Appendix A

Solving Constraint Equations

A.1 The 4R Linkage Constraint

The analysis of planar and spherical 4R linkages, the spatial RSSR, and Bennett’s
linkage all yield a constraint equation between the output angle ψ and the input
angle θ that takes the form

A(θ ) cos ψ + B(θ ) sin ψ = C(θ ). (A.1)

There are two ways to solve this equation the trigonometric solution and the tan-
half-angle technique. √
The trigonometric solution begins by dividing both sides of (A.1) by A2 + B2 .
This allows us to introduce the angle δ such that
A B
cos δ = √ and sin δ = √ . (A.2)
A + B2
2 A + B2
2

Notice that δ = arctan(B/A). The left side of (A.1) takes the form

cos δ cos ψ + sin δ sin ψ = cos(ψ − δ ). (A.3)

Thus, the right side must be the cosine of an angle κ,

C
cos κ = √ . (A.4)
A + B2
2

Because κ and its negative have the same cosine, we have that δ + κ and δ − κ are
both solutions to (A.1). This combines with the definition of δ to yield
   
B C
ψ = arctan ± arccos √ . (A.5)
A A2 + B2

J.M. McCarthy and G.S. Soh, Geometric Design of Linkages, Interdisciplinary Applied 411
Mathematics 11, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4419-7892-9,
© Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2011
412 A Solving Constraint Equations

Notice that the angle κ exists only if −1 ≤ cos κ ≤ 1. Therefore, C2 ≤ A2 + B2 , or

equivalently, A2 + B2 −C2 ≥ 0 must be satisfied for a solution to exist.
In this formulation δ is the angle to a diagonal of the quadrilateral formed by the
linkages. The angle κ is measured on either side of this diagonal to define the output
angle ψ.
The tan-half-angle technique uses a transformation of variables to convert sin ψ
and cos ψ into algebraic functions. Introduce the parameter y = tan(ψ/2), which
allows us to define
1 − y2 2y
cos ψ = and sin ψ = . (A.6)
1 + y2 1 + y2
Substitute this into (A.1) to obtain

(A +C)y2 − 2By − (A −C) = 0. (A.7)

This equation is solved using the quadratic formula to obtain

√
ψ B ± A2 + B2 −C2
tan = . (A.8)
2 A +C

In order to have a real solution we must have A2 + B2 − C2 ≥ 0. This is the same

condition obtained above for the trigonometric solution.
The constraint equations for these linkages are each special cases of a general
equation that we can write as

(a1 cos θ +a2 sin θ − a3 ) cos ψ + (b1 cos θ + b2 sin θ − b3 ) sin ψ

−(c1 cos θ + c2 sin θ − c3 ) = 0, (A.9)

where ai , bi , and ci are constants. Introduce the tan-half-angle parameters x =

tan(θ /2) and y = tan(ψ/2) so we have

((a1 +c1 + a3 + c3 )x2 − 2(a2 + c2 )x − (a1 + c1 − a3 − c3 ))y2

−2((b1 + b3 )x2 − 2b2 x − (b1 − b3 ))y
−((a1 − c1 + a3 − c3 )x2 − 2(a2 − c2 )x − (a1 − c1 − a3 + c3 )) = 0. (A.10)

This is a biquadratic equation in the unknowns x and y.

A.2 The Platform Constraint Equations

The 3RR planar and 3RR spherical platforms can be viewed formed from two 4R
linkages OAB1 C1 and OAB2 C2 driven by the same crank OA. Let θ be the angle
of the input crank OA and let φ be the angle of the coupler at A. The constraint
equations for the two 4R linkages yield
A.2 The Platform Constraint Equations 413

A1 (θ ) cos φ + B1 (θ ) sin φ = C1 (θ ),
A2 (θ ) cos φ + B2 (θ ) sin φ = C2 (θ ). (A.11)

We now present two ways to solve these equations. The first eliminates sin φ and
cos φ linearly, and the second uses the resultant to solve simultaneous biquadratic
equations.
For the first solution let x = cos φ and y = sin φ and solve the resulting linear
equations using Cramer’s rule to obtain
C1 B2 −C2 B1 A2C1 − A1C2
x= and y= . (A.12)
A1 B2 − A2 B1 A1 B2 − A2 B1
In order for these equations to define a solution φ they must satisfy the identity
x2 + y2 = 1. This yields an equation in cos θ and sin θ , given by

(C1 B2 −C2 B1 )2 + (A2C1 − A1C2 )2 − (A1 B2 − A2 B1 )2 = 0. (A.13)

Introduce the tan-half-angle parameter x = tan(θ /2) so this equation becomes the
polynomial P(x) = 0. For each root x j of P(x), compute θ j and determine the coef-
ficients Ai j , Bi j , and Ci j of the platform equations (A.11). Solve either one equations
determine φ j .
An alternative approach transforms (A.11) into a pair of biquadratic equations
by introducing the tan-half-angle parameters x = tan(θ /2) and y = tan(ψ/2). This
yields the equations

D1 y2 + E1 y + F1 = 0,
D2 y2 + E2 y + F2 = 0, (A.14)

where

Di = d1i x2 + d2i x + d3i ,

Ei = e1i x2 + e2i x + e3i ,
Fi = f1i x2 + f2i x + f3i . (A.15)

To solve these equations, we introduce a second pair of equations obtained by mul-

tiplying both by y and assemble the four equations into the matrix equation
   3  
0 D1 E1 F1  y   0 
 0 D2 E2 F2  y2  0
D1 E1 F1 0   y  = 0 . (A.16)
 

     
D2 E2 F2 0 1 0


This equation can be solved for the vector (y3 , y2 , y, 1)T only if the coefficient ma-
trix [M] has determinant zero. Expand this determinant to obtain an eighth-degree
polynomial P(x) in the parameter x. The roots of this polynomial define x j for which
(A.16) can be solved to determine y j .
Appendix B
Graphical Constructions

The following constructions use a straightedge to draw lines and a compass to con-
struct circles and measure distances. They are useful in the graphical synthesis of
planar RR chains.

B.1 Perpendicular Bisector

Given two points P1 and P2 , we construct the perpendicular bisector L of the seg-
ment P1 P2 , Figure B.1, as follows:
1. Construct circles C1 and C2 centered on P1 and P2 with radii equal to or greater
than one-half the length of P1 P2 .
2. C1 and C2 intersect in two points. Join these points to form the perpendicular
bisector L.

C2
P2

P1

C1

Fig. B.1 Construction of the perpendicular bisector L of the segment P1 P2 .

415
416 B Graphical Constructions

B.2 Circle Through Three Points

Given the triangle 4P1 P2 P3 , the center C of the circle that circumscribes this trian-
gle, Figure B.2, is given by the construction:
1. Construct the perpendicular bisectors L1 and L2 to the segments P1 P2 and P2 P3 .
2. The intersection of the lines L1 and L2 defines the center C of the circle through
the three points.

L2

P3 P2
L1

P1
C

Fig. B.2 Construction of the circle through three points P1 , P2 , and P3 .

B.3 Duplication of an Angle

Consider two lines L1 and L2 that intersect in an angle α at the point P. The line
M2 that makes the same angle with another line M1 about a point Q, Figure B.3, is
constructed as follows:
1. Draw a circle CP such that it intersects L1 and L2 in points S and T .
2. Construct a circle CQ with the same radius about Q and denote by U one of the
intersections with M1 .
3. Measure the distance ST and construct the circle with this radius about U. Its
intersection with CQ is a point V . Join Q to V to define the line M2 . The circles
intersect in two points, so choose the one that provides the same orientation for
M2 as L2 relative to L1 .
B.4 Reflection of a Point Through a Line 417

L1
L2 CP
S
α
CQ T
U
P
Q

α M1
V
M2

Fig. B.3 Duplication of the angle α about the point P from the line M1 to determine the line M2 .

CR CS
R

Q* Q

Fig. B.4 Reflection of the point Q through the line L.

B.4 Reflection of a Point Through a Line

In order to find the reflection of the point Q through the line L, Figure B.4, we use
the construction:
1. Select two points R and S on L and construct the circles CR and CS with radii RQ
and SQ, respectively.
2. The circles CR and CS intersect in two points. One is Q and the other is its reflec-
tion Q∗ .
Appendix C
Spherical Trigonometry

Consider the spherical triangle 4S1 S2 S3 , where the axes are labeled in a counter-
clockwise sense around the triangle, see Figure C.1. Associated with the side Si S j
we can define the normal vector Ni j = Si × S j /|Si × S j |. The angular dimension αi j
of this side is defined by the equations

cos αi j = Si · S j . (C.1)

Thus, we can compute the three angles α12 , α23 , and α31 , which we consider to have
a positive magnitude between 0 and π, thus αi j = α ji . The sense of the angles αi j
will be determined as needed relative to the normal vector Ni j .

N12

3 S3
α31
α23
x
z
2
S1 F1

1 S2
α12

Fig. C.1 The frame F1 has its x-axis along N12 and its z-axis along S1 .

At each vertex Si we denote the exterior dihedral angle by φi , which is defined

by the formula

Nki × Ni j · Si Sk × Si · S j
tan φi = = . (C.2)
Nki · Ni j (Sk × Si ) · (Si × S j )

419
420 C Spherical Trigonometry

The indices (i, j, k) in this equation are any one of the three cyclic permutations
(1, 2, 3), (2, 3, 1), or (3, 1, 2).
In the following derivations, we distinguish the F-frame equations from the B-
frame. These are simply two different ways to formulate the same equations. We
will label as Fi the frame that has its z-axis along the vertex Si and the normal vector
Ni j as its x-axis. The frame Bi will also have Si as its z-axis, but its x-axis will now
be the normal vector Nki .

C.1 The F-Frame Formulas

Our goal is to obtain trigonometric identities for the triangle 4S1 S2 S3 . We begin
with the frame F1 , aligned with the side S1 S2 , so the z-axis is along S1 and N12 is
the x-axis. In this frame, we can determine two equations for the coordinates of S3
in terms of the dimensions of the triangle. The first is defined by the sequence of
rotations
1
S3 = [Z(π − φ1 )][X(α31 )]~k, (C.3)
where π − φ1 is the interior angle at S1 , and α31 = α13 is the angular length of the
side S1 S3 . Recall that ~k = (0, 0, 1)T . The superscript preceding S3 denotes the coor-
dinate frame F1 in which we are computing these coordinates. The second equation
is given by
1
S3 = [X(α12 )][Z(φ2 )][X(α23 )]~k. (C.4)
Expand these equations to obtain
   
 sin α31 sin φ1   sin α23 sin φ2 
1
S3 = sin α31 cos φ1 = −(sin α12 cos α23 + cos α12 sin α23 cos φ2 ) . (C.5)
cos α31 cos α12 cos α23 − sin α12 sin α23 cos φ2
   

The three identities obtained by equating the components of these two vectors are
known, respectively, as the sine law, the sine–cosine law, and the cosine law of the
spherical triangle.
A different set of relations for this triangle can be obtained by introducing the
coordinate frame F2 with its z-axis along S2 and its x-axis directed along N23 . We
now consider the two definitions of S1 in this frame. The first is the sequence of
rotations
2
S1 = [Z(π − φ2 )][X(α12 )]~k. (C.6)
The second way to determine S1 in F2 is given by
2
S1 = [X(α23 )][Z(φ3 )][X(α31 ]~k. (C.7)

Expanding these equations, we obtain the identity

C.1 The F-Frame Formulas 421
   
 sin α12 sin φ2   sin α31 sin φ3 
2
S1 = sin α12 cos φ2 = −(sin α23 cos α31 + cos α23 sin α31 cos φ3 ) . (C.8)
cos α12 cos α23 cos α31 − sin α23 sin α31 cos φ3
   

Notice that these equations can be obtained from (C.5) by permuting the indices
(1, 2, 3) to form (2, 3, 1).
Finally, we can obtain a third set of identities by computing the components of
S2 in the frame F3 located with its z-axis along S3 and its x-axis along N31 . The
same derivation as above yields the identities
   
 sin α23 sin φ3   sin α12 sin φ1 
3
S2 = sin α23 cos φ3 = −(sin α31 cos α12 + cos α31 sin α12 cos φ1 ) . (C.9)
cos α31 cos α31 cos α12 − sin α31 sin α12 cos φ1
   

Notice that these equations can be obtained from (C.8) by again applying the cyclic
permutation (1, 2, 3) 7→ (2, 3, 1).
Crane and Duffy [16] introduce the symbols (X̄ j , Ȳ j , Z̄ j ) defined by
   
X̄ j   sin α jk sin φ j 
Ȳ j = −(sin αi j cos α jk + cos αi j sin α jk cos φ j ) . (C.10)
Z̄ j cos αi j cos α jk − sin αi j sin α jk cos φ j
   

Comparing this to our equations above, we have

     
X̄2  X̄3  X̄1 
1
S3 = Ȳ2 , 2 S1 = Ȳ3 , and 3
S2 = Ȳ1 . (C.11)
Z̄2 Z̄3 Z̄1
     

Also from our calculations above, we have

 
 sin αi j sin φ j 
j
Si = sin αi j cos φ j . (C.12)
cos αi j
 

Thus, we obtain Crane and Duffy’s compact form for these identities:
   
X̄k   sin αi j sin φ j 
Ȳ = sin αi j cos φ j , (C.13)
 k 
Z̄k cos αi j


where the indices (i, j, k) are any one of the cyclic permutations (1, 2, 3), (2, 3, 1),
or (3, 1, 2).
422 C Spherical Trigonometry

C.2 The B-Frame Formulas

We now perform the same analysis but with a different set of reference frames. Let
B1 be the reference frame aligned with side S3 S1 , so its z-axis is along S1 and its
x-axis is the normal vector N31 , Figure C.2. In this case, we determine two equations
for the coordinates of S2 , rather than S3 as we did above. The first equation is defined
by the sequence of rotations
1
S2 = [Z(φ1 )][X(α12 )]~k. (C.14)

The superscript preceding S2 denotes the coordinate frame B1 . The second equation
is given by
1
S2 = [X(−α31 )][Z(π − φ3 )][X(α23 )]~k. (C.15)
Expand these equations to obtain
   
 sin α12 sin φ1   sin α23 sin φ3 
1
S2 = − sin α12 cos φ1 = sin α31 cos α23 + cos α31 sin α23 cos φ3 . (C.16)
cos α12 cos α31 cos α23 − sin α31 sin α23 cos φ3
   

The three identities obtained by equating the components of these two vectors are
alternative forms for the sine law, the sine–cosine law, and the cosine law of the
spherical triangle.

3 S3
α31
α23
B1
2
S1 z

1
x S2
α12
N31

Fig. C.2 The frame B1 has its x-axis along N31 and its z-axis along S1 .

Following the same procedure, we obtain the B-frame versions of 2 S3 and 3 S1 .

We can also get these results using the permutations (2, 3, 1) and (3, 1, 2) of the
indices (1, 2, 3). This results in the formulas
   
 sin α23 sin φ2   sin α31 sin φ1 
2
S3 = − sin α23 cos φ2 = sin α12 cos α31 + cos α12 sin α31 cos φ1 (C.17)
cos α23 cos α12 cos α31 − sin α12 sin α31 cos φ1
   
C.3 Summary 423

and
   
 sin α31 sin φ3   sin α12 sin φ2 
3
S1 = − sin α31 cos φ3 = sin α23 cos α12 + cos α23 sin α12 cos φ2 . (C.18)
cos α31 cos α23 cos α12 − sin α23 sin α12 cos φ2
   

Crane and Duffy introduce symbols (X j ,Y j , Z j ) defined by the equations

   
X j   sin αi j sin φ j 
Y j = −(sin α jk cos αi j + cos α jk sin αi j cos φ j ) . (C.19)
Zj cos α jk cos αi j − sin α jk sin αi j cos φ j
   

Comparing these equations to our results above, we see that

     
 X3   X1   X2 
1
S2 = −Y3 , 2 S3 = −Y1 , and 3 S1 = −Y2 . (C.20)
Z3 Z1 Z2
     

Also from our calculations above, we have

 
 sin αi j sin φi 
i
S j = − sin αi j cos φi . (C.21)
cos αi j
 

In Crane and Duffy’s notation these identities become

   
Xk   sin αi j sin φi 
Y = sin αi j cos φi , (C.22)
 k 
Zk cos αi j


where the indices (i, j, k) are any one of the cyclic permutations (1, 2, 3), (2, 3, 1),
or (3, 1, 2). Notice that we have canceled the negative signs in the y-components of
these equations.

C.3 Summary

The result of this analysis is two sets of three vector identities relating the vertex
angles and sides of a spherical triangle. The first set of equations is (C.5), (C.8),
and (C.9). The second set is (C.16), (C.17), and (C.18). The notation of Crane and
Duffy allows these sets of equations to be written compactly as (C.13) and (C.22),
respectively.
It is important to notice that associated with this triangle 4S1 S2 S3 is its po-
lar triangle 4N12 N23 N31 . We may analyze this triangle in exactly the same way
as above to obtain two more sets of three vector identities. See Crane and Duffy
424 C Spherical Trigonometry

for a complete listing of these identities, and for similar identities for the spherical
quadrilateral, pentagon, hexagon, and heptagon.
Appendix D
Operations with Dual Numbers

The standard form of a screw W = (ks, kc × s + kps)T is simplified by defining the

multiplication between the ordered pair (k, kp) and the line L = (s, c × s)T so that

W = (ks, kc × s + kps)T = (k, kp)(s, c × s)T . (D.1)

We view this as a product of the dual scalar k̂ = (k, kp) and the dual vector L =
(s, c × s)T . The dual vector is equivalent to a vector of dual scalars, so (D.1) implies
that the product of two dual scalars â = (a, a◦ ) and b̂ = (b, b◦ ) is given by

âb̂ = (a, a◦ )(b, b◦ ) = (ab, a◦ b + ab◦ ). (D.2)

This may be taken as the definition of multiplication operation for dual numbers.
However, in what follows we will define it in a way that extends easily to functions
F(â) of a dual number.
Consider the function a(ε) of a real parameter ε. Define the dual number â as-
sociated with a(ε) to be the pair constructed from this function and its derivative
a0 (ε), both evaluated at ε = 0, that is, a(0) = a and a0 (0) = a◦ . Therefore,
 da 
â = a(ε),  = (a, a◦ ). (D.3)
dε ε=0
While there are many choices for a(ε), the simplest is a(ε) = a + εa◦ .
Using this approach, we define the addition and subtraction of two dual numbers
as the dual numbers associated with the functions a(ε) + b(ε) and a(ε) − b(ε), that
is,
â + b̂ = (a + b, a◦ + b◦ ) and â − b̂ = (a − b, a◦ − b◦ ). (D.4)
We can now see that (D.2) is the dual number obtained from the function

a(ε)b(ε) = (a + εa◦ )(b + εb◦ ) = ab + ε(ab◦ + a◦ b) + ε 2 a◦ b◦ (D.5)

by evaluating it and its derivative at ε = 0. A similar computation yields the division

of two dual numbers as

425
426 D Operations with Dual Numbers

â  a a◦ b − ab◦ 
= , . (D.6)
b̂ b b2
A differentiable function of a dual number F(â) can be evaluated using the chain
rule to obtain
 da(ε) 
F(â) = F(a(ε)), F 0 (a(ε)) = F(a), F 0 (a)a◦ .


 (D.7)
dε ε=0

For example, in order to evaluate â1/2 we consider the function F(â) = (a + εa◦ )1/2
and compute
1
F(a) = a1/2 , F 0 (a)a◦ = a−1/2 a◦ . (D.8)
2
Thus, we have  a◦ 
â1/2 = a1/2 , 1/2 . (D.9)
2a
Other examples are the trigonometric functions of a dual angle θ̂ = (θ , d), given by

cos θ̂ = (cos θ , −d sin θ ),

sin θ̂ = (sin θ , d cos θ ),
d

tan θ̂ = tan θ , . (D.10)
cos2 θ
These computations show that the set of dual numbers forms a commutative ring
that we can use to define dual vectors and dual matrices. The result is dual vector
algebra, which is used to manipulate the coordinates of lines and screws.
Appendix E
Kinematics Equations

E.1 The Planar RR Chain

We now show how to use the kinematics equation of a planar RR chain to obtain
the relative displacement [T (φi j , Pi j )] of the end-link as the composition of rotations
about the fixed and moving pivots. The kinematics equations of an RR chain define
the displacement [D] of M relative to F as the composition of local transformations

[D(α, β )] = [G][Z(β )][X(a)][Z(α)][H]. (E.1)

The 3×3 matrices [Z(β )] and [Z(α)] define rotations about the z-axis and [X(a)] is a
pure translation along the x-axis. The transformations [G] and [H] are displacements
from F to the fixed pivot and from the moving pivot to M.
Compute the relative displacement of the moving body M from position i to
position j, given by

[Di j ] = [D j ][D−1
i ]
= [G][Z(β j )][X(a)][Z(α j )][H][H −1 ][Z(αi )−1 ][X(a)−1 ][Z(βi )−1 ][G−1 ].
(E.2)

Define the relative angles αi j = α j − αi and βi j = β j − βi and introduce the identity

displacement [I] = [Z(βi )−1 ][G−1 ][G][Z(βi )] in this equation to obtain

[Di j ] = [G][Z(βi j )][G−1 ] [G][Z(βi )][X(a)][Z(αi j )][X(a)−1 ][Z(βi )−1 ][G−1 ]

= [T (βi j , G)][T (αi j , Wi )], (E.3)

where

[T (βi j , G)] = [G][Z(βi j )][G−1 ],

[T (αi j , Wi )] = [G][Z(βi )][X(a)][Z(αi j )][X(a)−1 ][Z(βi )−1 ][G−1 ]. (E.4)

427
428 E Kinematics Equations

We now show that the transformations [T (βi j , G)] and [T (αi j , Wi )] are rotations
about the respective poles G and Wi . First notice that

G = [G]~k and Wi = [G][Z(βi )][X(a)]~k, (E.5)

where ~k = (0, 0, 1)T is the homogeneous coordinates of the origin of F. We now

show that the pole of the displacement [D][A][D−1 ], where [A] is a rotation matrix
and [D] = [B, b] is a general planar displacement, is [D]~k = b. The composition of
displacements [D][A][D−1 ] becomes

[D][A][D−1 ] = [B, b][A, 0][BT , −BT b]

= BABT , [I − BABT ]b = A, [I − A]b .
   
(E.6)

The equality of the rotation matrices [B][A][BT ] = [A] results from the addition of
planar rotations. This is the definition of a planar displacement in terms of its pole.
Thus, equation (E.3), which equates the relative displacement of the floating link
of an RR dyad to the composition of rotations about its fixed and moving axes, is
the transformation equation associated with the planar dyad triangle.
A similar derivation yields the equation

[Di j ] = [T (αi j , W j )][T (βi j , G)], (E.7)

where

[T (βi j , G)] = [G][T (βi j )][G−1 ], (E.8)

j −1 −1 −1
[T (αi j , W )] = [G][Z(β j )][X(a)][Z(αi j )][X(a) ][Z(β j ) ][G ]. (E.9)

Invert equation (E.1) of an RR dyad to obtain the position of the fixed frame
relative to the moving frame

[D(α, β )−1 ] = [H −1 ][Z(α)−1 ][X(a)−1 ][Z(β )−1 ][G−1 ]. (E.10)

For the pair of positions Mi and Mk of the moving body, we have the inverse relative
displacements [Tik† ] = [Tk−1 ][Ti ], where

[D†ik ] = [H −1 ][Z(αk )−1 ][X(a)−1 ][Z(βk )−1 ][G−1 ][G][Z(βi )][X(a)][Z(αi )][H].
(E.11)
An analysis identical to that discussed above for RR dyads yields the equation

[D†ik ] = [T (−αik , w)][T (−βik , gi )] = [T (−βik , gk )][T (−αik , w)]. (E.12)

The transformation [T (−αik , w)] is a displacement with the moving pivot w in M as

its pole. Similarly, [T (−βik , gi )] is a displacement with pole gi , that is, the point in
M corresponding to the fixed pivot in the ith position.
We now compute [Dikj ] using the first equation in (E.12),
E.2 The Spherical RR Chain 429

[Dikj ] = [T j ][T (−αik , w)][T (−β jk , gi )][T j−1 ]. (E.13)

This transformation [T j ][T (−αik , w)][T j−1 ] changes the coordinates of the moving
pivot w to W j . Similarly, [T j ][T (−β jk , gi )][T j−1 ] transforms the point gi in M to Gi
in F, so we have
[Dikj ] = [T (−αik , W j )][T (−βik , Gi )]. (E.14)

E.2 The Spherical RR Chain

The kinematics equation of a spherical RR chain can be used to derive the relative
rotation [R(φi j , Si j )] of the end-link M as the composition of rotations about the
fixed and moving axes of the chain. The kinematics equations define the orientation
[R] of M relative to F as the product of local transformations

[R(α, β )] = [G][Z(β )][X(ρ)][Z(α)][H], (E.15)

where [Z(β )] and [Z(α)] are coordinate rotations about z-axis, and [X(ρ)] is the
coordinate rotation around the x-axis. The rotations [G] and [H] are transformations
from F to the fixed axis G and from the moving axis W to M, respectively.
The relative rotation [Ri j ] of M from orientation Mi to M j is given by

[Ri j ] = [R j ][RTi ]
= [G][Z(β j )][X(ρ)][Z(α j )][H][H T ][Z(αi )T ][X(ρ)T ][Z(βi )T ][GT ]. (E.16)

Define the relative angles αi j = α j − αi and βi j = β j − βi , and introduce the

identity [I] = [Z(βi )T ][GT ][G][Z(βi )] to obtain

[Ri j ] = [G][Z(βi j )][GT ] [G][Z(βi )][X(ρ)][Z(αi j )][X(ρ)T ][Z(βi )T ][GT ]

= [A(βi j , G)][A(αi j , Wi )], (E.17)

where

[A(βi j , G)] = [G][Z(βi j )][GT ]

[A(αi j , Wi )] = [G][Z(βi )][X(ρ)][Z(αi j )][X(ρ)T ][Z(βi )T ][GT ]. (E.18)

We now show that [A(βi j , G)] and [A(αi j , Wi )] are rotations about poles G and
i
W , respectively. First notice that

G = [G]~k and Wi = [G][Z(βi )][X(ρ)]~k, (E.19)

where ~k = (0, 0, 1)T . In light of these relations, all we have to show is that the rota-
tion matrix [B][A][BT ] has [B]S as its rotation axis if the rotation [A] has the rotation
axis S. To see this, simply check the definition
430 E Kinematics Equations

[BABT − I][B]S = [BA − B]S = [B][A − I]S = 0. (E.20)

The last equality results because S is the rotation axis of [A].

Thus, (E.18) equates the relative rotation to the composition of rotations about
the fixed and moving axes and defines the spherical dyad triangle.
A similar derivation yields the equivalent relation

[Ri j ] = [A(αi j , W j )][A(βi j , G)], (E.21)

where

[A(βi j , G)] = [G][Z(βi j )][GT ],

[A(αi j , W j )] = [G][Z(β j )][X(ρ)][Z(αi j )][X(ρ)T ][Z(β j )T ][GT ]. (E.22)

Now consider the inverse relative rotation [R†ik ] = [RTk ][Ri ] for the spherical RR
chain, given by

[R†ik ] = [H T ][Z(αk )T ][X(ρ)T ][Z(βk )T ][GT ][G][Z(βi )][X(ρ)][Z(αi )][H]. (E.23)

An analysis identical to that discussed above yields the identities

[R†ik ] = [A(−αik , w)][A(−βik , gi )] = [A(−βik , gk )][A(−αik , w)]. (E.24)

The rotation [A(−αik , w)] has the moving axis w in M as its rotation axis. Similarly,
[A(−βik , gi )] has as its rotation axis gi , which is the fixed axis for the dyad in the ith
position of M.
Transform these equations to F with M in position M j to define

[Rikj ] = [R j ][A(−αik , w)][A(−βik , gi )][RTj ]. (E.25)

The transformation [R j ][A(−αik , w)][RTj ] changes the coordinates of the moving

pivot w to W j . Similarly, [R j ][A(−βik , gi )][RTj ] transforms the point gi in M to Gi in
F, so we have
[Rikj ] = [A(−αik , W j )][A(−βik , Gi )]. (E.26)

E.3 The CC Chain

Here we show that the kinematics equations of the CC chain can be used to define
the relative transformation [Di j ] as the composition of screw displacements about
the fixed and moving axes of the chain. The kinematics equation equates the spatial
displacement [D] of the moving body M to the sequence of relative displacements
along the chain,
[D(α̂, β̂ )] = [G][Z(β̂ )][X(ρ̂)][Z(α̂)][H], (E.27)
E.3 The CC Chain 431

where [Z(β̂ )] and [Z(α̂)] are the coordinate screw displacements about the fixed and
moving axes, and [X(ρ̂)] is a screw displacement along the crank.
The relative transformation [Di j ] of M as it moves from position Mi to M j is given
by

[Di j ] = [D j ][D−1
i ]
= [G][Z(β̂ j )][X(ρ̂)][Z(α̂ j )][H][H −1 ][Z(α̂i )−1 ][X(ρ̂)−1 ][Z(β̂i )−1 ][G−1 ].
(E.28)

We simplify this expression by defining α̂i j = α̂ j − α̂i , and introduce the identity
[I] = [Z(β̂i )−1 ][G−1 ][G][Z(β̂i )] = I to obtain

[Di j ] = [G][Z(β̂i j )][G−1 ] [Z(β̂i )][X(ρ̂)][Z(α̂i j )][X(ρ̂)−1 ][Z(β̂i )−1 ][G−1 ]

= [T (β̂i j , G)][T (α̂i j , Wi )], (E.29)

where

[T (β̂i j , G)] = [G][Z(β̂i j )][G−1 ],

[T (α̂i j , Wi )] = [G][Z(β̂i )][X(ρ̂)][Z(α̂i j )][X(ρ̂)]−1 [Z(β̂i )−1 ][G−1 ]. (E.30)

We now show that the transformations [T (β̂i j , G)] and [T (α̂i j , Wi )] are screw
displacements about the axes G and Wi measured in F. To see this, consider k to be
the screw along the z-axis of the fixed frame. Then G and Wi are obtained from the
screw transformations

G = [Ĝ]k and Wi = [Ĝ][Ẑ(β̂i )][X̂(ρ̂)]k. (E.31)

Notice that the screw transformation [B̂][Â][B̂−1 ] has the screw axis [B̂]S, because

[B̂ÂB̂−1 − I][B̂]S = [B̂Â − B̂]S = [B̂][Â − I]S = 0. (E.32)

The last equality arises because S is the screw axis of [Â].

Therefore, we can conclude that (E.30) is the matrix transformation associated
with the spatial dyad triangle.
A similar derivation yields the equation

[Di j ] = [T (α̂i j , W j )][T (β̂i j , G)], (E.33)

where

[T (β̂i j , G)] = [G][Z(β̂i j )][G−1 ],

[T (α̂i j , W j )] = [G][Z(β j )][X(ρ̂)][Z(α̂i j )][X(ρ̂)−1 ][Z(β̂ j )−1 ][G−1 ]. (E.34)
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Index

3CC platform, 321 classification, 169

3R open chain coupler velocity ratio, 175
planar, 19, 125 design, 224
spherical, 158, 231 Grashof, 170
3R wrist, 257 mechanical advantage, 177
3RR platform nonGrashof, 170
constraint equations, 412 output velocity ratio, 174
planar, 111 position analysis, 159
spherical, 224 range of movement, 165
3RRRS platform, 399 spherical image of a 4C, 274
4C closed chain velocity analysis, 174
design, 330 5TS platform linkage, 9, 276
position analysis, 272 design, 330
4R closed chain 6R planar closed chain, 139
constraint equation, 411 6R spherical closed chain, 243
4R planar closed chain 6TPS platform, 399
as a 4C, 276
as an RSSR, 268 action screw, 396
classification, 35 actuator screw, 396
coupler curve, 29 Ahlers, S. G., 332
coupler velocity ratio, 44 Altmann, S. L., 200
design, 72 angular velocity, 38, 172, 266
Grashof, 35 matrix, 173, 264
kite, 37 vector, 173, 264
mechanical advantage, 47 articulated chain, 335, 356
nonGrashof, 35 assemblies, 37
output velocity ratio, 44 axis of a composite rotation, 194
parallelogram, 37 axode, 265
position analysis, 25
range of movement, 31 Ball, R. S., 410
rhombus, 37 ball-in-socket joint, 2
velocity analysis, 43 Bennett’s condition, 270
4R spatial closed chain Bennett’s linkage, 253, 269, 328
design, 330 design, 330
position analysis, 269 position analysis, 269
4R spherical closed chain Beyer, R., 73
as an RSSR, 269 biquadratic equation, 412

441
442 Index

simultaneous solution, 413 Collins, C. L., 393

Bodduluri, R. M. C., 225 common normal to two lines, 254
Bottema, O., 91, 200, 305, 382 compatibility platform
branching problem, 117, 224 planar, 111
Burmester axes, 222 spatial, 319
Burmester lines, 315 spherical, 223
Burmester points, 67 complementary axes, 217, 318
Burmester’s theorem, 104 complementary-axis quadrilateral, 217, 220
for circle points, 108 complementary-screw quadrilateral, 318
Burmester, L., 73, 103, 384 composite axis theorem, 197
Burmester–Roth theorem, 217 composite pole theorem, 87
composite screw axis theorem, 302
C joint, 2 configuration space, 2
cardinal point, 74 construction
Cayley’s formula, 185 center axis, 218
CC open chain center point, 66, 105
design equations, 313 central axis, 318
five positions, 315 circumscribing circle, 416
direction equations, 314 for a pole, 57
geometry, 312 for corresponding points, 57
moment equations, 314 perpendicular bisector, 415
position analysis, 262 planar PR
center axis, 209, 217 four positions, 70
center point, 62, 96, 104 three positions, 69
center-axis cone, 216 two positions, 68
parameterized, 218 planar RP, 70
center-axis theorem, 209 four positions, 71
center-point curve, 67, 102, 103 three positions, 71
parameterized, 105 two positions, 70
center-point theorem, 62, 96 planar RR
central axis, 317, 318 five positions, 67
central-axis congruence, 318, 319 four positions, 66
central-axis theorem, 317 three positions, 63
centrode, 41 two positions, 62
fixed, 53 to duplicate an angle, 416
moving, 53 to reflect a point, 417
Chase, T. R., 152 coordinate planar displacements, 15
Chebyshev’s linkage, 12 coordinate rotations, 155
Chen, P., 332 coordinate screw displacements, 255
Cheng, H., 200 couple, 177
Chiang, C. H., 164, 171, 178, 228 coupler, 20
Cipra, R. J., 153 Craig, J. J., 52, 178, 279, 397
circle-point curve, 107 Cramer’s rule, 101, 413
circling-axis cone, 219 Crane, C. D., 178, 200, 279, 366, 421
parameterized, 220 crank, 18
circular cubic, 105 crank-rocker linkage
Clifford algebra planar, 35
even, 359, 381 spherical, 170
exponential of a screw, 361 Crossley, F. R. E., 13
exponential of a vector, 360 cylindric joint, 2
kinematics equations, 362, 382 cylindroid, 325
product of elements, 360
Clifford, W. K., 303 Dai, J. S., 14
closed chain, 4 Dandurand, A., 393
Index 443

degree of constraint, 10 spherical, 207, 430

degree of freedom, 2 quaternion equation, 207
Denavit, J., 13, 73, 91, 384
Denavit–Hartenberg convention, 256 eight-bar chains, 142
Dimarogonas, A., 13 eight-bar linkage design
Dimentberg, F. M., 305 adding planar RR constraints, 140
direct kinematics, 277 adding spherical RR constraints, 242
displacement number of linkage designs, 141, 243
change coordinates, 79 planar, 139
composition, 79, 282, 283 position analysis, 143, 245
inverse, 79 sorting assemblies, 148, 249
planar, 55, 76, 77 spherical, 242
rotational, 193 elliptic trammel, 52
spatial, 179, 182, 281 Erdman, A. G., 52, 73, 91, 121, 152, 385, 392
spherical, 204 Euclidean metric, 75, 179
displacement pole, 55, 82
construction, 83 Faugere, J. C., 279
relative, 84 Fichter, E. F., 410
relative inverse, 85 Filemon’s construction
distance formula, 75, 179 planar, 117
dixon determinant, 49, 132, 145 spherical, 225
Dobrovolskii, V. V., 228 Filemon, E., 117
Dobryankyj, L., 13 Fischer, I. S., 305
double-crank linkage fixed axis, 206, 312, 321
planar, 35 fixed pivot, 59, 94, 308
spherical, 170 floating link, 18
double-rocker linkage Flugrad, D. R., 388
planar, 36 folding linkages
spherical, 170 planar 4R, 37
Dowler, H. J., 228 slider-crank, 22
dual angle, 289, 361 spherical 4R, 172
cosine of, 289, 361 Foster, D. E., 153
sine of, 289, 361 four-bar linkage design, 72, 117
trigonometric functions of, 426 Freudenstein, F., 11, 13, 121, 303, 305
dual displacement angle, 297 function generation, 10, 119, 226
dual magnitude, 287 function generator, 117, 331
dual multiplication, 425 planar 4R, 120
dual number, 287 planar slider-crank, 120
function of, 425 spatial RSSP, 331
dual quaternion, 303 spatial RSSR, 331
conjugate, 303 spherical 4R, 224, 227
norm, 303 Furlong, T., 228
product, 303
unit, 303, 362 generalized eigenvalue problem, 51, 134, 147,
dual scalar, 425 238
dual scalar product, 288 geometric design, 1
dual vector, 287, 315, 425 Gibson, C. G., 410
dual vector algebra, 287, 426 Grashof double-rocker
dual vector product, 288, 291 planar, 35
Duffy, J., 178, 200, 279, 366, 397, 410, 421 spherical, 170
dyad triangle Grashof linkage
planar, 59, 60, 95, 428 planar 4R, 36
spatial, 316, 431 planar slider-crank, 22
dual quaternion, 325 spherical 4R, 171
444 Index

Gupta, K. C., 200, 358 kinematics equations, 39, 173, 253, 256, 265,
Gustafson, J. E., 121 380
3R wrist, 257
Hall, A. S., 73 planar 3R, 19
Hamilton, W. R., 197 planar PR, 17
Harrisberger, L., 13 planar RR, 18, 427
Hartenber, R. S., 91 product of exponentials, 357
Hartenberg, R. S., 13, 73, 384 spatial 4C, 273
helix, 408 spatial CC, 263, 430
Hernadez, S., 250 spatial RR, RP, PR, PP, 263
Herve, J. M., 392 spatial RS, 259
Hoffman, C. M., 14 spatial TS, 260
holonomic constraint, 3 spherical RR, 157, 429
homogeneous transform, 282 TPS robot, 261
Hooke’s coupling, 162 TRS robot, 262
Huang, C., 325 Kinzel, G. L., 52, 121
Hunt, K. H., 31, 178, 279, 326, 406, 410 Kota, S., 14
Husty, M. L., 279 Krishnaprasad, P. S., 52
Krovi, V., 388, 392
Kumar, V., 396, 410
image pole, 58
infinitesimal work, 396
Larochelle, P. M., 52, 228
Innocenti, C., 121, 332
Lazard, D., 279
instant center, 39
Lee, E., 392
instantaneous rotation axis, 176
Li, D., 14
instantaneous screw axis, 265
Liao, Q., 121, 332
inverse kinematics, 257
line geometry, 315
3R wrist, 258
line of action, 399, 401
spatial CC, 263
line-based singularities, 398
spatial RS, 259
classification, 401
spatial TS, 261
conditions for, 399
TPS robot, 261
type n, 401
TRS robot, 262
linear complex, 408
isometry
special, 408
planar, 75
linear congruence, 406
spatial, 179
elliptic, 406
hyperbolic, 406
Jacobian parabolic, 406, 407
planar RR, 40 linear product decomposition, 336–338
platform linkage, 278 circular cylinder, 343
platform manipulator, 398, 401 circular hyperboloid, 346
screw, 397 circular torus, 351
spatial open chain, 266, 267, 397 elliptic cylinder, 349
spherical RR, 174 general torus, 353
Jessop, C. M., 393 plane, 339
joint, 1 sphere, 341
joint screw, 396 lines
at infinity, 406
Kaufman, R. E., 121 axial coordinates, 397
Kennedy’s theorem axis of a screw, 286
planar, 46 bundle of, 405
spherical, 177 common normal, 291
Kimbrell, J. T., 73 intersection, 290
kinematic synthesis, 1 orthogonal components, 289
Index 445

pencil of, 402 moving pivot, 59, 94, 308, 309

Plücker coordinates, 285 Murray’s compatibility platform theorem, 321
ray coordinates, 397 Murray, A. P., 52, 178, 332
reguli, 404 Murray, R. M., 395, 397
unit screws, 288
zero-pitch screws, 287 Nielsen, J., 52
link offset, 256 nonholonomic constraint, 3
link twist angle, 256 Notash, L., 393
linkage, 1 nR coupled chain, 388
linkage graph, 5
links, 1 offset, 20
Lipkin, H., 397 extreme values, 328
Long, G. L., 393 in a two-system, 327
loop equations Oldham’s coupling, 52
planar Watt I, 131 open chain, 3
planar, 48 opposite-pole pair, 66
planar 4R, 27, 276 opposite-pole quadrilateral, 66, 103
planar B14B25 eight-bar linkage, 145 orientation, 182
slider-crank, 23 orthocenter, 69, 92
spatial 4C, 275, 276 orthogonal matrix, 77, 181
spherical 4R, 160 overconstrained linkage, 3
spherical pentad, 237
spherical triangle, 237 P joint, 2
velocity, 41 parallel manipulators, 393
Luck, K., 73 Paul, R. P., 52
Pennock, G. R., 305
Mabie, H. H., 52 Perez, M. A., 152, 332, 392
Mallik, A. K., 52 perpendicular bisector, 83
Manocha D., 130 planar, 83, 94
Martinez, J. M. R., 410 screw, 296
Mason, M. T., 410 spatial, 187, 206, 308
matrix polynomial, 130 Phillips, J., 396, 410
Mavroidis, C., 392 pitch, 287, 326
McCarthy, J. M., 152, 250, 359, 392 extreme values, 327
mechanical advantage in a two-system, 327
planar 4R, 47 infinite, 406
planar slider-crank, 42 Plücker coordinates, 285, 286
spherical 4R, 177 transformation, 292
mechanical hands, 393 Plücker vector, 278
mechanism, 1 platform manipulators, 393
Merlet, J. P., 393, 401 point-path generation, 10
Meyer zur Capellen, W., 228 pole curve, 74
Mirth, J. A., 153 pole of a composite displacement, 86
mobility, 2 pole triangle, 58
generic, 2 circumscribing circle, 90
planar linkages, 3 image, 89
platform linkages, 9 planar, 86
spatial linkages, 8 relative, 88
spherical linkages, 7 spherical, 194
model linkage, 171 spherical image, 198
Modler, K. H., 73 spherical relative, 198
motion generation, 10 polynomial systems, 343, 355
motion screw, 396 PP joint, 368
moving axis, 206, 312, 321 PR planar open chain
446 Index

design equations, 112 planar, 35, 36

four positions, 115 spherical, 170
three positions, 113 Rodrigues’s equation, 189
two positions, 113 for screws, 298
geometry, 68 planar, 84
position analysis, 16 Rodrigues’s formula
principal axes, 327 for rotation axes, 194, 198
principal screws, 327 for screw axes, 300, 302
prismatic joint, 2 Rodrigues’s vector, 186
Pythagorean theorem, 75 rotation, 181
planar, 55, 76
quaternion, 197 spatial, 180
conjugate, 197 rotation angle, 77, 188
coordinate transformation, 361 rotation axis, 185
dual, 303 construction, 187
norm, 197 image, 192
product, 197 instantaneous, 173, 176
unit, 197, 361 relative, 191
quick return, 24 relative inverse, 192
rotation matrix, 281
R joint, 2 change of coordinates, 183, 190
Radcliffe, C. W., 73, 228, 279, 332, 383 composition, 182
rate of work done, 396 eigenvalue, 191
Ravani, B., 122, 382 inverse, 190
reachable surface, 335, 336, 338, 354 planar, 77
circular cylinder, 341 spatial, 180
circular hyperboloid, 336, 344 Roth’s theorem, 318
circular torus, 349 Roth, B., 11, 52, 73, 91, 122, 200, 217, 228,
elliptic cylinder, 336, 346 305, 325, 332, 382
general torus, 336, 351 RP planar open chain
plane, 335, 338 design equations, 116
sphere, 335, 340 geometry, 68
reciprocal screw theorem, 400 RPR open chain, 19
reciprocal screws, 397 RR planar open chain
rectification centrode, 41
planar, 117 design equations, 97, 128, 385
spherical, 225 five positions, 108, 389
redundant degrees of freedom, 10 four positions, 102
reflections, 181 parameterized, 99
Reinholtz, C. F., 52 three positions, 100
relative displacement two positions, 99
planar, 80 geometry, 59, 94
spatial, 283, 358 Jacobian, 40
relative inverse displacement position analysis, 18
image, 81, 283 velocity analysis, 39
planar, 81 RR spatial open chain
spatial, 283 constraint equations, 321
relative inverse rotation, 184 design equations, 324
relative rotation, 183 dyad triangle, 324
Reuleaux, F., 13 geometry, 321
revolute joint, 2, 93, 203 RR spherical open chain
Robert’s linkage, 11 design equations, 207, 211, 232
robot manipulator, 257, 335 five orientations, 221
rocker-crank linkage four orientations, 216
Index 447

parameterized, 213 serial chain, 335

three orientations, 214 3C chain, 370
two orientations, 213 5C chain, 373
geometry, 205 CCS chain, 376
position analysis, 157 CS chain, 336, 342, 343
velocity analysis, 173 PCC chain, 372
RRPR planar closed chain planar, 378
position analysis, 24 PPC chain, 372
RRR planar open chain PPP chain, 372
design equations PPS chain, 338, 340
five positions, 387 PRS chain, 336
seven positions, 388 RCC chain, 371
three positions, 387 right RRS chain, 336, 350, 351
number of design positions, 384 RPS chain, 336, 344, 349
RRRP planar closed chain RRC chain, 371
as an RSSP, 271 RRR chain, 371
classification, 22 RRS chain, 336, 352, 353
design, 72 TS chain, 335, 340, 341
mechanical advantage, 42 Shigley, J. E., 52
position analysis, 20 singular configurations, 278, 398
range of movement, 21 platform manipulators, 401
velocity analysis, 41 serial chains, 409
RS open chain type-1, 401
design equations, 310 type-2, 402
position analysis, 259 type-3, 402
RSSP spatial closed chain type-4, 405
position analysis, 270 type-5, 408
sinusoidal, 272 six-bar linkage design
symmetric, 271 adding planar RR constraints, 126
RSSR spatial closed chain adding spherical RR constraints, 231
position analysis, 267 number of linkage designs, 130, 235
Ruth, D. A., 121, 228 planar, 125
position analysis, 131, 235
S joint, 2, 367 sorting assemblies, 134, 239
Salisbury, J. K., 410 spherical, 231
Salmon, G., 393 skew-symmetric matrix, 186
Sandor, G. N., 52, 73, 91, 121, 152, 385, 392 slider-crank, 20
Schoenflies, A., 73 inverted, 24
Scotch yoke, 52 slider-point theorem, 69, 114
screw, 285, 286 Soh, G. S., 152, 250
axis, 288 Song, S. M., 121, 410
axis of, 286 Soni, A. H., 13
components, 289 spatial triangle, 300, 302–304
magnitude, 286 spherical cosine law, 158, 164, 420, 422
pitch, 287, 357 spherical dyad triangle, 207
reciprocal, 290 spherical image pole triangle, 199
unit, 288 spherical pentad, 237
screw axis, 284, 294 spherical pole triangle, 198
construction, 297 spherical sine law, 158, 420, 422
screw displacement, 284, 285 spherical sine–cosine law, 158, 420, 422
screw matrix, 285 spherical triangle, 194, 197, 237
screw transformation, 293 spherical trigonometry, 419
screw triangle, 299 spherical wrist, 335
relative, 304 Sreenath, N., 52
448 Index

Stephenson’s chain Tsai, L. W., 14, 152, 178, 250, 279, 325, 332,
planar, 126 397
spherical, 231 twist, 265, 394
Stewart platform, 399 partial, 265, 395
Stewart, D., 410 two-system, 325, 326, 406
straight-line linkages, 11 principal screws, 327
Su, H. J., 278
Subbian, T., 388 Uicker, J. J., 52
Suh, C. H., 73, 228, 279, 332, 383 universal joint, 2, 366

velocity analysis
T joint, 2, 366
in the plane, 38
tan-half-angle technique, 411
planar 4R, 43
tangent sorting, 51
planar RR, 39
task, 10
planar slider-crank, 41
orientations, 211
spatial open chains, 264
positions, 2, 62, 97, 307
spherical 4R, 174
three-circle diagram, 118
spherical RR, 173
time ratio, 24
virtual displacement, 42, 177
torque ratio virtual work, 38, 42, 177, 396, 397
planar 4R, 48
spherical 4R, 177 Waldron’s construction
TPS open chain, 261 planar, 118
trajectory spherical, 225
planar, 38 Waldron, K. J., 3, 52, 118, 121, 410
spatial, 264 walking machines, 393
spherical, 173 Wampler, C. W., 11, 52, 178, 246
transfer principle, 315 Watt’s chain
translation planar, 126
planar, 55, 76 spherical, 231
spatial, 180 Watt’s linkage, 11
translation vector, 281 Wenger, P., 392
transmission angle Woo, L., 305
planar 4R, 28, 37 Woods, F. S., 393, 408
spherical 4R, 164 workspace, 10, 157
tricircular sextic, 52 workspace of a linkage, 10
trigonometric solution, 411 wrench, 394, 396
TRS open chain, 261
TS open chain Yang, A. T., 303, 305
design equations, 309 Yang, R., 52
four positions, 310 Yu, H. C., 328
seven positions, 310
geometry, 308 zero reference position, 358
position analysis, 260 zero-pitch screws, 287