Geological records show that there have been a number of large variations in Earth’s climate.

These
have been caused by many natural factors, including changes in the sun, emissions from volcanoes,
variations in Earth’s orbit and levels of carbon dioxide.

Global climate change has typically occurred very slowly over thousands or millions of years. However,
research shows that the current climate is changing more rapidly than shown in geological records.

Causes of climate change

Strength of the Sun

Changes in the Earth’s orbit, axial tilt and precession

Quantity of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere

Ocean currents and carbon dioxide content

Plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions

Changes in land cover

Meteorite impacts

Strenght of the sun

Almost all of the energy that affects the climate on Earth originates from the Sun. The Sun’s energy
passes through space until it hits the Earth’s atmosphere. Not all of this energy passes through to reach
the Earth’s surface. The rest of the energy is reflected back into space or absorbed by the atmosphere.
The energy output of the Sun is not constant, it varies over time and this has an impact on our climate.

Only some of the solar energy intercepted at the top of the atmosphere passes through to the Earth’s
surface.

Changes in the Earth’s orbit, axial tilt and precession

The three changes in the Earth’s orbit around the Sun —eccentricity, axial tilt, and precession — are
collectively called Milankovitch cycles. According to Milankovitch’s theory, these three cycles combine
to affect the amount of solar heat that reaches the Earth’s surface and subsequently influences climatic
patterns, including periods of glaciation (ice ages). The period between these changes happen over 10s
of 1000s of years (precession and axial tilt) to more than 100s of 1000s of years (eccentricity).
The Earth’s orbit around the Sun is an ellipse, but it does change shape. Sometimes, it is almost circular
and the Earth stays approximately the same distance from the Sun throughout its orbit. At other times,
the ellipse is more pronounced so that the Earth moves closer and further away from the Sun as it
orbits. When the Earth is closer to the Sun our climate is warmer and this cycle also affects the length of
the seasons. The measure of a shape’s deviation from being a circle, in this case the Earth’s orbit, is
called its eccentricity.

Circular orbit (left) and elliptical orbit (right). Elliptical orbit – when the Earth is closer to the Sun, its
climate is warmer.

Circular orbit (left) and elliptical orbit (right). Elliptical orbit – when the Earth is closer to the Sun, its
climate is warmer.

The tilt in the axis of the Earth is called its obliquity. This angle changes with time, and over about 41 000
years it moves from 22.1 degrees to 24.5 degrees and back again. When the angle increases the
summers become warmer and the winters become colder.

The Earth wobbles on its axis, much like a spinning top that is slowing down. This ‘precession’ action is
caused by the gravitational pull of the Moon and the Sun upon the Earth. This means that the North Pole
changes where it points to in the sky. Currently the Earth’s axis points at Polaris, the North Star, but over
thousands of years the axis moves around in a precession circle and points at different parts of the sky.
It impacts on the seasonal contrasts between hemispheres and the timing of the seasons.

Quantity of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere

Greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide (CO2), methane and water vapour. Water vapour is the most
abundant greenhouse gas in the atmosphere, but it stays in the atmosphere for a much shorter period
of time, just a few days. Methane stays in the atmosphere for about 9 years until it is removed by
oxidation into CO2 and water. Carbon dioxide stays in the atmosphere much longer, from years to
centuries, contributing to longer periods of warming. These gases trap solar radiation in the Earth’s
atmosphere, making the climate warmer.

Changes in ocean currents

Ocean currents carry heat around the Earth. As the oceans absorb more heat from the atmosphere, sea
surface temperature increases and the ocean circulation patterns that transport warm and cold water
around the globe change. The direction of these currents can shift so that different areas become
warmer or cooler. As oceans store a large amount of heat, even small changes in ocean currents can
have a large effect on global climate. In particular, increases in sea surface temperature can increase the
amount of atmospheric water vapour over the oceans, increasing the quantity of greenhouse gas. If the
oceans are warmer they can’t absorb as much carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
Carbon dioxide content of the oceans

The oceans contain more CO2 in total than the atmosphere and exchanges in CO2 occur between the
oceans and the atmosphere. CO2 absorbed in ocean water does not trap heat as it does in the
atmosphere. The world’s oceans absorb about a quarter of the CO2 we release into the atmosphere
every year. As atmospheric CO2 levels increase so do the ocean’s CO2 levels.

Plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions

Over very long periods, plate tectonic processes cause continents to move to different positions on the
Earth. For example, Britain was near to the equator during the Carboniferous period, around 300 million
years ago, and the climate was warmer than it is today. The movement of the plates also causes
volcanoes and mountains to form and these too can contribute to a change in climate. Large mountain
chains can influence the circulation of air around the globe, and consequently influence the climate. For
example, warm air may be deflected to cooler regions by mountains.

Volcanoes affect the climate through the gases and particles (tephra/ash) thrown into the atmosphere
during eruptions. The effect of the volcanic gases and dust may warm or cool the Earth’s surface,
depending on how sunlight interacts with the volcanic material. During major explosive volcanic
eruptions, large amounts of volcanic gas, aerosol droplets and ash are released. Ash falls rapidly, over
periods of days and weeks, and has little long-term impact on climate change. However, volcanic gases
that are ejected into the stratosphere stay there for much longer periods. Volcanic gases such as sulphur
dioxide can cause global cooling, but carbon dioxide has the potential to cause global warming.

In the present day, the contribution of volcanic emissions of CO2 into the atmosphere is very small;
equivalent to about 1% of man-made emissions.

Changes in land cover

On a global scale, patterns of vegetation and climate are closely correlated. Vegetation absorbs CO2 and
this can buffer some of the effects of global warming. On the other hand, desertification amplifies global
warming through the release of CO2 linked with the decrease in vegetation cover. This decrease in
vegetation cover, via deforestation for example, tends to increase local albedo, leading to surface
cooling. Albedo refers to how much light a surface reflects rather than absorbs.

Generally, dark surfaces have a low albedo and light surfaces have a high albedo. Ice with snow has a
high albedo and reflects around 90 per cent of incoming solar radiation. Land covered with dark-
coloured vegetation is likely to have a low albedo and will absorb most of the radiation.
Meteorite impacts

Nowadays, most of what is on the Earth stays on the Earth; very little material is added by meteorites
and cosmic dust. However, meteorite impacts have contributed to climate change in the geological past;
a good example is the Chicxulub crater, Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico.

Large impacts, such as Chicxulub, can cause a range of effects that include dust and aerosols being
ejected high into the atmosphere that prevent sunlight from reaching the Earth. These materials
insulate the Earth from solar radiation and cause global temperatures to fall; the effects can last for a
few years. After the dust and aerosols fall back to Earth, the greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, water
and methane), caused by the interaction of the impactor and its ‘target rocks’, remain in the
atmosphere and can cause global temperatures to increase; the effects can last decades.