTIONS

1. Detail the construction of an n-channel MOSFET of depletion type. Draw and explain its
Characteristics?

2. Draw and explain construction and operation of Enhancement mode MOSFET with its
Characteristics?

3. Discuss the construction and principle of operation of n-channel JFET.

4. Describe the JFET Volt-Ampere Characteristics.

5. Explain the principle of operation of JFET with characteristics.

6. Explain the principle of operation of Depletion MOSFET with characteristics

7. Explain the principle of operation of Enhancement MOSFET with characteristics

8. Comparisons between BJT & FET

9. State advantages and disadvantages of FET over BJT

10. Comparisons between JFET & MOSFET

11. Explain the principle of operation of n- channel and p-channel Junction Field Effect
Transistors with characteristics

12. Explain DC Analysis of n-channel and p-channel MOSFETs

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