Trees i

Definition i
Overview i
Distribution i

Parts and Function ii

Roots ii
Trunk iii
Buds and growth iv
Leaves iv
Seeds v
Evolutionary History vi
Tree Ecology vi

Uses vii
Food vii
Fuel vii
Trees
Definition
Although "tree" is a term of common parlance, there is no universally recognised precise definition of what a tree is, either botanically
or in common language. In its broadest sense, a tree is any plant with the general form of an elongated stem, or trunk, which supports
the photosynthetic leaves or branches at some distance above the ground. Trees are also typically defined by height, with smaller
plants from 0.5 to 10 m (1.6 to 32.8 ft) being called shrubs, so the minimum height of a tree is only loosely
defined. Large herbaceous plants such as papaya and bananas are trees in this broad sense.

Overview
The tree growth habit is an evolutionary adaptation found in differant groups of plants: by growing taller, trees are able to compete
better for sunlight. Trees tend to be long-lived, some reaching several thousand years old, as well as tall. Trees have modified
structures such as thicker stems composed of specialized cells that add structural strength and durability, and that allow them to grow
taller than non-woody plants and to spread out their foliage. They differ from shrubs, which are also woody plants, by usually growing
larger and having a single main stem; but the distinction between a small tree and a large shrub is not always clear, made more
confusing by the fact that trees may be reduced in size under harsher environmental conditions such as on mountains
and subarctic areas. The tree form has evolved separately in unrelated classes of plants in response to similar environmental challenges,
making it a classic example of parallel evolution. With an estimated 100,000 species, the number of trees worldwide might total twenty-
five percent of all living plant species. The greatest number of these grow in tropical regions and many of these areas have not yet been
fully surveyed by botanists, making tree diversity and ranges poorly known.

Distribution
IN SUITABLE ENVIRONMENTS, SUCH AS THE DAINTREE RAINFOREST IN QUEENSLAND, OR THE
MIXED PODOCARP AND BROADLEAF FOREST OF ULVA ISLAND, NEW ZEALAND, FOREST IS THE MORE-OR-LESS
STABLE CLIMATIC CLIMAX COMMUNITY AT THE END OF A PLANT SUCCESSION, WHERE OPEN AREAS SUCH AS
GRASSLAND ARE COLONISED BY TALLER PLANTS, WHICH IN TURN GIVE WAY TO TREES THAT EVENTUALLY
FORM A FOREST CANOPY
Parts and Function
Roots
The roots of a tree serve to anchor it to the grounnd and gather water and nutrients to transfer to all parts of the tree. They
are also used for reproduction, defence, survival, energy storage and many other purposes. The radicle or embryonic root is
the first part of a seedling to emerge from the seed during the process of germination. This develops into a taproot which goes
straight downwards. Within a few weekslateral roots branch out of the side of this and grow horizontally through the upper
layers of the soil. In most trees, the taproot eventually withers away and the wide-spreading laterals remain. Near the tip of the
finer roots are single cell root hairs. These are in immediate contact with the soil particles and can absorb water and nutrients
such as potassium in solution. The roots require oxygen to respire and only a few species such as the mangrove and the pond
cypress (Taxodium ascendens) can live in permanently waterlogged soil.
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Trunk
The main purpose of the trunk is to raise the leaves above the ground,
enabling the tree to reach the light and survive: the tree can overtop
other plants and shade them out. It also performs the task of
transporting water and nutrients from the roots to the aerial parts of
the tree and to distribute the food produced by the leaves to all other
parts including the root.

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Haroon Ameen
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Buds and growth

Trees do not usually grow continuously throughout the year but mostly have spurts of active expansion followed by periods of rest.
This pattern of growth is related to climatic conditions; growth normally ceases when conditions are either too cold or too dry. In
readiness for the inactive period, trees form buds to protect the meristem, the zone of active growth. Before the period of dormancy, the
last few leaves produced at the tip of a twig form scales. These are thick, small and closely wrapped and enclose the growing point in
a waterproof sheath. Inside this bud there is a rudimentary stalk and neatly folded miniature leaves, ready to expand when the next
growing season arrives. Buds also form in the axils of the leaves ready to produce new side shoots. A few trees, such as the eucalyptus,
have "naked buds" with no protective scales and some conifers, such as the Lawson's cypress, have no buds but instead have little
pockets of meristem concealed among the scale-like leaves.

Leaves
Leaves are structures specialized for photosynthesis and are arranged on the tree in such a way as to maximise their exposure to light
without shading each other. They are an important investment by the tree and may be thorny or
 v

contain phytoliths, lignins, tannins or poisons to discourage herbivory. Trees have evolved leaves in a wide range of shapes and sizes, in
response to environmental pressures including climate and predation. They can be broad or needle-like, simple or compound, lobed or
entire, smooth or hairy, delicate or tough, deciduous or evergreen. The needles of coniferous trees are compact but are structurally
similar to those of broad-leaved trees. They are adapted for life in environments where resources are low or water is scarce. Frozen
ground may limit water availability and conifers are often found in colder places at higher altitudes and higher latitudes than broad
leaved trees. In conifers such as fir trees, the branches hang down at an angle to the trunk, enabling them to shed snow. In contrast,
broad leaved trees in temperate regions deal with winter weather by shedding their leaves. When the days get shorter and the
temperature begins to decrease, the leaves no longer make new chlorophyll and the red and yellow pigments already present in the
blades become apparent. Synthesis in the leaf of a plant hormone called auxin also ceases. This causes the cells at the junction of
the petiole and the twig to weaken until the joint breaks and the leaf floats to the ground. In tropical and subtropical regions, many trees
keep their leaves all year round. Individual leaves may fall intermittently and be replaced by new growth but most leaves remain intact
for some time. Other tropical species and those in arid regions may shed all their leaves annually, such as at the start of the dry season.

Seeds
Seeds are the primary way that trees reproduce and their seeds vary greatly in size and shape. Some of the largest seeds come from
trees, but the largest tree, Sequoiadendron giganteum, produces one of the smallest tree seeds. The great diversity in tree fruits and seeds
reflects the many different ways that tree species have evolved to disperse their offspring.
The single extant species of Ginkgophyta (Ginkgo biloba) has fleshy seeds produced at the ends of short branches on female
trees, and Gnetum, a tropical and subtropical group of gymnosperms produce seeds at the tip of a shoot axis. The seeds of conifers, the
largest group of gymnosperms, are enclosed in a cone and most species have seeds that are light and papery that can be blown
considerable distances once free from the cone.
 vi

Evolutionary History
The earliest tree-like organisms were tree ferns, horsetails and lycophytes, which grew in forests in the Carboniferous period. The first
tree may have been Wattieza, fossils of which have been found in New York State in 2007 dating back to the Middle Devonian (about
385 million years ago). Prior to this discovery, Archaeopteris was the earliest known tree. Both of these reproduced by spores rather
than seeds and are considered to be links between ferns and the gymnosperms which evolved in the Triassic period. The gymnosperms
include conifers, cycads, gnetales and ginkgos and these may have appeared as a result of a whole genome duplication event which
took place about 319 million years ago. Ginkgophyta was once a widespread diverse group  of which the only survivor is the
maidenhair tree Ginkgo biloba. This is considered to be a living fossil because it is virtually unchanged from the fossilised specimens
found in Triassic deposits.
During the Mesozoic (245 to 66 million years ago) the conifers flourished and became adapted to live in all the major terrestrial
habitats. Subsequently the tree forms of flowering plants evolved during the Cretaceous period. These began to dominate the conifers
during the Tertiary era (66 to 2 million years ago) when forests covered the globe. When the climate cooled 1.5 million years ago and
the first of four ice ages occurred, the forests retreated as the ice advanced. In the interglacials, trees recolonised the land that had been
covered by ice, only to be driven back again in the next ice age.

Tree Ecology
Trees are an important part of the terrestrial ecosystem, providing essential habitats including many kinds of forest for communities of
organisms. Epiphytic plants such as ferns, some mosses, liverworts, orchids and some species of parasitic plants (e.g., mistletoe) hang
from branches; these along with arboreal lichens, algae, and fungi provide micro-habitats for themselves and for other organisms,
including animals. Leaves, flowers and fruits are seasonally available. On the ground underneath trees there is shade, and often there is
undergrowth, leaf litter, fallen branches and/or decaying wood that provide other habitat. Trees stabilise the soil, prevent rapid run-off
of rain water, help prevent desertification, have a role in climate control and help in the maintenance of biodiversity and ecosystem
balance.
Many species of tree support their own specialised invertebrates. In their natural habitats, 284 different species of insect have been
found on the English oak (Quercus robur)  and 306 species of invertebrate on the Tasmanian oak (Eucalyptus obliqua). Non-native
tree species provide a less biodiverse community, for example in the United Kingdom the sycamore (Acer pseudoplatanus), which
originates from southern Europe, has few associated invertebrate species, though its bark supports a wide range of lichens, bryophytes
and other epiphytes
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Uses
Food
Trees are the source of many of the world's best known fleshy fruits. Apples, pears, plums, cherries and citrus are all
grown commercially in temperate climates and a wide range of edible fruits are found in the tropics. Other commercially
important fruit include dates, figs and olives. Palm oil is obtained from the fruits of the oil palm (Elaeis guineensis). The
fruits of the cocoa tree (Theobroma cacao) are used to make cocoa and chocolate and the berries of coffee trees, Coffea
arabica and Coffea canephora, are processed to extract the coffee beans. In many rural areas of the world, fruit is
gathered from forest trees for consumption. Many trees bear edible nuts which can loosely be described as being large,
oily kernels found inside a hard shell.

Fuel
Wood has traditionally been used for fuel, especially in rural areas. In less developed nations it may be the only fuel available and
collecting firewood is often a time consuming task as it becomes necessary to travel further and further afield in the search for fuel. It
is often burned inefficiently on an open fire. In more developed countries other fuels are available and burning wood is a choice rather
than a necessity.

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