An sensor, or lambda sensor, is an electronic device that measures the proportion of oxygen

(O2) in the gas or liquid being analyzed. It was developed by the Robert Bosch GmbH company
during the late 1960s under the supervision of Dr. Günter Bauman. The original sensing element
is made with a thimble-shaped zirconia ceramic coated on both the exhaust and reference sides
with a thin layer of platinum and comes in both heated and unheated forms. The planar-style
sensor entered the market in 1998 (also pioneered by Robert Bosch GmbH) and significantly
reduced the mass of the ceramic sensing element as well as incorporating the heater within the
ceramic structure. This resulted in a sensor that both started operating sooner and responded
faster. The most common application is to measure the exhaust gas concentration of oxygen for
internal combustion engines in automobiles and other vehicles. Divers also use a similar device
to measure the partial pressure of oxygen in their breathing gas.

Scientists use oxygen sensors to measure respiration or production of oxygen and use a different
approach. Oxygen sensors are used in oxygen analyzers which find a lot of use in medical
applications such as anesthesia monitors, respirators and oxygen concentrators.

There are many different ways of measuring oxygen and these include technologies such as
zirconia, electrochemical (also known as Galvanic), infrared, ultrasonic and very recently laser
methods. Each method has its own advantages and disadvantages.

[edit] Automotive applications

A three-wire oxygen sensor suitable for use in a Volvo 240 or similar vehicle

Automotive oxygen sensors, colloquially known as O2 sensors, make modern electronic fuel
injection and emission control possible. They help determine, in real time, if the air fuel ratio of a
combustion engine is rich or lean. Since oxygen sensors are located in the exhaust stream, they
do not directly measure the air or the fuel entering the engine. But when information from
oxygen sensors is coupled with information from other sources, it can be used to indirectly
determine the air-to-fuel ratio. Closed-loop feedback-controlled fuel injection varies the fuel
injector output according to real-time sensor data rather than operating with a predetermined
(open-loop) fuel map. In addition to enabling electronic fuel injection to work efficiently, this
emissions control technique can reduce the amounts of both unburnt fuel and oxides of nitrogen
entering the atmosphere. Unburnt fuel is pollution in the form of air-borne hydrocarbons, while
oxides of nitrogen (NOx gases) are a result of combustion chamber temperatures exceeding 1,300
kelvins due to excess air in the fuel mixture and contribute to smog and acid rain. Volvo was the
first automobile manufacturer to employ this technology in the late 1970s, along with the 3-way
catalyst used in the catalytic converter.
The sensor does not actually measure oxygen concentration, but rather the amount of oxygen
needed to completely oxidize any remaining combustibles in the exhaust gas. Rich mixture
causes an oxygen demand. This demand causes a voltage to build up, due to transportation of
oxygen ions through the sensor layer. Lean mixture causes low voltage, since there is an oxygen
excess.

Modern spark-ignited combustion engines use oxygen sensors and catalytic converters in order
to reduce exhaust emissions. Information on oxygen concentration is sent to the engine
management computer or ECU, which adjusts the amount of fuel injected into the engine to
compensate for excess air or excess fuel. The ECU attempts to maintain, on average, a certain
air-fuel ratio by interpreting the information it gains from the oxygen sensor. The primary goal is
a compromise between power, fuel economy, and emissions, and in most cases is achieved by an
air-fuel-ratio close to stoichiometric. For spark-ignition engines (such as those that burn gasoline,
as opposed to diesel), the three types of emissions modern systems are concerned with are:
hydrocarbons (which are released when the fuel is not burnt completely, such as when misfiring
or running rich), carbon monoxide (which is the result of running slightly rich) and NOx (which
dominate when the mixture is lean). Failure of these sensors, either through normal aging, the
use of leaded fuels, or fuel contaminated with silicones or silicates, for example, can lead to
damage of an automobile's catalytic converter and expensive repairs.

Tampering with or modifying the signal that the oxygen sensor sends to the engine computer can
be detrimental to emissions control and can even damage the vehicle. When the engine is under
low-load conditions (such as when accelerating very gently, or maintaining a constant speed), it
is operating in "closed-loop mode." This refers to a feedback loop between the ECU and the
oxygen sensor(s) in which the ECU adjusts the quantity of fuel and expects to see a resulting
change in the response of the oxygen sensor. This loop forces the engine to operate both slightly
lean and slightly rich on successive loops, as it attempts to maintain a mostly stoichiometric ratio
on average. If modifications cause the engine to run moderately lean, there will be a slight
increase in fuel economy, sometimes at the expense of increased NOx emissions, much higher
exhaust gas temperatures, and sometimes a slight increase in power that can quickly turn into
misfires and a drastic loss of power, as well as potential engine damage, at ultra-lean air-to-fuel
ratios. If modifications cause the engine to run rich, then there will be a slight increase in power
to a point (after which the engine starts flooding from too much unburned fuel), but at the cost of
decreased fuel economy, and an increase in unburned hydrocarbons in the exhaust which causes
overheating of the catalytic converter. Prolonged operation at rich mixtures can cause
catastrophic failure of the catalytic converter (see backfire). The ECU also controls the spark
engine timing along with the fuel injector pulse width, so modifications which alter the engine to
operate either too lean or too rich may result in inefficient fuel consumption whenever fuel is
ignited too soon or too late in the combustion cycle.

When an internal combustion engine is under high load (e.g. wide open throttle), the output of
the oxygen sensor is ignored, and the ECU automatically enriches the mixture to protect the
engine, as misfires under load are much more likely to cause damage. This is referred to an
engine running in 'open-loop mode'. Any changes in the sensor output will be ignored in this
state. In many cars (with the exception of some turbocharged models), inputs from the air flow
meter are also ignored, as they might otherwise lower engine performance due to the mixture
being too rich or too lean, and increase the risk of engine damage due to detonation if the
mixture is too lean.

[edit] Function of a lambda probe

Lambda probes are used to reduce vehicle emissions by ensuring that engines burn their fuel
efficiently and cleanly. Robert Bosch GmbH introduced the first automotive lambda probe in
1976,[1] and it was first used by Volvo and Saab in that year. The sensors were introduced in the
US from about 1980, and were required on all models of cars in many countries in Europe in
1993.

By measuring the proportion of oxygen in the remaining exhaust gas, and by knowing the
volume and temperature of the air entering the cylinders amongst other things, an ECU can use
look-up tables to determine the amount of fuel required to burn at the stoichiometric ratio (14.7:1
air:fuel by mass for gasoline) to ensure complete combustion.

[edit] The probe

The sensor element is a ceramic cylinder plated inside and out with porous platinum electrodes;
the whole assembly is protected by a metal gauze. It operates by measuring the difference in
oxygen between the exhaust gas and the external air, and generates a voltage or changes its
resistance depending on the difference between the two.

The sensors only work effectively when heated to approximately 316 °C (600 °F), so most newer
lambda probes have heating elements encased in the ceramic that bring the ceramic tip up to
temperature quickly. Older probes, without heating elements, would eventually be heated by the
exhaust, but there is a time lag between when the engine is started and when the components in
the exhaust system come to a thermal equilibrium. The length of time required for the exhaust
gases to bring the probe to temperature depends on the temperature of the ambient air and the
geometry of the exhaust system. Without a heater, the process may take several minutes. There
are pollution problems that are attributed to this slow start-up process, including a similar
problem with the working temperature of a catalytic converter.

The probe typically has four wires attached to it: two for the lambda output, and two for the
heater power, although some automakers use a common ground for the sensor element and
heaters, resulting in three wires. Earlier non-electrically-heated sensors had one or two wires.

[edit] Operation of the probe

[edit] Zirconia sensor

A planar zirconia sensor (schematic picture)

The zirconium dioxide, or zirconia, lambda sensor is based on a solid-state electrochemical fuel
cell called the Nernst cell. Its two electrodes provide an output voltage corresponding to the
quantity of oxygen in the exhaust relative to that in the atmosphere. An output voltage of 0.2 V
(200 mV) DC represents a "lean mixture" of fuel and oxygen, where the amount of oxygen
entering the cylinder is sufficient to fully oxidize the carbon monoxide (CO), produced in
burning the air and fuel, into carbon dioxide (CO2). An output voltage of 0.8 V (800 mV) DC
represents a "rich mixture", one which is high in unburned fuel and low in remaining oxygen.
The ideal setpoint is approximately 0.45 V (450 mV) DC. This is where the quantities of air and
fuel are in the optimum ratio, which is ~0.5% lean of the stoichiometric point, such that the
exhaust output contains minimal carbon monoxide.

The voltage produced by the sensor is nonlinear with respect to oxygen concentration. The
sensor is most sensitive near the stoichiometric point and less sensitive when either very lean or
very rich.

The engine control unit (ECU) is a control system that uses feedback from the sensor to adjust
the fuel/air mixture. As in all control systems, the time constant of the sensor is important; the
ability of the ECU to control the fuel-air-ratio depends upon the response time of the sensor. An
aging or fouled sensor tends to have a slower response time, which can degrade system
performance. The shorter the time period, the higher the so-called "cross count" [2] and the more
responsive the system.

The zirconia sensor is of the "narrow band" type, referring to the narrow range of fuel/air ratios
to which it responds.
[edit] Wideband zirconia sensor

A planar wideband zirconia sensor (schematic picture)

A variation on the zirconia sensor, called the "wideband" sensor, was introduced by Robert
Bosch in 1994, and has been used on a lot of cars[3] in order to meet the ever-increasing demands
for better fuel economy, lower emissions and better engine performance at the same time. It is
based on a planar zirconia element, but also incorporates an electrochemical gas pump. An
electronic circuit containing a feedback loop controls the gas pump current to keep the output of
the electrochemical cell constant, so that the pump current directly indicates the oxygen content
of the exhaust gas. This sensor eliminates the lean-rich cycling inherent in narrow-band sensors,
allowing the control unit to adjust the fuel delivery and ignition timing of the engine much more
rapidly. In the automotive industry this sensor is also called a UEGO (for Universal Exhaust Gas
Oxygen) sensor. UEGO sensors are also commonly used in aftermarket dyno tuning and high-
performance driver air-fuel display equipment. The wideband zirconia sensor is used in stratified
fuel injection systems, and can now also be used in diesel engines to satisfy the forthcoming
EURO and ULEV emission limits.

Wideband sensors have three elements:

 Ion Oxygen pump

 Narrowband zirconia sensor
 Heating element

The wiring diagram for the wideband sensor typically has six wires:

 resistive heating element (two wires)

 sensor
 pump
 calibration resistor
 common
[edit] Titania sensor

A less common type of narrow-band lambda sensor has a ceramic element made of titanium
dioxide (titania). This type does not generate its own voltage, but changes its electrical resistance
in response to the oxygen concentration. The resistance of the titania is a function of the oxygen
partial pressure and the temperature. Therefore, some sensors are used with a gas temperature
sensor to compensate for the resistance change due to temperature. The resistance value at any
temperature is about 1/1000 the change in oxygen concentration. Luckily, at lambda = 1, there is
a large change of oxygen, so the resistance change is typically 1000 times between rich and lean,
depending on the temperature.

As titania is an N-type semiconductor with a structure TiO2-x, the x defects in the crystal lattice
conduct the charge. So, for fuel-rich exhaust the resistance is low, and for fuel-lean exhaust the
resistance is high. The control unit feeds the sensor with a small electrical current and measures
the resulting voltage across the sensor, which varies from near 0 volts to about 5 volts. Like the
zirconia sensor, this type is nonlinear, such that it is sometimes simplistically described as a
binary indicator, reading either "rich" or "lean". Titania sensors are more expensive than zirconia
sensors, but they also respond faster.

In automotive applications the titania sensor, unlike the zirconia sensor, does not require a
reference sample of atmospheric air to operate properly. This makes the sensor assembly easier
to design against water contamination. While most automotive sensors are submersible, zirconia-
based sensors require a very small supply of reference air from the atmosphere. In theory, the
sensor wire harness and connector are sealed. Air that leaches through the wire harness to the
sensor is assumed to come from an open point in the harness - usually the ECU which is housed
in an enclosed space like the trunk or vehicle interior.

[edit] Location of the probe in a system

The probe is typically screwed into a threaded hole in the exhaust system, located after the
branch manifold of the exhaust system combines, and before the catalytic converter. New
vehicles are required to have a sensor before and after the exhaust catalyst to meet U.S.
regulations requiring that all emissions components be monitored for failure. Pre and post-
catalyst signals are monitored to determine catalyst efficiency. Additionally, some catalyst
systems require brief cycles of lean (oxygen-containing) gas to load the catalyst and promote
additional oxidation reduction of undesirable exhaust components.

[edit] Sensor surveillance

The air-fuel ratio and naturally, the status of the sensor, can be monitored by means of using an
air-fuel ratio meter that displays the read output voltage of the sensor.

[edit] Sensor failures

Normally, the lifetime of an unheated sensor is about 30,000 to 50,000 miles (50,000 to
80,000 km). Heated sensor lifetime is typically 100,000 miles (160,000 km). Failure of an
unheated sensor is usually caused by the buildup of soot on the ceramic element, which
lengthens its response time and may cause total loss of ability to sense oxygen. For heated
sensors, normal deposits are burned off during operation and failure occurs due to catalyst
depletion. The probe then tends to report lean mixture, the ECU enriches the mixture, the exhaust
gets rich with carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons, and the fuel economy worsens.

Leaded gasoline contaminates the oxygen sensors and catalytic converters. Most oxygen sensors
are rated for some service life in the presence of leaded gasoline but sensor life will be shortened
to as little as 15,000 miles depending on the lead concentration. Lead-damaged sensors typically
have their tips discolored light rusty.

Another common cause of premature failure of lambda probes is contamination of fuel with
silicones (used in some sealings and greases) or silicates (used as corrosion inhibitors in some
antifreezes). In this case, the deposits on the sensor are colored between shiny white and grainy
light gray.

Leaks of oil into the engine may cover the probe tip with an oily black deposit, with associated
loss of response.

An overly rich mixture causes buildup of black powdery deposit on the probe. This may be
caused by failure of the probe itself, or by a problem elsewhere in the fuel rationing system.

Applying an external voltage to the zirconia sensors, e.g. by checking them with some types of
ohmmeter, may damage them.

Some sensors have an air inlet to the sensor in the lead, so contamination from the lead caused
by water or oil leaks can be sucked into the sensor and cause failure.[4]

Symptoms of a failing oxygen sensor includes:

 Sensor Light on dash indicates problem

 Increased tailpipe emissions
 Increased fuel consumption
 Hesitation on acceleration
 Stalling
 Rough idling

[edit] Diving applications

Main article: electro-galvanic fuel cell
A diving breathing gas oxygen analyser

The diving type of oxygen sensor, which is sometimes called an oxygen analyser or ppO2
meter, is used in scuba diving. They are used to measure the oxygen concentration of breathing
gas mixes such as nitrox and trimix.[5] They are also used within the oxygen control mechanisms
of closed-circuit rebreathers to keep the partial pressure of oxygen within safe limits.[6] This type
of sensor operates by measuring the electricity generated by a small electro-galvanic fuel cell.

[edit] Scientific applications

In soil respiration studies oxygen sensors can be used in conjunction with carbon dioxide sensors
to help improve the characterization of soil respiration. Typically, soil oxygen sensors use a
galvanic cell to produce a current flow that is proportional to the oxygen concentration being
measured. These sensors are buried at various depths to monitor oxygen depletion over time,
which is then used to predict soil respiration rates. Generally, these soil sensors are equipped
with a built-in heater to prevent condensation from forming on the permeable membrane, as
relative humidity can reach 100% in soil.[7]

In marine biology or limnology oxygen measurements are usually done in order to measure
respiration of a community or an organism, but have also been used to measure primary
production of algae. The traditional way of measuring oxygen concentration in a water sample
has been to use wet chemistry techniques e.g. the Winkler titration method. There are however
commercially available oxygen sensors that measure the oxygen concentration in liquids with
great accuracy. There are two types of oxygen sensors available: electrodes (electrochemical
sensors) and optodes (optical sensors).

[edit] Electrodes
A dissolved oxygen meter for laboratory use.

The Clark-type electrode is the most used oxygen sensor for measuring oxygen dissolved in a
liquid. The basic principle is that there is a cathode and an anode submersed in an electrolyte.
Oxygen enters the sensor through a permeable membrane by diffusion, and is reduced at the
cathode, creating a measurable electrical current.

There is a linear relationship between the oxygen concentration and the electrical current. With a
two-point calibration (0% and 100% air saturation), it is possible to measure oxygen in the
sample.

One drawback to this approach is that oxygen is consumed during the measurement with a rate
equal to the diffusion in the sensor. This means that the sensor must be stirred in order to get the
correct measurement and avoid stagnant water. With an increasing sensor size, the oxygen
consumption increases and so does the stirring sensitivity. In large sensors there tend to also be a
drift in the signal over time due to consumption of the electrolyte. However, Clark-type sensors
can be made very small with a tip size of 10 µm. The oxygen consumption of such a microsensor
is so small that it is practically insensitive to stirring and can be used in stagnant media such as
sediments or inside plant tissue.

[edit] Optodes

An oxygen optode is a sensor based on optical measurement of the oxygen concentration. A

chemical film is glued to the tip of an optical cable and the fluorescence properties of this film
depend on the oxygen concentration. Fluorescence is at a maximum when there is no oxygen
present. When an O2 molecule comes along it collides with the film and this quenches the
photoluminescence. In a given oxygen concentration there will be a specific number of O2
molecules colliding with the film at any given time, and the fluorescence properties will be
stable.

The signal (fluorescence) to oxygen ratio is not linear, and an optode is most sensitive at low
oxygen concentration. That is, the sensitivity decreases as oxygen concentration increases
following the Stern-Volmer relationship. The optode sensors can, however, work in the whole
region 0% to 100% oxygen saturation in water, and the calibration is done the same way as with
the Clark type sensor. No oxygen is consumed and hence the sensor is insensitive to stirring, but
the signal will stabilize more quickly if the sensor is stirred after being put in the sample. These
type of electrode sensors can be used for insitu and realtime monitoring of Oxygen production in
water splitting reactions. The platinized electrodes can accomplish the real time monitoring of
Hydrogen production in water splitting device. Calzaferri and his co workers employed this type
of electrodes very extensively for photoelectrochemical water splitting research.

[edit] See also