Highway Design August 2012

Chapter 9 – HIGHWAY DESIGN

TABLE OF CONTENTS
9.1 GENERAL ....................................................................................................................9-1
9.1.1 Role of the Designer ...................................................................................9-1
9.1.2 Design Requirements and Standards ..........................................................9-4
9.1.3 Exceptions to Design Standards .................................................................9-4
9.1.3.1 Need for Design Exception...................................................9-6
9.1.3.2 Design Exception Consequences and Risk
Assessment....................................................................9-7
9.1.3.3 Mitigating Design Exceptions ...............................................9-8
9.1.3.4 Documenting Design Exceptions..........................................9-8
9.1.3.5 Monitoring Design Exceptions ..............................................9-8
9.1.4 Variances to FLH Standard Practice and Guidance ....................................9-9
9.1.5 Design Philosophy and Context Sensitive Solutions ....................................9-9
9.2 GUIDANCE AND REFERENCES ...............................................................................9-12
9.2.1 Standards of Practice ................................................................................9-12
9.2.2 Guidance...................................................................................................9-13
9.3 GEOMETRIC DESIGN ...............................................................................................9-16
9.3.1 Geometric Design Controls .......................................................................9-16
9.3.1.1 Roadway Context ...............................................................9-16
9.3.1.2 Functional Classification.....................................................9-17
9.3.1.3 Terrain ...............................................................................9-19
9.3.1.4 Location .............................................................................9-20
9.3.1.5 Traffic Volume ....................................................................9-20
9.3.1.6 Level of Service and Mobility ..............................................9-22
9.3.1.7 Level of Access and Management .....................................9-22
9.3.1.8 Cross Section and Multi-modal Accommodation ................9-22
9.3.1.9 Design Vehicle ...................................................................9-23
9.3.1.10 User Characteristics ...........................................................9-25
9.3.1.11 Maximum and Minimum Superelevation Rate ....................9-26
9.3.1.12 Speed Characteristics ........................................................9-27
9.3.1.13 Selecting an Appropriate Design Speed .............................9-29
9.3.1.14 Self-explaining, Self-enforcing Road Concepts ..................9-33
9.3.2 Aesthetic Considerations...........................................................................9-34
9.3.3 Horizontal and Vertical Alignment Relationships .......................................9-35
9.3.4 Combinations of Design Elements and Features .......................................9-35
9.3.4.1 Human Factors and Driver Performance ............................9-36
9.3.4.2 Design Consistency ...........................................................9-36
9.3.4.3 Combinations of Design Elements with Intersections
and Bridges ..................................................................9-37
9.3.4.4 Additive Design Risk Assessment ......................................9-37
9.3.5 Horizontal Alignment .................................................................................9-37
9.3.5.1 Horizontal Curves ..............................................................9-38
9.3.5.2 Horizontal Curve and Superelevation Transitions ...............9-41
9.3.5.3 Risk Assessment and Mitigation.........................................9-52
9.3.6 Vertical Alignment .....................................................................................9-53

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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

9.3.6.1 Vertical Curves...................................................................9-54
9.3.6.2 Maximum Grade ................................................................9-54
9.3.6.3 Minimum Grade .................................................................9-55
9.3.6.4 Critical Lengths of Grade....................................................9-56
9.3.6.5 Intersection Considerations ................................................9-56
9.3.6.6 Hidden Dips .......................................................................9-56
9.3.6.7 Switchbacks .......................................................................9-56
9.3.6.8 Drainage Considerations ....................................................9-57
9.3.6.9 Vertical Clearance ..............................................................9-57
9.3.6.10 Risk Assessment and Mitigation.........................................9-58
9.3.7 Sight Distance ...........................................................................................9-58
9.3.7.1 Determination of Sight Distance Requirements ..................9-59
9.3.7.2 Stopping Sight Distance .....................................................9-60
9.3.7.3 Decision Sight Distance .....................................................9-60
9.3.7.4 Passing Sight Distance ......................................................9-60
9.3.7.5 Intersection Sight Distance.................................................9-61
9.3.7.6 Limiting Conditions and Restrictions ..................................9-63
9.3.7.7 Risk Assessment and Mitigation.........................................9-64
9.3.8 Geometric Cross Section ..........................................................................9-66
9.3.8.1 Traveled Way (Lane) Width................................................9-66
9.3.8.2 Shoulder Width and Type ...................................................9-67
9.3.8.3 Horizontal Clearance to Structures.....................................9-69
9.3.8.4 Cross Slope .......................................................................9-69
9.3.8.5 Pavements and Geometric Design Considerations ............9-70
9.3.8.6 Risk Assessment and Mitigation.........................................9-71
9.3.9 Roadway Widening ...................................................................................9-71
9.3.9.1 Traveled Way Widening on Curves ....................................9-71
9.3.9.2 Auxiliary Lanes ...................................................................9-72
9.3.9.3 Parking Lanes ....................................................................9-72
9.3.9.4 Speed Change and Turning Lanes.....................................9-74
9.3.9.5 Climbing Lanes ..................................................................9-74
9.3.9.6 Passing Zones and Lanes ..................................................9-75
9.3.9.7 Bicycle Lanes .....................................................................9-78
9.3.9.8 Slow Moving Vehicle Turnouts ...........................................9-78
9.3.9.9 Parking Pullouts .................................................................9-79
9.3.9.10 Shoulder Widening for Barriers ..........................................9-80
9.3.10 Medians ....................................................................................................9-80
9.3.10.1 Benefits and Disadvantages of Medians ............................9-80
9.3.10.2 Urban Medians ...................................................................9-81
9.3.10.3 Rural Medians ....................................................................9-81
9.3.10.4 Variable Medians and Independent Alignments .................9-82
9.3.11 Curbs ........................................................................................................9-82
9.3.11.1 Vertical Curbs ....................................................................9-84
9.3.11.2 Sloping Curbs ....................................................................9-84
9.3.11.3 Curb Offsets .......................................................................9-84
9.3.11.4 Accessibility Issues with Curbing........................................9-85
9.3.12 Roadside Design Considerations ..............................................................9-85
9.3.12.1 Forgiving Roadside Concepts ............................................9-86
9.3.12.2 Clear Zone .........................................................................9-86
9.3.12.3 Lateral Clearance and Offset Distance ...............................9-87

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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

9.3.12.4 Considerations for Existing Features ..................................9-88
9.3.12.5 Access Management..........................................................9-88
9.3.12.6 Driveways ..........................................................................9-88
9.3.13 Foreslopes ................................................................................................9-89
9.3.13.1 Recoverable Foreslopes ....................................................9-89
9.3.13.2 Traversable Foreslopes .....................................................9-90
9.3.13.3 Pavement Edge Transitions ...............................................9-90
9.3.13.4 Pavement Drainage Considerations ...................................9-90
9.3.13.5 Foreslope Considerations at Intersections .........................9-90
9.3.14 Design of Intersections ..............................................................................9-91
9.3.14.1 Intersection Characteristics ................................................9-91
9.3.14.2 Intersection Types ..............................................................9-92
9.3.14.3 Intersection Design Vehicle ................................................9-92
9.3.14.4 Intersection Alignment........................................................9-93
9.3.14.5 Left-Turn Lanes..................................................................9-96
9.3.14.6 Right-turn Lanes ................................................................9-99
9.3.14.7 Bypass Lanes ..................................................................9-103
9.3.14.8 Channelization .................................................................9-104
9.3.14.9 Islands .............................................................................9-105
9.3.14.10 Pedestrian, Bicyclist and Transit Considerations at
Intersections ...............................................................9-106
9.3.14.11 Signalization.....................................................................9-107
9.3.15 Railroad-Highway Grade Crossings ........................................................9-108
9.3.16 Pedestrian Considerations and Facilities .................................................9-110
9.3.16.1 Sidewalks .........................................................................9-111
9.3.16.2 Walking and Hiking Trails .................................................9-112
9.3.16.3 Accommodation of the Disabled .......................................9-113
9.3.17 Bicycle Considerations and Facilities ......................................................9-114
9.3.18 Transit Considerations and Facilities .......................................................9-116
9.3.19 Parking Lot Layout Considerations ..........................................................9-116
9.4 RESURFACING, RESTORATION AND REHABILITATION (RRR) DESIGN ............9-118
9.4.1 Application of Design Standards .............................................................9-118
9.4.2 Improvement of Safety Performance .......................................................9-118
9.4.3 Evaluation of Existing Geometric Design .................................................9-119
9.4.4 Improvement of Roadside Conditions......................................................9-121
9.4.5 Improvement of Traffic Operations ..........................................................9-122
9.4.6 Evaluation of Pavement and Drainage Structures ...................................9-123
9.4.7 Mitigation of Substandard Design Features .............................................9-123
9.5 OTHER HIGHWAY DESIGN ELEMENTS ................................................................9-125
9.5.1 Earthwork Design ....................................................................................9-125
9.5.1.1 Clearing and Grubbing .....................................................9-125
9.5.1.2 Removal of Structures and Obstructions ..........................9-126
9.5.1.3 Design of Excavation and Embankment ...........................9-126
9.5.1.4 Determination of Excavation and Embankment
Volumes .....................................................................9-127
9.5.1.5 Balancing Earthwork ........................................................9-127

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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

9.5.1.6 Haul .................................................................................9-128
9.5.1.7 Mass Diagram ..................................................................9-128
9.5.1.8 Borrow and Offsite Borrow Areas .....................................9-128
9.5.1.9 Waste and Offsite Waste Areas .......................................9-128
9.5.1.10 Rock Blasting ...................................................................9-128
9.5.1.11 Watering and Water Sources ...........................................9-128
9.5.1.12 Structural Excavation and Backfill ....................................9-129
9.5.1.13 Conservation of Materials.................................................9-129
9.5.1.14 Roadway Obliteration .......................................................9-129
9.5.1.15 Linear Grading .................................................................9-129
9.5.1.16 Subgrade Treatments and Stabilization............................9-129
9.5.2 Slope Treatments ....................................................................................9-131
9.5.2.1 Safety Considerations ......................................................9-131
9.5.2.2 Geotechnical Considerations ...........................................9-131
9.5.2.3 Grading Techniques .........................................................9-131
9.5.2.4 Slope Waterways and Catchment Basins.........................9-136
9.5.2.5 Rock Cut Slopes ..............................................................9-136
9.5.2.6 Slides and Slope Stabilization ..........................................9-137
9.5.2.7 Slope Protection ...............................................................9-137
9.5.3 Earth Retaining Structures ......................................................................9-137
9.5.3.1 Determination of Need .....................................................9-137
9.5.3.2 Alternative Wall Systems..................................................9-138
9.5.3.3 Selection of a Retaining Wall System ...............................9-138
9.5.3.4 Retaining Wall Systems ...................................................9-138
9.5.3.5 Geometric Information for Design of Retaining Wall
Systems .....................................................................9-139
9.5.4 Landscaping and Restoration of Vegetation ............................................9-140
9.5.4.1 Enhanced Clearing Techniques .......................................9-140
9.5.4.2 Enhanced Grading Techniques ........................................9-140
9.5.4.3 Enhanced Rock Work ......................................................9-142
9.5.4.4 Topsoil Placement............................................................9-142
9.5.4.5 Restoration of Vegetation .................................................9-143
9.5.4.6 Landscape Planting..........................................................9-143
9.5.4.7 Slope Enhancements .......................................................9-144
9.5.4.8 Ornamental Landscapes ..................................................9-144
9.5.5 Drainage Design .....................................................................................9-144
9.5.5.1 Safety Considerations ......................................................9-145
9.5.5.2 Roadway Ditches and Channels ......................................9-145
9.5.5.3 Culverts............................................................................9-147
9.5.5.4 Pavement Drainage .........................................................9-148
9.5.5.5 Downdrains and Pipe Anchors .........................................9-149
9.5.5.6 Storm Drains ....................................................................9-149
9.5.5.7 Underdrains and Horizontal Drains ..................................9-149
9.5.5.8 Riprap Slope Protection ...................................................9-149
9.5.5.9 Energy Dissipators and Outlet Detention Basins ..............9-149
9.5.6 Soil Erosion and Sediment Control ..........................................................9-150
9.5.6.1 Developing Erosion and Sediment Control Plans .............9-150
9.5.6.2 Erosion and Sediment Control Phases .............................9-151
9.5.7 Parking and Rest Areas ..........................................................................9-152
9.5.8 Roadway Appurtenances ........................................................................9-153

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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

9.5.8.1 Highway Lighting Systems ...............................................9-153
9.5.8.2 Fencing ............................................................................9-153
9.5.8.3 Cattle Guards ...................................................................9-155
9.5.9 Right-of-Way and Utility Considerations ..................................................9-155
9.5.10 Environmental Protection and Enhancements .........................................9-156
9.5.11 Construction Considerations ...................................................................9-157
9.5.11.1 Construction Sequencing .................................................9-157
9.5.11.2 Constructability ................................................................9-157
9.6 PLANS SPECIFICATIONS AND ESTIMATE (PS&E) DEVELOPMENT....................9-158
9.6.1 PS&E Package .......................................................................................9-158
9.6.2 Alternative PS&E Development and Contracting Options ........................9-158
9.6.3 PS&E Development at Various Stages of Design ....................................9-159
9.6.3.1 Conceptual Studies and Preliminary Design.....................9-159
9.6.3.2 Intermediate Design .........................................................9-159
9.6.3.3 Intermediate Design Revisions .........................................9-160
9.6.3.4 Plan-in-Hand (PIH) PS&E ................................................9-161
9.6.3.5 Final Design .....................................................................9-162
9.6.4 Reviews ..................................................................................................9-162
9.6.4.1 Preliminary Design (15 or 30 Percent) Review .................9-163
9.6.4.2 Intermediate Design (50 Percent) Review ........................9-164
9.6.4.3 Plan-In-Hand Design (70 Percent) Review .......................9-165
9.6.4.4 Final PS&E (95 Percent) Review......................................9-166
9.6.4.5 PS&E Approval and Authorization (100 Percent) .............9-166
9.6.4.6 Value Engineering ............................................................9-167
9.6.5 Plans .......................................................................................................9-168
9.6.5.1 Format .............................................................................9-168
9.6.5.2 Drafting Standards ...........................................................9-169
9.6.5.3 Organization of Plans .......................................................9-170
9.6.5.4 FLH Standard Drawings, Division Standard Details and
Special Details ...........................................................9-181
9.6.6 Supporting Information ............................................................................9-183
9.6.6.1 Computation of Quantities ................................................9-183
9.6.6.2 Design Documentation .....................................................9-183
9.6.6.3 Permits.............................................................................9-185
9.6.6.4 Design Data for Construction Engineering .......................9-185
9.6.6.5 Stakeout Data and Construction Controls ........................9-186
9.6.6.6 Information for the Construction Branch ...........................9-186
9.6.7 Construction Schedule and Contract Time ..............................................9-187
9.6.8 Engineer’s Estimate ................................................................................9-187
9.6.8.1 Preliminary Engineering Cost Estimate ............................9-187
9.6.8.2 Construction Engineering Cost Estimate ..........................9-187
9.6.8.3 Right-of-way Acquisition and Utility Relocation Cost
Estimate .....................................................................9-187
9.6.8.4 Construction Cost Estimates ............................................9-188
9.6.8.5 Development and Update of Prices ..................................9-189
9.6.8.6 Assessment of Cost Estimate Uncertainties and Risks ....9-191
9.6.9 Specifications ..........................................................................................9-191
9.6.10 Contract Assembly ..................................................................................9-192
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

9.6.11 Quality Control and Quality Assurance ....................................................9-192
9.6.11.1 Project-specific Quality Plan .............................................9-193
9.6.11.2 Quality Control .................................................................9-193
9.6.11.3 Quality Assurance ............................................................9-194
9.6.11.4 Documentation of QA/QC Activities ..................................9-195
9.6.11.5 Evaluation of QA/QC Procedures .....................................9-195

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LIST OF EXHIBITS
Exhibit 9.3-A MAXIMUM VARIATIONS IN OPERATING SPEED BETWEEN
SUCCESSIVE CURVES, AND BETWEEN LONG TANGENTS AND
CURVES, FOR DESIGN CONSISTENCY.................................................9-33
Exhibit 9.3-B SUPERELEVATION ATTAINMENT BETWEEN TANGENT AND
CURVE .....................................................................................................9-42
Exhibit 9.3-C TREATMENT OF REVERSE CURVES: SUPERCRITICAL CASE ............9-43
Exhibit 9.3-D TREATMENT OF REVERSE CURVES: CRITICAL CASE ........................9-44
Exhibit 9.3-E TREATMENT OF REVERSE CURVES: USE OF REVERSE CROWN .....9-45
Exhibit 9.3-F COMPOUND CURVE TRANSITION .........................................................9-46
Exhibit 9.3-G SUPERELEVATION TRANSITION ON SHORT TANGENTS....................9-47
Exhibit 9.3-H MAXIMUM RADIUS FOR BENEFIT OF A SPIRAL CURVE
TRANSITION ............................................................................................9-49
Exhibit 9.3-I DESIRED AND MAXIMUM LENGTH OF SPIRAL CURVE
TRANSITION ............................................................................................9-51
Exhibit 9.3-J LATERAL CLEARANCE FOR STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE .................9-64
Exhibit 9.3-K SLOW-MOVING VEHICLE TURNOUT .....................................................9-79
Exhibit 9.3-L OFFSET DISTANCES FOR VERTICAL CURBS.......................................9-85
Exhibit 9.3-M INTERSECTION DESIGN VEHICLE .........................................................9-93
Exhibit 9.3-N MINIMUM RECOMMENDED INTERSECTION LANE WIDTHS ................9-95
Exhibit 9.3-O LEFT-TURN STORAGE GUIDELINES FOR UNSIGNALIZED
TWO-LANE HIGHWAY INTERSECTIONS................................................9-97
Exhibit 9.3-P ADDITIONAL LEFT-TURN STORAGE FOR TRUCKS AT
UNSIGNALIZED TWO-LANE HIGHWAY INTERSECTIONS.....................9-99
Exhibit 9.3-Q RIGHT-TURN LANE GUIDELINES .........................................................9-100
Exhibit 9.3-R RIGHT-TURN POCKET OR TAPER .......................................................9-101
Exhibit 9.3-S RECOMMENDED MINIMUM LENGTHS FOR BYPASS LANES .............9-103
Exhibit 9.5-A DESIRABLE AND MAXIMUM SLOPES ..................................................9-134
Exhibit 9.5-B ENHANCED CUT SLOPE END TREATMENT ........................................9-141
Exhibit 9.5-C SERRATED SLOPES .............................................................................9-142

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Highway Design August 2012

CHAPTER 9
HIGHWAY DESIGN

9.1 GENERAL
This chapter provides policies, standards, standard practices, criteria, guidance and references
for developing and documenting the highway design. This includes development of the final
geometric design and the preparation of plans, specifications and estimates (PS&E) and related
information to support highway construction and subsequent facility operations. The highway
design policies and standards are applicable to new highway construction and reconstruction,
as well as Resurfacing, Restoration and Rehabilitation (RRR) improvements. Section 1.1.1
provides policy definitions, standards, standard practices, criteria, and guidance. FLH Policy
statements are shown in bold type. Statements regarding FLH Standard Practice are so
indicated. Information on how to perform basic design procedures and fundamental steps for
performing the design work are typically incorporated by references to other documents.
Refer to [EFLHD – CFLHD – WFLHD] Division Supplements for more information.

9.1.1 ROLE OF THE DESIGNER

The role and responsibility of the highway designer is to gather and incorporate all of the
interdisciplinary engineering and environmental input required to develop the highway design,
and to provide a complete and acceptable PS&E assembly with all appropriate supporting
documentation. The highway design and the PS&E package represents the final product of a
collaborative, interdisciplinary and interagency design effort and depicts all the various decisions
and commitments made during the planning, programming and project development processes.

The designer is responsible for participating in an interdisciplinary (e.g., cross-functional) team

approach, led by the Project Manager, for evaluating design issues and developing design
solutions for the project delivery. The designer is responsible for interpreting and applying
guidance from each chapter in the PDDM as applicable to highway design development and
PS&E compilation. The designer is also responsible for directly incorporating certain
engineering data, plans, specifications and estimates produced by the other engineering
disciplines into the PS&E and assuring that these products properly interrelate within the final
PS&E assembly. The following briefly summarizes the designer’s role and responsibility for
development of the geometric design and PS&E, in relation to other disciplines described in the
respective chapters of the PDDM.
● Chapter 1 – Introduction. Incorporate the philosophy, technical policies, and general
approach to risk while developing the highway design and preparation of the PS&E.
● Chapter 2 – Planning and Programming. Designers should use information
developed during the planning and programming phases including interagency
agreements, planning and inventory data, program information and other general data
developed on the scope, schedule and funding amount for the project being designed.

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Highway Design August 2012

● Chapter 3 – Environmental Stewardship. Incorporate information regarding

environmental requirements and public involvement. Environmental documents include
the decisions and commitments made for mitigation of project impacts and concerns.
Review all environmental documents for decisions, mitigation measures and
commitments made during the conceptual studies and preliminary design phase that
affect development and construction of the project or operation of the highway following
construction. Coordinate any proposed deviation from the decisions, mitigation
measures and commitments with the Environmental Section and affected resource
agencies.
● Chapter 4 – Conceptual Studies and Preliminary Design. During the 30 percent
design stage develop the recommended roadway location, design concepts and the
basic design criteria for the facility. These engineering studies and preliminary designs
are developed in conjunction with the environmental process using an interdisciplinary
and interagency team approach, led by the Project Manager. Conceptual studies and
preliminary design development include significant input from the highway owner
agency, Federal land management agency, project stakeholders, the public and other
interested parties, which is incorporated into the final design and PS&E.
● Chapter 5 – Survey and Mapping. The Survey and mapping unit provides information
on the field survey, datum, coordinate system, property ties, right-of-way and utility
locations and related data. The data collected is used to provide topographic maps, site
maps, aerial imagery, right-of-way exhibits, land boundary and ownership information,
utility maps and control information for developing the design.

Closely coordinate the survey and mapping with the design and other engineering
discipline activities to determine the type and limits of the survey and mapping required
to complete the project delivery, and to share available information. Coordinate closely
with the survey and mapping section to identify any additional information needs for
developing the design and establishing controls for the construction process, and to use
the available survey and mapping information most efficiently and effectively. When field
reviews specifically for this coordination purpose are not possible, it is especially
important for the designer and survey and mapping specialists to discuss the field
information required. Use knowledge of the anticipated processes for design and
construction, including new construction, reconstruction and RRR projects, to maximize
the effectiveness of the survey and mapping activities performed to support the design
and construction engineering.

As needed, provide the appropriate information to the survey unit to stake the project
design data in the field. This may include design data and notes to establish centerline,
and to set slope stakes, clearing limits, reference points or hubs, grade stakes or hubs,
right-of-way, and other control points necessary to complete the work. Keep the design
files organized such that information provided for survey stakeout is current, correct and
reflects the design criteria established for the project. It is the designer’s responsibility to
verify and confirm all design data and notes provided for field use to prevent the
possibility of staking incorrect data.

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Highway Design August 2012

● Chapter 6 – Geotechnical. Incorporate the geotechnical information necessary to

develop the highway design. The Geotechnical Unit provides subsurface data and
recommendations for earthwork, slopes, materials, conditions, and geotechnical design.
As applicable, the geotechnical investigations and report recommendations also include
foundation designs for bridges, retaining walls and other structures, as well as
information and recommendations regarding rock slopes and rock fall mitigation,
geotechnical hazards, landslides and subsurface water.
● Chapter 7 – Hydrology/Hydraulics. Incorporate the hydrology/hydraulic data needed
in developing the highway design. Develop culverts, ditches and other minor hydraulic
features using the established standards and guidance described in the chapter. The
Hydraulics Unit provides methodology and sources of runoff data, and recommendations
for developing the roadside drainage design, provides data and recommendations to the
Structural Design Unit for major drainage structures, and provides conceptual designs or
design recommendations, and if necessary final designs, for major hydraulic structures
and special water resource features for incorporation in the PS&E.
● Chapter 8 – Safety and Traffic Operations. Closely coordinate geometric design
development, safety-related design features and PS&E compilation with the necessary
information on roadway safety, roadside safety and traffic engineering data needed for
highway design. The Safety and Traffic specialists provide guidance on evaluation of
safety deficiencies, provision of safety features, and evaluation of traffic operations data.

The crash history and safety performance should be analyzed for all projects. In
addition, potentially hazardous features and locations should be identified to determine
appropriate safety enhancements. A crash study analysis of the location, type, severity,
contributing circumstances, environmental conditions and time periods may suggest
possible safety deficiencies that need improvement or mitigation as part of the project.
The chapter provides details on data collection, crash investigation and analysis. Also
refer to Chapter 4 for additional information on incorporating the necessary traffic and
crash data into highway design solutions.
● Chapter 10 – Structural Design. Coordinate the development of the geometric design
and PS&E with the necessary information on structural design and bridges. The
Structural Unit designs bridges, major retaining structures and special structural
elements. The Structural Unit will provide complete structural plans, specifications and
an estimate of cost for incorporation into the PS&E package.
● Chapter 11 – Pavements. Coordinate the development of the typical surfacing cross
section and related highway design features with information and recommendations for
the pavement or other type roadway surfacing. The Pavements Unit normally provides
the roadway surfacing data and recommendations for pavement structure materials and
thickness. Incorporate the recommendations for pavement materials and thickness
provided by the Pavements Unit.
● Chapter 12 – Right-of-Way and Utilities. Coordinate closely with Right-of-Way and
Utilities units to identify the proposed right-of-way acquisition needs and utility
accommodation, adjustments or relocations, and to provide the design information and
proposed impacts of construction activities to property and utilities. As applicable, the

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Highway Design August 2012

Right-of-Way, Survey, Mapping, or the Design Unit may provide information on the
existing right-of-way and utility deeds, plats, agreements and related data. The right-of-
way and utility data provides the basis for development of proposed right-of-way and
utility plans, descriptions, agreements and other documents for clearance of right-of-way
and utilities for construction. Coordinate design efforts to minimize the needs for
proposed right-of-way and utility adjustments.
● Chapter 13 – Design Follow-up. The designer is responsible for obtaining feedback
and follow-up information from post construction reviews, evaluating the effectiveness of
the constructed design, and incorporating the information as an input for improving the
design and development of future FLH projects.

9.1.2 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS AND STANDARDS

Refer to Section 4.4 for determination of applicable design standards and selection of design
criteria to be used for the development of the geometric design and PS&E. For all projects,
document the applicable design standards and criteria using the Highway Design Standards
Form and show in the PS&E on the title sheet and typical section plans sheets. The applicable
design standards and criteria should be documented during the conceptual studies and
preliminary design (prior to 30 percent design stage).

Design standards determination also applies to Resurfacing, Restoration and Rehabilitation

(RRR) projects; however, the overall approach to the design process is treated differently, since
it is generally not intended or feasible for all substandard design elements to be reconstructed to
fully meet the current design standards on RRR programmed projects. The RRR design
process accommodates existing conditions or existing elements to remain included as part of
the project rather than be reconstructed to the current standards of design. This is done using a
safety-conscious design approach including risk analysis, which often requires design
exceptions. For RRR projects, the approach to safety-related elements is similar to
reconstruction projects in that any substandard safety conditions or controlling criteria are
identified, and addressed on an individual, case-by-case basis.

Within this chapter many of the geometric design requirements, FLH standard practices, and
guidance refer primarily to the design of new construction or reconstruction projects, and may
not be appropriate for RRR projects or other projects with a very limited scope of improvement.
Refer to Section 9.4 for guidance specifically applicable to RRR projects.

9.1.3 EXCEPTIONS TO DESIGN STANDARDS

It is acknowledged that designers are challenged with balancing a multitude of needs and
expectations in selecting design criteria and geometry for highway facilities. The exception to
standards outlined in FLHM 3-C-2 permits the FLH Division Engineer to approve exceptions to
design standards that are proposed for incorporation into the project. In addition to the design

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exception process, FLH policy includes flexibility to consider and approve alternative design
criteria for individual projects, when necessary and appropriate.

When exceptions to the standards are necessary, document these exceptions with the
risk to the traveling public, or the client, or the maintaining agency, or combination
thereof appropriately noted. Inform the client and the maintaining agency, if different, of
the risk and the consequences; document the risk and consequences of its acceptance,
and provide alternatives to waiving the engineering standards. If the risk is acceptable to
the client and the maintaining agency (if different), document this acceptance.

When evaluating the need for a design exception the design standards are not devalued; rather,
in-depth understanding of the standards including the underlying theories and basis for
derivation of the standard values, and the margins of substantive safety and operational
performance that the standards provide, is used to add value to a unique situation by applying
flexibility.

For all projects, document the selection of applicable design criteria from approved
standards, and when approved standards are not attained, document all exceptions.
Refer to FLHM 3-C-2. There are 13 principle design elements that are considered controlling
criteria, and 4 supplemental standards, that require formal approval and documentation each
time they are not attained. The 13 principle controlling criteria are:
● Design speed,
● Lane width,
● Shoulder width,
● Bridge clear roadway width,
● Horizontal curvature,
● Vertical curvature,
● Gradient,
● Stopping sight distance,
● Normal travel lane cross slopes (crown),
● Superelevation,
● Structural capacity,
● Horizontal clearance to structures (tunnels and bridge underpasses), and
● Vertical clearance.

The 4 supplemental standards are:

● Clear zone,
● Barrier crashworthiness,
● Design flood, and
● Pavement design service life.

In addition to these 13 controlling criteria and 4 supplemental standards requiring formal

approval, the designer should receive concurrence and document in some manner any other
elements of the highway design relating to safety, operational performance or functionality that
do not meet applicable FLH standards. Refer to Division Supplements for guidance on
documenting other highway design elements not meeting applicable FLH standards. Deviations

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Highway Design August 2012

from FLH standards for critical elements of other technical functions described in other PDDM
chapters should also be approved and documented, as applicable for the technical function.
The client and highway owning/maintaining agency should be informed of and concur in
deviations from FLH standards and standard practices, as well as the consequences and risks
of such decisions.

Any existing substandard elements that will remain after completion of the project must be
identified, evaluated and documented in the same way as new design features.

There are basically two different approaches for evaluating and documenting design standard
exceptions:
● A project-wide, or corridor design exception; and
● A site-specific design exception.

A project-wide or corridor design exception may be advantageous for design consistency,

maintaining driver expectancy, and to coordinate geometric design features within the corridor
(albeit using lower design criteria), but may be disadvantageous if the necessity for the lower
design criteria is not a prevailing condition throughout the corridor. A corridor design exception
is best reserved for those elements (e.g., roadway width) that are not functions of the design
speed. A design speed exception relates to either 1) the minimum design speed applicable to
the functional classification and terrain, or 2) individual design elements that are based on
design speed and addressed on an individual basis. The design speed is not necessarily
constant within the corridor if there are distinct zones that are appropriate to change both design
speed and posted speed. A design exception to apply a lower design speed than the posted
speed should not be recommended, especially if it is feasible to design a majority of the corridor
or zone to meet criteria for the posted speed. It will potentially result in the unnecessary
reduction of all of the speed-related design criteria rather than just the one or two features that
led to the need for the exception. Refer to Section 9.3.1.13 for additional guidance on design
speed and posted speed.

A site-specific design exception acknowledges the necessity for using lower geometric design
criteria for a specific feature while providing higher design criteria for the prevailing conditions
along the corridor, and the exception will usually affect only a single element of the geometric
design criteria (e.g., a horizontal curve radius, a vertical curve length) and other elements are
not compromised.
Refer to [EFLHD – CFLHD – WFLHD] Division Supplements for more information
including applicable Highway Design Standards form for use within each FLH Division.

9.1.3.1 Need for Design Exception

Before an exception is recommended, there must be compelling and demonstrated reasons why
the approved standard criteria should not be used.

Describe and explain the conditions that preclude conformance to the applicable design
standard. A preliminary estimate of the additional construction cost to conform to the applicable
standard may be required, as compared with the proposed design exception.

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The need for a design exception should be identified, evaluated and decided as soon as
possible in the design and decision-making process. The key milestone for identification and
evaluation of design exceptions is at the completion of the preliminary design (30 percent)
stage.

9.1.3.2 Design Exception Consequences and Risk Assessment

When considering project elements that may require design exceptions to the applicable
standards, the resultant safety and operational risk aspects must be 1) understood by the
designer, and 2) properly communicated to project stakeholders.

Identify and describe the estimated operational and safety effects and potential risks of the
design exception, and its compatibility with adjacent sections of roadway within the project.
Safety enhancement is an essential element of any project design, therefore, a design
exception should not be recommended if it would decrease the relative safety performance of
the roadway in the affected area. Functional classification of the road, the amount and
character of the traffic, the type of project (i.e., new construction, reconstruction, RRR) and the
crash history should be considered in the risk assessment. The cost of attaining full standards
and the resultant impacts on scenic, historic or other environmental features, as well as whether
other future improvements are programmed, should also be taken into consideration. As a
minimum, the following issues should be considered in the risk assessment:
● What is the degree to which a standard is being reduced?
● Will the exception affect other standards or projects?
● Are additional features being included in the project (e.g., improved roadway geometry,
signing, delineation, roadside safety) that would adequately mitigate the safety and
operational effects of the deviation?

The interdisciplinary project team should describe the context of the design exception and
provide input for consideration. The designer should consider the context and the basis of the
design standard, describe the safety effects or risks of the design exception, and provide a
professional recommendation about alternatives to consider.

Refer to the sections on geometric design controls for considerations and guidance on risk
assessment and mitigation of specific geometric design elements. The Interactive Highway
Safety Design Model (IHSDM) should be used to help identify potential safety consequences
and risks of geometric design elements.

Refer to Section 1.1.3 and Section 4.4.6 for general guidance on risk assessment. Refer to
various sections elsewhere in this chapter for guidance on evaluation of the geometric design
and operational effects, risk assessment and mitigation related to specific geometric design
elements and features.

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Highway Design August 2012

9.1.3.3 Mitigating Design Exceptions

Describe the mitigating measures proposed to maximize operation and safety of the facility in
the affected area. Refer to the sections on geometric design controls for specific considerations
and guidance on mitigation. If the mitigation for a design exception cannot be resolved at the
preliminary design stage, it should be resolved at the intermediate design (50 percent) stage.
For more information see FHWA-SA-07-011, Mitigation Strategies for Design Exceptions.

9.1.3.4 Documenting Design Exceptions

Documentation for all design exceptions should follow the guidelines in this manual, FHWA
procedure from the Federal-Aid program Guide (FAPG) Subchapter G-Engineering and Traffic
Operations, Part 625-Design Standards for Highways, Non-Regulatory Supplement for Part 625,
No. 8. Design Exceptions, and relevant FHWA Policy and Engineering Directives.

Refer to the format in the Division Supplements for documenting design exceptions on a project.

Tort liability is a major concern of the government. The designer must ensure that the design
process is in compliance with all applicable standards, and that decisions regarding design
exceptions are properly documented. Documentation of the design exception should include
the applicable controlling criteria and standard for which a design exception is requested, the
background information, need, consequences, risks, and mitigation described in the preceding
sections.

The documentation supporting the design exception decision should be prepared at the earliest
possible point in the design process, and must become a part of the PS&E package presented
to the owner agency. Any design exceptions should be identified, evaluated and documented
during development of the conceptual studies and preliminary design (30 percent stage of
project development). However, it may not be possible to finally resolve and document the
approval of design exceptions until later in the final design process.

Refer to Chapter 4 of the AASHTO publication A Guide for Achieving Flexibility in Highway
Design for additional information about concerns regarding tort liability and documenting design
exceptions.

9.1.3.5 Monitoring Design Exceptions

Design exceptions should be collected and periodically reviewed in order that the managers in
the Division offices remain fully informed on the nature and extent of design exceptions being
approved for given categories of projects.

The safety and operational performance of the roadways that are constructed with design
exceptions should be monitored, using performance management systems, to assist in future
analysis and decision-making. Refer to Section 2.4 for information on system-wide planning
and performance management.

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9.1.4 VARIANCES TO FLH STANDARD PRACTICE AND GUIDANCE

Variations from the highway design standard practice and guidance will be necessary for special
or unusual conditions, or to provide the proper balance among diverse user needs,
environmental concerns, and fiscal restraints. Consequently, the provision of standard practice
and guidance in this Chapter is not intended to preclude the exercise of discretion and
engineering judgment in response to site-specific conditions, or achievement of appropriate
flexibility in the highway design. Rather, such discretion and judgment is encouraged where it is
appropriate and there is a clear need and a rational basis for deviation. However, it is equally
important to promote consistency in the application of the standard practice and guidance, to
regularly match the highway design with the needs, conditions and context of the facility and its
users.

To fulfill these objectives, obtain endorsement and document the rationale for variances from
FLH highway design standard practice in the project design file. The extent of documentation
may depend on the specific nature of the variation and its potential effect (if any) on safety
performance, traffic operations, or serviceability. The terms "consider" and "should" denote
suggested guidance only and do not designate a standard practice or a design requirement; but
convey an expectation for the highway designer to evaluate the situation before proceeding.
Differences from the suggested guidance do not require documentation; however
considerations for selecting special or unusual design parameters should be noted in the project
design file. Procedures for documenting variations from highway design standard practice may
be described in applicable Division Supplements.

9.1.5 DESIGN PHILOSOPHY AND CONTEXT SENSITIVE SOLUTIONS

The Federal land management agencies, and FLH, have long recognized the need to modify
traditional approaches to the planning, design and construction of roads on such sensitive and
protected lands. This has resulted in a philosophy for design of roads to exercise sensitivity and
care in application of the established design requirements and standards described in
Section 9.1.2. The FLH design philosophy is evident in the following design policy references:

The Foreword to the Green Book states:

“Highway engineers, as designers, strive to meet the needs of highway users

while maintaining the integrity of the environment. Unique combinations of design
controls and constraints that are often conflicting call for unique design
solutions.”

The Park Road Standards state:

“The fundamental purpose of national parks–-bringing humankind and the

environment into closer harmony–-dictates that the quality of the park experience
must be our primary concern. Full enjoyment of a national park visit depends on
its being a safe and leisurely experience. The distinctive character of park roads

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Highway Design August 2012

plays a basic role in setting this essential unhurried pace. Consequently, park
roads are designed with extreme care and sensitivity with respect to the terrain
and environment through which they pass–-they are laid lightly onto the land.”

The highway design must carefully balance the user’s safety needs, desires, expectations,
comfort, and convenience within the context of many constraints and considerations including
terrain, land use, roadside and community effects, environmental effects, aesthetics and cost.
To balance the user’s needs with the values of the Federal land management agencies, while
exercising stewardship and oversight, a specialized design philosophy has evolved. The FLH
design approach is to actively engage the project stakeholders in applying the design policies,
standards, criteria, best practices, guidance and engineering judgment to achieve an
outstanding solution. Designers must represent the design policies and understand their
engineering basis; and also must understand and respond to the values, concerns and
constraints of each situation with flexibility and creative solutions. In applying flexibility the goal
is not to lower, but to raise the performance level of the facility by optimizing the design criteria
to exactly fit each situation using expert tools, information and communication.

The FLH and the Federal land management agencies share a legacy of working together on the
planning, design and construction of roads. As a result, long-standing relationships and
collaborative processes have evolved for successfully delivering the work, which actively
engage the Federal land management agencies, State and local road-owning agencies,
resource agencies and the public. These processes are essentially similar to the process
described for achieving Context Sensitive Solutions (CSS). NCHRP Report 480, A Guide to
Best Practices for Achieving Context Sensitive Solutions, provides guidance that is also closely
aligned with the design approach used by FLH. CSS represents a collaborative,
interdisciplinary approach to roadway planning, design and construction, which involves all
partners, stakeholders and the public to ensure that transportation projects are in harmony with
communities and that projects preserve environmental, scenic, aesthetic and historic resources.
The effective application of CSS techniques can achieve these goals while maintaining safety
and mobility.

Evaluating diverse needs and contextual issues, to balance and optimize the level of
enhancement, may require collection and analysis of more data and project-specific information
than for a non-CSS type approach. Fully understanding the context, and the true needs of the
users, requires comprehensive data and personal interaction. Facilitating the collaborative
interdisciplinary approach, effectively engaging stakeholders and the public with enhanced
communication and decision-making tools and processes, risk assessment, and management
endorsement requires planning and technical information. Ensuring that safe and technically
sound solutions result from this exercise of flexibility in design requires expert thinking and
analysis. To closely fit the design within the physical site constraints requires accurate survey
and mapping, and iterative design to reach the optimum solution. The facility may need to
deliver excellent operational performance to equally meet transportation demands and
contextual enhancement goals. In addition to design, the construction techniques, materials,
drainage and safety appurtenances may need to provide superior performance to accomplish
the goals of CSS. The final cost of the resultant solution may not be any more than a non-CSS
approach, but the level of data collection, analysis, engineering and construction may require

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higher thinking, performance and quality than may be the norm elsewhere in the highway
industry.

Within FLH design policy, the products of the design philosophy will vary between projects that
are executed by different interdisciplinary teams and designers, despite that precisely the same
design standards are used. The differing emphasis for diverse goals, the unique context of
each location, the technical knowledge of the designer and the amount of input from
stakeholders in shaping the design, will result in unique solutions.

The remaining sections of this chapter describe the requirements and factors that influence the
highway design and PS&E process, and guidance that should be considered by designers.
These include the geometric design, types of projects and their approach, other highway design
elements, the PS&E development and design documentation, including Division Supplements.

Also refer to Section 4.4.5 for guidance on applying flexibility in the design and Section 4.6.1 for
guidance on achieving Context Sensitive Solutions.

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Highway Design August 2012

9.2 GUIDANCE AND REFERENCES

The publications listed in this section provided much of the fundamental source information
used in the development of this chapter. While this list is not all-inclusive, the publications listed
will provide the designer with additional information to supplement this manual.

Abbreviations and definitions are described in Section 1.4.

9.2.1 STANDARDS OF PRACTICE

1. Green Book A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets,

AASHTO, current edition (specific references in this chapter are
to the 2011 edition).

2. Park Road Park Road Standards, US Department of the Interior, National

Standards Park Service, 1984.

3. FP-XX Standard Specifications for Construction of Roads and Bridges on

Federal Highway Projects, FHWA, current edition.

4. MUTCD Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices, FHWA, current

edition.

5. RDG Roadside Design Guide, AASHTO, current edition.

6. VLVLR Guidelines for Geometric Design of Very Low-Volume Local

Roads (ADT ≤400), AASHTO, 2004

7. DS-Interstate A Policy on Design Standards-Interstate System, AASHTO,

current edition.

8. FLHM 3-C-2 Federal Lands Highway Manual Policy Guide, Chapter 3,

Section C, Subsection 2, Exception to Minimum Engineering
Standards - Risk Factors

9. ADAAG Americans with Disabilities Act Accessibility Guidelines,

Architectural and Transportation Barriers Compliance Board,
current edition

10. PROWAC Guidelines for Accessible Public Rights-of-Way, current edition

11. 23 CFR 650 Erosion and Sediment Control on Highway Construction Projects,
Subpart B 1994

12. E380-93 Standard Practice for Use of the International System of Units
(SI), The Modernized Metric System, ASTM, 1993.

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Highway Design August 2012

13. FAR Federal Acquisition Regulations

14. Specification Specification Writer’s Guide for Federal Lands Highway, FHWA-
Writer’s Guide CFL/TD-08-001, 2008.

9.2.2 GUIDANCE

1. AASHTO Flexibility A Guide for Achieving Flexibility in Highway Design, AASHTO,

Guide 2004,

2. IHSDM Interactive Highway Safety Design Model (IHSDM), FHWA,

current edition.

3. NCHRP Report 480 A Guide to Best Practices for Achieving Context Sensitive
Solutions, TRB, 2004.

4. AASHTO SR Highway Safety Design and Operations Guide, AASHTO, 1997.

5. T 5040.28 Technical Advisory 5040.28, Developing Geometric Design

Criteria and Processes for Non-Freeway RRR Projects, FHWA,
October 17, 1988.

6. Special Report 214 TRB Special Report No. 214, Designing Safer Roads,
Transportation Research Board, 1987.

7. HCM Highway Capacity Manual, Transportation Research Board,

current edition.

8. FHWA-RD-00-67 Roundabouts: An Informational Guide, FHWA-RD-00-67, 2000.

9. NCHRP Report 502 Geometric Design Consistency on High-Speed Rural Two-Lane

Roadways, TRB, 2003.

10. NCHRP Report 504 NCHRP Report 504, Design Speed, Operating Speed, and
Posted Speed Practices, TRB, 2003

11. FHWA-RD-99-207 Prediction of the Expected Safety Performance of Rural Two-

Lane Highways, FHWA-RD-99-207, FHWA, 2000.

12. FHWA-RD-94-034 Horizontal Alignment Design Consistency for Rural Two-Lane

Highways, FHWA-RD-94-034, FHWA, 1995.

13. FHWA-RD-01-103 Highway Design Handbook for Older Drivers and Pedestrians,
FHWA-RD-01-103, 2001

Guidance and References 9-13

Highway Design August 2012

14. AASHTO GPF Guide for the Planning, Design and Operation of Pedestrian
Facilities, AASHTO, 2004.

15. AASHTO GBF Guide for Development of Bicycle Facilities, AASHTO, 2012.

16. Access Access Management Manual, Transportation Research Board,

Management 2002.
Manual

17. ITE Driveway Guidelines for Driveway Location and Design, Institute of Traffic
Guidelines Engineers (ITE), 1987.

18. Practical Highway Practical Highway Esthetics, ASCE, 1977.

Esthetics

19. Trail Design Manual Trail Design Manual, “Trails for the Twenty-First Century,”
Planning, Design, and Management Manual for Multi-use Trails,
Rails to Trails Conservancy, 1993.

20. FHWA-FLP-91-001 Design Risk Analysis (Volume I and II), FHWA-FLP-91-001,

FHWA, 1991.

21. FHWA-SA-07-001 Good Practices: Incorporating Safety into Resurfacing and

Restoration Projects, FHWA-SA-07-001, December 2006

22. FHWA-SA-07-010 Railroad-Highway Grade Crossing Handbook, FHWA-SA-07-010,

Revised 2nd edition, March 2008.

23. FHWA-SA-07-011 Mitigation Strategies for Design Exceptions, FHWA-SA-07-011,

July 2007

24. NCHRP Report 279 Intersection Channelization Design Guide, 1985.

25. FHWA-HRT-05-139 Evaluation of Safety, Design, and Operation of Shared-Use

Paths, FHWA, 2006

26. AASHTO GL-6 Roadway Lighting Design Guide, AASHTO, 2005.

27. NCHRP Synthesis Cost-Effective and Sustainable Road Slope Stabilization and
430 Erosion Control, TRB, 2012.

28. FHWA-FLP-94-005 Best Management Practices for Erosion and Sediment Control,
FHWA, 1995.

29. AASHTO MDM Model Drainage Manual, AASHTO, Chapter 16, “Erosion and
Sediment Control.”

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Highway Design August 2012

30. AASHTO HDG Highway Drainage Guidelines, AASHTO Volume III, “Erosion and
Sediment Control in Highway Construction.”

31. FAPG 23 CFR 630B Guidelines for Preparation of Plans, Specifications, and
Estimates, FHWA Non- Regulatory Supplement for 23 CFR, Part
630, Subpart B, 1991

32. AASHTO HLED A Guide for Transportation Landscape and Environmental

Design, AASHTO, 1991

33. FLH Specifications Procedures

34. FLH Safety Philosophy

35. FLH Context Sensitive Solutions Philosophy

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Highway Design August 2012

9.3 GEOMETRIC DESIGN

Before beginning detailed design activities see Chapter 4 for standards and guidance on
conceptual studies, project scoping, background data, and development of the preliminary
design.

The over-arching considerations for geometric design are:

● Design the highway geometry with regard to the function, use, context and the
environment in which the facility operates, and
● Provide consistency in the quality, appearance and operational performance of the
roadway.

The following sections describe specific considerations and elements for geometric design.
Refer to [EFLHD – CFLHD – WFLHD] Division Supplements for more information.

9.3.1 GEOMETRIC DESIGN CONTROLS

Identify design constraints early and optimize the vertical and horizontal geometry for
compatibility. The geometric design controls should normally be established during the project
scoping, see Section 4.3. Determination of geometric design controls should take into account
the FLH Safety Philosophy and the FLH Context Sensitive Solutions Philosophy. Balance the
user’s needs with provisions for automobiles, trucks, motorcycles, pedestrians, bicyclists, and
transit. In making these determinations, consider that routinely selecting only the minimum
recommended values may not result in the optimum design for all users from a safety,
operational or cost-effectiveness perspective. Also consider that other controls such as
environmental requirements, structural design requirements, and supplemental standards for
safety elements, design flood and pavement design may affect certain geometric design
elements and their cost and scope. Refer to the respective Chapters for such controls and
requirements. The following sections address the various geometric design controls.
Refer to [EFLHD – CFLHD – WFLHD] Division Supplements for more information.

9.3.1.1 Roadway Context

Consider the roadway context as a critical factor in determining geometric design elements such
as alignment and cross section, and in selecting design features such as curb type and traffic
barrier, and in selecting construction materials and aesthetic treatments. Identify roadway
design controls that are sensitive to, and respectful of, the surrounding context to facilitate the
project success. It is essential that all transportation facilities be designed as part of the total
environment. Traditionally, the highway design process has focused first on a project’s
transportation elements and design controls, particularly those associated with motor vehicle
travel. A context-sensitive approach for identification of design controls begins with analysis of
the contextual elements, such as environmental and community resources, of the area through
which the roadway passes. After there is a thorough understanding of the area surrounding the
road, the road’s users, the affected non-users, constraints, and enhancement opportunities,

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Highway Design August 2012

then the transportation controls of the roadway, its function within the regional transportation
system, and the appropriate level of speed, mobility and access may be considered. Three
primary concepts should be considered in establishing the roadway’s contextual design
controls:
● The character and level of sensitivity of the surrounding natural and built environment,
● The roadway function in terms of providing regional mobility versus local access, and
● The level of access management, i.e., separation versus connectivity, between the
roadway and the adjacent land use.

Also refer to Section 9.5.10 for consideration of design elements for environmental protection
and enhancements.

9.3.1.2 Functional Classification

The AASHTO Green Book establishes a relationship between functional classification and
design criteria (refer to Green Book Section 1.3). Also refer to FHWA functional classification
guidelines. The functional classification of a particular highway establishes a range of design
speeds, and together with the selected design speed further defines a range of parameters
associated with horizontal and vertical alignment, lane width, shoulder type and width, median
area type and width, and other major design features.

The functional classification of the project will normally be determined during the planning and
programming phase, and it is verified with consideration of additional data as part of the
conceptual engineering studies. Determine the functional classification from a statewide
perspective not simply a “forest,” “county” or tribal reservation point of view. For NPS projects
refer to Section 9.3.1.2.5. Some Forest Highways and IRR roads may fulfill a relatively high
function within their respective area; however, the functional classification should be from the
point of view of all roads within the State. Many State DOTs maintain maps indicating the
functional classification of all roads in that State.

Grade separations and interchange ramps may be associated with highways having any
functional classification or design speed. Refer to Green Book Chapter 10 for design of grade
separations and interchanges.

9.3.1.2.1 Local Roads

Local roads primarily provide access to adjacent land with little through movement. Very few
FLH projects are located on routes with local road functional classification. Some Refuge Road
projects, IRR projects and ERFO projects are located on local roads.

Green Book Section 5.5 references the VLVLR for design of certain very low-volume local roads
(ADT ≤ 400). The VLVLR may be used in lieu of the Green Book for designing FLH projects on
local roads that fit the criteria. The VLVLR is applicable for local roads that are 1) primarily used
by familiar drivers, and 2) design average daily traffic volume of 400 or less. Verify with the

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Highway Design August 2012

Branch Chief responsible for Highway Design that the VLVLR is appropriate for the specific
project.

The VLVLR Exhibits 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 are based on side friction factors provided in the 2001
edition of the Green Book. The values for maximum side friction factor, fmax, in these exhibits
should be revised using the values provided in the current edition of the Green Book. The
corresponding values for minimum radius, Rmin, in these exhibits should be revised using
Equation (2) of the VLVLR. FLH standard practice for using the VLVLR is to apply the revised
limiting values of fmax and Rmin with Exhibits 3 and 4 for horizontal curve design of the designated
roadways. Green Book Tables 3-7 and 3-13 may be substituted for the VLVLR Exhibits 3 and
4, respectively to obtain these values. In especially constrained situations, as described in the
VLVLR, the revised limiting values of fmax, and Rmin and the reductions in design speed shown in
Exhibits 5, 6, and 7 may be used for horizontal curve design of the designated roadways, if
endorsed and documented as a variance from FLH highway design standard practice.

9.3.1.2.2 Collectors

Collectors provide a medium level of service at moderate speed for intermediate distances by
collecting traffic from local roads and connecting them with arterials. Many FLH Forest Highway
and Public Lands projects are located on routes with collector classification.

9.3.1.2.3 Arterials

Arterial roads provide a high level of service at high speeds for relatively long distances, with
little interruption and with some degree of access control. Some FLH program projects, and a
number of FLH special projects, are located on routes with arterial classification.

9.3.1.2.4 Freeways

Freeways are a type of arterial road that provide full access control, accommodate the highest
speeds with no traffic interruption. A few FLH special projects are located on routes with
freeway classification.

9.3.1.2.5 National Park Service Roads

The National Park Service, in its 1984 Park Road Standards, has established its own system of
functional classification. The assignment of a functional classification to a park road is not
based on traffic volumes or design speed, but on the intended use or function of the particular
route.

The fundamental considerations in park road design are distinct from most other State and local
highway systems. The design controls and criteria, design elements, and roadway features
may share some theoretical similarities with corresponding AASHTO design criteria, however
the purpose of park roads and associated design values are different. Where the source of
design criteria is noted as compiled from the 1984 AASHTO Green Book (e.g. vehicle
dimensions, turning paths, grades, vertical curves, radius, sight distance tables and figures),

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Highway Design August 2012

instead use the corresponding values from the current edition of the Green Book. If design
criteria and standards for certain elements are not addressed by the Park Road Standards, use
appropriate values recommended by the Green Book.

9.3.1.2.6 Special Routes

When applicable, consider the requirements for special routes designated to serve specific
purposes as described below:
● National Highway System (NHS). The NHS is separate and distinct from the functional
classification system.
● Strategic Highway Corridor Network (STRAHNET). The STRAHNET includes
highways which are important to support an emergency military defense deployment.
The minimum vertical clearance on these routes is 16 ft [4.9 m].
● Bicycle Routes. Bicycle routes are designated and signed as preferred routes through
high bicycle travel demand corridors. Roadway widths and surfacing are important to
assure their usability as discussed in Section 9.3.17.

9.3.1.3 Terrain

The type of terrain has an influence on design speed, maximum grade, and the alignment.
Section 3.4.1 of the AASHTO Green Book separates terrain into three classifications:
● Level,
● Rolling, or
● Mountainous.

Terrain classifications pertain to the general character of a specific route corridor. For example,
routes in mountain valleys and in mountain passes that have all the characteristics of level or
rolling terrain should be classified as such. The terrain classification determines the maximum
allowable grades in relation to design speed.

9.3.1.3.1 Level Terrain

Level terrain is generally sloping at 1V:20H or less. Sight distances, as provided by horizontal
and vertical geometry, are generally long or can be made so without construction difficulty,
major expense, or undue adverse effects. Trucks and passenger cars can operate at similar,
consistent speeds.

9.3.1.3.2 Rolling Terrain

Rolling terrain is generally sloping between 1V:20H and 1V:3H. Natural slopes repeatedly rise
above and fall below the road grade, and occasional steep excavation and embankment slopes
restrict or control the horizontal and vertical alignment. The terrain generates steeper grades
than in flat terrain, causing trucks to often operate at speeds below those of passenger cars.

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9.3.1.3.3 Mountainous Terrain

Mountainous terrain is frequently sloping over 1V:3H. Changes in terrain elevation with respect
to the roadway cross section and profile are abrupt. Benched side-hill excavation and limited
locations for embankments are typical restrictions that control the horizontal and vertical
alignment. The terrain generates steep grades causing some trucks to operate at substantially
slower speeds than passenger cars.

The AASHTO Green Book recognizes the unique difficulty and expense of road construction in
mountainous terrain, and for some geometric design elements, it suggests reduced values in
the criteria than for other terrain.

9.3.1.4 Location

Refer to Green Book Section 1.3.1 for guidance on determining the applicable location, for
determining design criteria. A highway located within the corporate limits of a city does not
necessarily determine if it should have an urban cross-section. Consider the development
density and land use adjacent to the highway corridor. Presence of several of the following
typically indicates urban character:
● Sidewalks or frequent pedestrian travel
● Bicycle usage
● Curbing
● Closed drainage systems
● Cross street frequency 8 or more per mile [5 or more per km]
● Driveway frequency 25 or more per mile [15 or more per km]
● Minor commercial driveway frequency 10 or more per mile [6 or more per km]
● Multiple major commercial driveways per mile [km]
● Numerous right of way constraints

For design of certain cross-section elements, urban roadways may be further categorized as
lower-speed urban (40 mph [60 km/h] or less posted or regulatory speed), transitional (45 mph
[70 km/h]), and high-speed urban (50 mph [80 km/h] or more).

9.3.1.5 Traffic Volume

Daily, peak hour, and patterns of motor vehicle traffic are key design controls for the roadway
facility. Daily traffic estimates are also used in making design decisions related to the total user
benefit of a proposed improvement. For example the benefit of highway safety roadside
improvements is directly related to the crash exposure (expressed in ADT) on the road. Refer
to Green Book Section 2.3.2 for guidance on determination of traffic volume.

9.3.1.5.1 Traffic Volume Measures

Refer to Section 4.3.2.3 for a description of traffic volume measures in establishing design
controls. Automatic traffic recorder/vehicle classification counts are generally needed for
determining the design criteria and for analyzing capacity and delay conditions. Turning

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movement counts are generally needed for the design of critical or high volume vehicle turning
movements at intersections.

9.3.1.5.2 Volume Classifications

For determining design criteria, the Green Book classifies traffic volume as < 250, < 400,
< 1500, < 2000 or > 2000 average daily traffic (ADT).

9.3.1.5.3 Design Hourly Volumes

Consider the design hourly volume (DHV), or daily peak-hour traffic, in the design of travel lanes
and shoulder width, intersection layout, and consideration for level of service to be provided.
Refer to the paragraph on “Peak-Hour Traffic” in Green Book Section 2.3.2 for guidance on
determining the DHV for the project.

9.3.1.5.4 Future Traffic Projections

Projects that are developed should serve a useful function for some time into the future.
Projects that involve significant capital investment are generally assumed to have a long
functional lifetime, while projects of lesser investment are generally assumed to have a shorter
functional lifetime. This requires anticipation of the future transportation demands and resultant
safety and operational conditions, at a future period commensurate with the level of capital
investment, with and without the project to assess its effectiveness at meeting the transportation
needs.

Traffic projections are typically forecast for a period 20 years ahead of the anticipated
completion of the construction project. Some metropolitan planning organizations have
developed traffic projections on various routes for a specific planning horizon year, based on
region-wide traffic modeling systems. To determine the future traffic projection, consider the
recent and projected traffic growth rates for other highways in the vicinity, the statewide and
national traffic growth rates for similar type of highways, the recent and anticipated population
growth rate of the area including areas of trip origin and destination, visitation growth rate, land
use planning data, and other available information. Also consider the effects of improvement of
the route on trip generation and travel routing, especially if proposed improvements include
significant reduction of travel time or significant change in the type of surfacing. Base future
traffic projections using a growth rate factor applied to the current traffic volume, including
adjustment if applicable for induced traffic growth.

Forecasts of future activity levels should include estimates of pedestrian and bicycle activity.
Exercise care when forecasting pedestrian and bicycle volumes to consider latent demand
above presently observed pedestrian and bicycle volumes because the facilities do not yet exist
in the project area, are substandard, or do not provide complete connectivity to destinations.

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9.3.1.6 Level of Service and Mobility

When applicable, determine the level of service (LOS) criteria as a design control to
characterize the quality of movement through a transportation network, such as for urban or
rural arterials, or urban collector functional classifications. Guidelines applicable for selection of
the design LOS are provided in Green Book Table 2-5. A variety of analytical methodologies
and computer software packages are available to estimate LOS for facility users. The desired
level of service should be determined through input of the affected community and the facility
stakeholders; therefore ensure that the project participants have a thorough understanding of
the resulting level of service from the design so that the expectations can be met, or objectives
modified. Generally, for the design year LOS C or better is desired and LOS D is the
recommended minimum.

Refer to Section 8.6.2 for guidance on determining appropriate level of service. Refer to Green
Book Section 2.4 for information on capacity characteristics, levels of service and design flow
rates. Also refer to the Highway Capacity Manual and the FHWA Traffic Analysis Tools. When
applicable in urban areas, determine the level of service for pedestrians, bicyclists, or transit;
see NCHRP Report 616, Multimodal Level of Service Analysis for Urban Streets.

9.3.1.7 Level of Access and Management

Determine the level of access control and management to maintain safe and efficient roadway
operations for all users. Consider the management of driveway locations, approach roads,
median treatments, turn lanes, curbs, barriers, and other access management features. The
degree of access management is influenced by both the function of the roadway and the
roadway context. Consider more stringent access control on arterials than on collectors and
local roads, reflecting the mobility and land access functions of these roadways. Consider the
existing access points along the roadway and the possibility for changes in access that are
consistent with the project’s objectives, and need for future access to developing areas. For
example, it may be possible to relocate, redesign, or consolidate some driveways along an
existing roadway to improve sight distances and safety.

The Access Management Manual, TRB, 2003 provides guidance on the application of access
management techniques for both existing and new roadways. Also refer to Green Book
Section 2.5.

9.3.1.8 Cross Section and Multi-modal Accommodation

Determine the design controls that will influence the overall roadway width, and components of
the cross section that will accommodate the various users. Approach the formulation of needed
cross section components beginning from the right-of-way or construction limits edge to edge
then inward, rather than the more traditional approach of beginning from the centerline outward.
Through this approach, the accommodation of pedestrians and bicyclists should be positively
encouraged and safely enhanced, and contextual elements considered from the outset.

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Determine the level of multi-modal accommodation within the cross section for pedestrians,
bicyclists and motor vehicles, i.e., whether separate accommodation of travel for all type users
must be provided (e.g., sidewalk, bike lane, shoulder, travel lane) or whether some form of
shared use may be acceptable within the roadway. If a public transit system exists or is
anticipated, determine the level of separate accommodation needed. Consider the operating
speed of motor vehicles, and the relative volumes of pedestrians, or bicyclists, or both, the
vehicular needs for usable shoulders, roadside or on street parking, and environmental or right-
of-way constraints in establishing the level of multi-modal separation or shared-use cross
section relationships.

Consider the overall roadside including the criteria for slopes, clear zones, ditch sections, curbs,
barrier systems, auxiliary lanes and medians as these elements typically contribute greater
influence and impact on the overall cross section than the range of travel lane and shoulder
widths considered. Also consider the needs for snow storage, maintenance, placement of
utilities (poles and buried conduit), roadside signage, fencing, and other appurtenances for
inclusion as cross section design controls.

Determine the various factors that control the range of travel lanes and shoulders that should be
considered, (i.e., to meet the highway function, traffic volume, speed and mix of motor vehicles
and drivers that are anticipated to use the facility). These factors are discussed in the previous
and following sections.

Once the level of multi-modal accommodation, roadside design criteria, and roadway cross
section design controls are determined, the dimensions for each cross-sectional element can be
identified and assembled. Consider a variety of alternative arrangements that can be combined
for the various cross section elements, which optimizes the mobility and safety for all users,
within the environmental and right-of-way constraints.

9.3.1.9 Design Vehicle

The design vehicle is the controlling vehicle constraint for design of the project. This can be
represented as a standard passenger car, motor home, single-unit truck, bus or semi-trailer.
Green Book Section 2.1 describes representative design vehicles parameters. Selection of an
appropriate design vehicle should be made with knowledge of the existing and anticipated type-
of-use, the tradeoffs involved with design and spatial impact, and with input from stakeholders
and the public. The largest class of vehicle that uses the facility on a regular basis should be
selected as the design vehicle. It should represent a cost-effective choice for the project and be
appropriate for its context. The use of the facility by the design vehicle should be a measurable
(i.e. over 0.5 percent) and reasonably predictable percentage of the average daily traffic.

9.3.1.9.1 Selection of Design Vehicle

In comparison to some major State highways, FLH Program projects are typically designed with
a need to accommodate relatively high-use by recreational vehicles (motor home or passenger
car with trailer) or intercity tour buses, and relatively low-use by large semi-trailer trucks.

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The AASHTO classification parameters represent all vehicles within a particular classification
and therefore the dimensions are larger than most vehicles of that class. Considerations for
selection of a design vehicle are summarized in the following:
1. Passenger Car (P) and Trailers (P/T). A passenger car may be selected as the design
vehicle when the main traffic generator is parking lot or series of parking lots. A
combination of passenger car and boat trailer or camper trailer should be considered
when the parking facilities include such recreational uses.
2. Motor Home (MH) and Boat Trailer (MH/B). A motor home may be selected when the
main traffic generator is a recreational facility. A combination of MH and boat trailer
should be considered when the recreational facility includes such use.
3. Single Unit Truck (SU). A single unit truck may be used for intersection design of major
residential streets, and is generally recommended for local roads, collectors and park or
forest roads that serve visitor concession facilities. Generally for FLH projects the SU-30
[SU-9] is used rather than the SU-40 [SU-12]
4. Buses.
a. An intercity bus (BUS-45 [BUS-14]) may be used for collector roads and minor
arterials, and park roads, serving intercity bus routes, tourism destinations, visitor
lodging and interpretive facilities, etc.
b. A city transit bus (CITY-BUS) may be used for intersections of urban highways
and city streets that are designated city bus routes, and otherwise have relatively
few large trucks using them.
c. The large (S-BUS-40 [S-BUS-12]), or conventional (S-BUS-36 [S-BUS-11]),
school bus may be used for intersections of highways with low-volume county
highways or very low-volume local roads and for residential subdivision major
street intersections.
5. Semi-trailers (WB).
a. The intermediate semi-trailer WB-40 [WB-12] may be used for local or collector
roads and minor arterials that serve some level of commercial truck traffic.
b. The interstate semi-trailer WB-62 [WB-19] or WB-67 [WB-20] should be used for
intersections of arterial roads and for other intersections on highways and
industrialized streets or industrialized local roads that carry either high volumes
of traffic or that provides local access for large trucks.
c. For Forest Highways and other Forest access roads consider the wheelbase
requirements of logging trucks, which are typically less than WB-40 [WB-12]
semi-trailers.

9.3.1.9.2 Encroachments and Oversized Vehicles

Using the largest vehicle expected to use the facility on a less frequent basis, as design vehicle
can result in a conflict of design objectives (e.g. designing for the larger vehicle results in larger
corner radii which increases pedestrian crossing distances and paved areas). Design the

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facility for use by the largest legal vehicle, or the largest oversized vehicle anticipated, with an
allowable encroachment. The allowable encroachment should not extend beyond the paved
shoulders or encroach on sidewalks, but may include the opposing travel direction if sufficient
sight distance is available for the maneuver and it is permitted by the state’s vehicle code. In
order to provide a balanced design, encroachments are generally acceptable for:
● Shoulders at intersections,
● Intersections along low-speed urban streets,
● Intersections along low-volume rural roads,
● Single left turns that use two receiving travel lanes in the same direction, and
● Double left or double right turn lanes that cannot accommodate side-by-side operation of
the design vehicles, however designs should accommodate a passenger car alongside
the design vehicle.

The WB-67 [WB-20] is commonly the largest legal vehicle in many states, and the WB-40
[WB-12] is the most common vehicle to transport commercial products in rural areas. In some
areas the maximum oversized vehicle may be a modular home unit on a WB-67 [WB-20] trailer.
The dimensions of this trailer may be assumed to be a maximum of 16 ft [4.9 m] high including
the trailer, 16 ft [4.9 m] wide, and 56 ft to 80 ft [17 m to 24 m] long. When oversized vehicles
encroach beyond the traveled way, consider:
● Wider shoulders,
● Full-depth surfaced shoulders,
● Sloping curb in lieu of vertical curb,
● Stabilized areas behind curbing,
● Relocation of signs, poles, appurtenances,
● Removable signs and appurtenances, and
● Removal of trees and shrubs.

As an alternative to a site-specific evaluation and design for the largest oversize vehicle,
consider an alternate routing to bypass the particular site.

Commercially available computer software (e.g., AutoTurn) may be used for verifying vehicle
tracking paths at intersections, in parking lots, sharp curves, etc., and for developing templates
for special design vehicles.

9.3.1.10 User Characteristics

A fundamental expectation in roadway design is that all users will be accommodated safely.
Virtually all roadways serve a variety of users including pedestrians, bicyclists, motor vehicle
drivers and their passengers. Determine the composition of users anticipated for the facility,
and account their needs. Consider the needs of pedestrians and bicyclists as an initial design
control, not as an afterthought later in the design development. When human and vehicular
factors are properly accommodated, the safety and effectiveness of the highway is greatly
enhanced.

Driver performance and human factors are integral to the determination of highway design
criteria. Green Book Section 2.2 provides guidance on consideration of user characteristics.

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For application of design criteria and design of countermeasures, consider the presence,
characteristics and special needs (i.e., information, time, visibility) of the following types of
users:
● Pedestrians,
● Bicyclists, and
● Motor vehicle drivers (e.g., inexperienced, aging, unfamiliar, familiar).

Consider a wide variety of pedestrian users and abilities, including children, older adults, and
people with various disabilities in the design. Design the facility to accommodate a wide range
of pedestrians’ physical, cognitive, and sensory abilities, including aids such as wheelchairs and
power chairs. Accommodate pedestrian crossing needs at all intersections where sidewalks or
pathways exist. Refer to Section 9.3.16 for pedestrian considerations and facilities. Refer to
the Highway Capacity Manual for definitions of pedestrian level of service based on spatial and
delay measurements.

Provide designs that will accommodate and encourage bicycle use. Typically design for
bicyclists with moderate skills, which will encompass the needs of most riders. In the vicinity of
schools, recreational areas and neighborhood streets consider special accommodation of
young, inexperienced bicyclists. An operating space of 4 ft [1.2 m] should be used as the
minimum width for one-way bicycle travel. Where motor vehicle traffic volumes, truck and bus
volumes, or speeds are high, a more comfortable operating space of 5 to 6 ft [1.5 to 1.8 m] is
desirable. Also, adjacent to on-street parking, 5 to 6 ft [1.5 to 1.8 m] is desirable to provide
space for the opening of car doors into the travel lane or shoulder. Refer to Section 9.3.17 for
bicycle considerations and facilities.

Also refer to Section 9.3.4.1 for discussion of the relationship of human factors and driver
performance to the geometric design.

9.3.1.11 Maximum and Minimum Superelevation Rate

FLH standard practice includes the following:

● Establish a maximum superelevation value, emax of 4, 6, or 8 percent, depending on the
considerations described below, and
● The minimum superelevation rate, also referred as reverse crown, is equal to the normal
crown rate for the type of pavement or surfacing.

Design criteria for emax may be established by individual FLH Division practice, with values
selected for the specific project. Establish the emax for the project, with consideration for:
● Climatic conditions during travel seasons (frequency and amount of rain, snow, ice),
● Functional classification,
● Rural or urban location,
● Design speed,
● Frequency of slower-moving vehicles (e.g. trucks, traffic congestion, farm equipment),
● Environment (terrain conditions, elevation, adjacent land use),
● Constructability, and

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● Road maintenance.

Higher emax should be used for higher design speeds or friction demands. An emax of 8 percent
is typically recommended for higher design speeds, equal to or greater than 50 mph [80 km/h].
In rural areas the emax should typically be either 6 or 8 percent. In urban areas the emax should
typically be either 4 or 6 percent, due to the constraints imposed by adjacent development (e.g.,
intersecting curbs, sidewalks, driveways and streets). In low-speed urban areas, less than
50 mph [80 km/h], the typical emax rates of 4 or 6 percent may be undesired or impractical, and
in such cases AASHTO Method 2 may be used for design of curves to minimize superelevation.
In such cases the roadway may remain normal crown in curves so long as the resultant side
friction demand is less than the allowable side friction factor, f, for design (see Green Book
Figure 3-6).

An emax of 6 percent is typically recommended where snow or icy conditions routinely occur
during winter. An emax of 4 percent may be appropriate for locations where the predominant
traffic use operates in snow-packed or icy conditions (e.g., primarily serves winter recreation
and ski areas). In selecting emax consider combinations of longitudinal grade and cross slope
such that the vector components of the curve design superelevation rate, e and the longitudinal
grade, G should not exceed 10 percent where snow or icy conditions routinely occur during
winter, which is expressed by the following:

(e%)2 + (G%)2 ≤ 100

Green Book Section 3.3.3 provides guidance on selection of emax. See Green Book Table 3-19
for maximum limiting superelevation rates for design speeds.

9.3.1.12 Speed Characteristics

Speed is a key design control for the alignment, lane and shoulder width, and the width of the
roadside recovery clear zones for errant vehicles. Speed characteristics should meet the user’s
expectations, and also be consistent with the community’s goals and objectives for the facility.
Consider the various measures and characteristics of speed for design control, as described in
the following sections. Refer to Green Book Section 2.3.6 for additional guidance.

9.3.1.12.1 Operating Speed

Operating speed is the speed at which drivers are observed operating their vehicles in typically
good weather and surface conditions during off-peak free-flow conditions (not following).
Operating speed is measured at discrete points along a roadway. Use the 85th percentile of the
distribution of observed speeds to characterize the operating speed associated with a particular
location or geometric feature. The operating speed is affected by the roadway features such as
curves, grades, topography, width, access to adjacent properties, presence of pedestrians and
bicyclists, parking, traffic control devices, lighting, etc.

The 50th percentile (mean) speed is also used for certain operational analyses. The average
speed is the summation of the instantaneous or spot-measured speeds, at a specific location, of
the free-flowing vehicles divided by the number of vehicles observed.

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The pace speed is the highest speed within a specific range of speeds that represents more
vehicles than in any other like range of speed. The range of speeds typically used is 10 mph
[16 km/h].

A target speed (recommended speed) is the desired operating speed along a roadway, under
optimal conditions. The purpose of a target speed is to define an operating environment that
provides cues to the driver to conform to the intended speed. An appropriate target speed
should be determined early in the project development process and should consider:
● The roadway context (i.e. character of the surrounding area, function of the roadway,
and level of access management);
● The roadway geometry including alignment, sight distance, superelevation;
● Other physical conditions such as narrow lanes, roadside development, steep grades;
● The volume and mix of traffic, expectations of facility users, and expected safety
performance;
● The anticipated driver characteristics, workload, and level of familiarity with the route;
and
● The current range of operating speeds along the route.

The target speed is operating speed rather than desired average running speed. Consider that
predicted 85th percentile operating speeds may be significantly higher in many locations along
the route than average running speed, and that the actual operating speeds upon completion of
the project will differ from what is intended or desired. The target speed should be considered
as a factor in the selection of an appropriate design speed as discussed in Section 9.3.1.13.

9.3.1.12.2 Running Speed

Refer to the section on “Running Speed” in Green Book Section 2.3.6 for guidance on
determination of the running speed for a section of the project.

Average running speed is typically used to characterize conditions on a roadway for analytical
(planning, route selection, air quality) purposes rather than for the design of roadway geometry.

9.3.1.12.3 Posted Speed

The posted speed is the signed and legally enforceable speed limit established by the entity
with responsibility for the highway. The regulatory speed is the speed limit applicable to the
highway in the absence of a posted speed limit, and is typically established by state or local
statute, local ordinances or other regulations. The MUTCD typically references the posted
speed, or the measured 85th percentile operating speed if greater, for design of traffic control
devices. Numerous studies have indicated that drivers will not significantly alter what they
consider to be a safe operating speed, regardless of the posted speed limit, unless there is
continuous enforcement.

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9.3.1.12.4 Design Speed

Refer to the section on “Design Speed” in Green Book Section 2.3.6. PDDM Section 9.3.1.13
describes considerations for selection of the design speed.

Design traffic control devices (e.g., warning signs, no-passing zones) based on either the overall
measured 85th percentile operating speed, or the posted or regulatory speed limit, rather than
the design speed.

9.3.1.13 Selecting an Appropriate Design Speed

It is FHWA policy that the design speed should equal or exceed the posted or regulatory
speed limit of the completed facility.

Where an established geometric design standard for the posted or regulatory speed cannot be
met, and lesser values are proposed, the condition must be treated as a formal design
exception as outlined in Section 9.1.3.

To encourage a “self-explaining, self-enforcing” roadway (see Section 9.3.1.14) it is FLH

standard practice to select a design speed that:
● Is logical and recognizable to the driver (i.e. the reason for the speed is evident);
● Reinforces the driver’s expectations and behavior with respect to the purpose and
function of the highway, its location, topography, adjacent land use and intended speed;
● Is appropriate for the topography, adjacent land use, and type of highway; and
● Is consistent with other geometric and roadside design features (e.g., lane and shoulder
widths, cross section elements).

The selection of an appropriate design speed involves consideration of many additional factors
including the functional classification, expected volume and composition of traffic, usage,
operating speeds, access, topography, contextual characteristics, and impacts. The section on
“Design Speed” in Green Book Section 2.3.6 explains the philosophy of design speed and its
relationship to operating speed and running speed. A discussion of design speed is covered in
pages 12-13 of the Park Road Standards. Recent research on design speed, operating speed
and posted speed practices is provided in NCHRP Report 504 and Transportation Research
Record (TRR) 1796, 2002.

Typically, a higher functional classification prescribes a higher range of design speeds. Refer to
Green Book Table 6-1 for recommended design speeds for rural collector roads. For rural
arterial roads the Green Book recommends design speeds in the range of 40 to 75 mph [60 to
120 km/h]. Also refer to Table 1 of the Park Road Standards for typical design speeds.

When either 1) the minimum design speed applicable to the functional classification and terrain,
or 2) individual design elements that are based on design speed and addressed on an individual
basis, cannot be achieved, address the situation as a formal design exception. The design
exception can cover a single location on the project, multiple locations, or the entire project

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corridor. A lower design speed for an isolated segment of a project should not be proposed as
a design exception, due to the importance of relating all geometric features of the highway. A
reduction in the design speed in one area may be unlikely to affect overall operating speeds. It
may potentially result in the unnecessary reduction of all of the speed-related design criteria in
the area rather than just the one or two features that led to the need for the exception. The
acceptable alternative approach to such a design speed exception is to evaluate each
geometric feature individually, addressing the design exceptions for each feature, and
applicable mitigation, within the context of the appropriate design speed.

The design speed is not necessarily constant within the corridor if there are distinct,
recognizable zones (e.g. terrain, land use) that are appropriate to change both design speed
and posted speed.

Consider the inter-relationship between speed and roadway geometry in design. The selection
of design speed influences the geometrics of the roadway. Consequently, the geometrics of the
roadway are important determinants of the operating speeds that result on the constructed
facility. Current best practice for the selection of a design speed is through an iterative process:
● Develop a preliminary design,
● Estimate the overall 85th percentile operating speeds along the alignment,
● Check for large differences between the 85th percentile speeds on successive curves,
and
● Revise the proposed alignment to reduce these differences to acceptable levels.

Where revision of the proposed alignment is not feasible, then effective mitigation to address
the speed differences should be provided.

9.3.1.13.1 Coordination of Design Speed, Operating Speed, and Posted Speed

Occasionally projects (e.g. RRR projects) retain geometric elements, such as tight curves,
superelevation, or restricted sight distances that, overall, are applicable for a speed lower than
the posted speed for the corridor. This may be due to terrain, adjacent land use, or
environmental or historic constraints. In these cases, the designer should recommend a posted
speed consistent with the overall geometric features. In most instances, the owner agency has
the authority to establish the posted speed for the facility. When necessary, the establishment
of speed limits, and guidance in setting posted speeds that are consistent with the design of the
highway, should be recommended to the owner-agency. However, when system-wide
regulatory speed limits prevail they mandate the posted speed.

In order to provide overall design consistency, and to minimize the use of design exceptions, all
possible effort should be made to coordinate the proposed design with current standards for the
regulatory or posted speed limit through one of the following methods:
● By obtaining agreement with the owning/maintaining agency to establish a posted speed
limit that is most consistent with the proposed design, or

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● By reconstruction of deficient features to meet the regulatory or posted speed design

standards, or
● By a combination of these approaches.

Current best practice for speed management is to establish the posted speed limit with strong
consideration for the overall measured 85th percentile operating speed. Higher posted speeds
impose greater challenges and constraints on the design. Difficult or constrained conditions
may lead to consideration of a lower design speed for an element or portion of the highway.
Designs based on artificially low speeds can result in inappropriate geometric features that
violate driver expectations and degrade the safety of the highway. Posting a speed limit and
setting the design speed significantly lower than the overall 85th percentile operating speed may
not adequately address substantive safety needs. It has been found that reducing the posted
speed limit (e.g., matching with too low of a design speed) will likely have little or no effect on
the overall 85th percentile operating speed without adequate enforcement. Inconsistencies and
safety risks inherent in the geometric design cannot be corrected or masked simply by lowering
the posted speed limit, even though the number of formal design exceptions, legal liabilities and
need for mitigation of safety risks may be perceived as reduced. Instead, emphasize
consistency of design so as not to surprise the driver with unexpected features. Where the
measured 85th percentile operating speed is significantly higher overall than the posted speed
limit (e.g., 10 mph [16 km/h] or more), it is recommended to use a design speed that is higher
than the posted speed limit.

9.3.1.13.2 Considerations of Speed

Design speed selection should seek to balance the benefits of high speed for mobility, efficiency
and long-distance regional travel with environmental, community, right-of-way, and construction-
cost constraints. The longer the trip, the greater the driver’s desire to use higher speeds,
therefore knowledge of users’ travel distance from trip origin to destination is important. Except
for local streets, park roads and other recreational roads where higher speeds are not needed
or desired, every effort should be made in the design to minimize the time of travel and to use
as high a design speed as practical. On rural highways, a greater percentage of vehicles are
usually able to travel at the limiting speed that is governed by the geometric design, so the
selection and relationship of the geometric design elements affecting speed are especially
important to optimize. On rural arterials, the driver expectation is to safely operate at higher
speeds than for collector and local roads.

Occasionally a project’s existing geometric elements, including horizontal and vertical curvature,
sight distance, lane and shoulder width, are generally suitable for speeds significantly higher
overall (more than 10 mph [16 km/h]) than the posted speed for the corridor. This may be due
to gentle terrain, or the prevalence of design values that are several times greater than the
minimum for the posted speed. In these cases, the designer should evaluate the inferred
design speed, which is the maximum speed for which all critical design-speed related criteria
are met for a particular length of the highway. The inferred design speed for a horizontal curve
radius-superelevation design is the maximum speed for which the limiting-speed side friction
value, fmax, is not exceeded for the design superelevation rate. The inferred design speed for a
vertical curve is the maximum speed for which the limiting-speed stopping sight distance is not

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exceeded. An inferred design speed that is significantly higher than the posted speed may
result in operating speeds that are substantially higher than anticipated. In these cases the
design speed for the project should be selected with strong consideration of the inferred design
speed, as well as the posted speed and operating speed. Where applicable, consider speed
reduction techniques for transitions to lower-speed environments.

9.3.1.13.3 Considerations of Calming and Low-speed Environment

In selecting a design speed consider appropriate elements to maintain the safety of pedestrians,
bicyclists, and anticipated mix of slower traffic (e.g. local farm vehicles, local residential and
commercial vehicles), and include transitional elements at locations necessitating lower
operating speeds. Traffic calming measures may be considered, primarily in residential
neighborhoods, to address demonstrated safety problems caused by excessive vehicle speeds
and conflicts with pedestrians, bicyclists, and school children.

Where conflicts exist between higher-speed and lower-speed users, pedestrians, bicyclists,
wildlife, recreational uses, residential activity, business activity and complex traffic situations, it
may be beneficial to provide lower design speed criteria, features and traffic calming measures
for reduced speeds, as appropriate. Speed can be reduced by inducing curvature into the
alignment, with greater accumulated curvature deflection of the alignment having greater affect.
A curvilinear alignment consisting of a series of low-speed curves, with a gradual change in
radius between the successive curves, will reinforce the desired low-speed operation. Sudden
unexpected changes in the alignment, profile, cross section or roadside elements are not
recommended; however, gradual changes over a transition section that is apparent to the driver
can be effective to introduce a low-speed operating environment.

Traffic calming measures include features added to the roadway to create horizontal or vertical
deflections, narrowing the real or apparent roadway width and more constrained cross section,
signing, noise, humps or vibration to increase the driver’s awareness of speed, and devices
increasing the driver’s attentiveness to the presence of pedestrians. A description of traffic
calming techniques is available at Traffic Calming from FHWA and from Traffic Calming for
Communities from ITE. Additional guidance on traffic calming is provided in Section 8.5.5 and
TrafficCalming.org.

9.3.1.13.4 Managing Variations in Operating Speed

Many vehicles operate at speeds higher than the design speed on long tangents and flatter
curves. These vehicles have to slow to the design speed in order to safely and comfortably
negotiate the sharpest curves. In areas of sharp curves, the radius and the superelevation of
adjacent curves should be designed to limit the difference in operating speed between the
curves to a maximum of 15 mph [20 km/h], and preferably, to less than 5 mph [10 km/h]. If the
maximum differential is exceeded, the plans must include advance curve and advisory speed
signs for the lower speed curves. Additional delineation of the lower speed curvature should be
considered on a case-by-case basis (e.g., delineators, raised pavement markers, chevrons).

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The IHSDM and its associated references provide methodology to determine the predicted
operating speeds for a particular design and horizontal alignment. Application of the IHSDM is
described in Section 8.4.5.1

Alternatively, the variation in operating speed may be roughly predicted by determining the
inferred design speed of the geometry at various locations based on a comparison with the
horizontal and vertical design criteria prescribed by the Green Book for the various design
speeds, and by a correlation of the inferred design speed with observed operating speeds. The
speed correlations are described in NCHRP Report 504.

Except for a controlled intersection, design of the roadway geometry for less than 20 mph
[30 km/h] is not recommended. For design speeds of 60 mph [100 km/h] or greater, strive to
provide a design having highly consistent geometry that facilitates vehicle operation at a uniform
speed. Exhibit 9.3-A describes recommended maximum variations in operating speed for
design consistency.

Exhibit 9.3-A MAXIMUM VARIATIONS IN OPERATING SPEED BETWEEN SUCCESSIVE

CURVES, AND BETWEEN LONG TANGENTS AND CURVES, FOR DESIGN CONSISTENCY

US Customary Metric
Condition
Design Speed (mph) Design Speed (km/h)
Status
< 35 35 to 55 > 55 < 60 60 to 90 > 90
Unacceptable 15 20 15 25 30 25
Undesired 10 15 10 15 20 15
Typical 5 < 10 5 10 < 10 5
Desired 5 5 0 5 5 0

For recommended maximum variations of operating speeds between the main roadway and
interchange ramps, refer to Green Book Section 10.9.6. For weaving sections see Green Book
Section 2.4, 10.9.3 (subsection entitled “Cloverleafs”), and 10.9.5.

Also refer to Section 9.3.4.2 for additional guidance on the concepts of design consistency.

For high-speed roads, a reduction in operating speeds in the area of a major intersection may
be beneficial. For high-speed roadway segments approaching a major intersection, consider
the need for a speed reduction treatment within a transition area of sufficient length for
comfortable deceleration in advance of the intersection. Refer to NCHRP Report 613,
Guidelines for Selection of Speed Reduction Treatments at High-Speed Intersections.

9.3.1.14 Self-explaining, Self-enforcing Road Concepts

Incorporate self-explaining, self-enforcing road concepts into the design, as appropriate. The
concept of the self-explaining, self-enforcing road is that the road (both the roadway and the
roadside) is specifically and completely designed for a particular, commonly recognizable,

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purpose or function. This concept, or philosophy, relies on the physical roadway design
attributes to passively “enforce” or reinforce intended operating speeds and other driver
behaviors, rather than relying primarily on signs, directives and active enforcement. Conflicting
road attributes (e.g., a high-speed cross section combined with a low-speed alignment) are
removed, and agreeing design attributes are substituted, which maintain safety and desired
operations. This philosophy is considered a speed management and behavioral design
approach in which the objective is not necessarily to restrict speed, but to plan and design a
roadway where the appropriate speed and operational safety naturally result, and a “self-
explaining” look and feel is achieved for the particular type of highway facility.

Implement this concept by including in the design various roadway design features and
treatments, including aesthetic enhancements, which are commonly associated with a
recognizable “standardized” road category, to communicate to the driver the sense of its
function type and the facility context. Special treatments should be provided at the transition
zones between differing road functions or speed categories, to serve as “gateways” that overtly
emphasize and accentuate those attributes that define the new road function and its intended
speed. Design the new road function (and its intended speed) to be readily recognized and
understood by the driver. Design a recognizable speed-reduction treatment to transition
between a high-speed rural countryside and a low-speed suburban community. Also, design a
recognizable speed-reduction treatment to transition between a high-speed arterial highway and
a low-speed interpretive park road. The criteria and guidelines described in Section 9.3.1.13.4
may be applicable to these transitions. In addition to emphasizing the transition zones, fully
provide the design and safety features appropriate for the differing road function or speed
categories. For additional description of the concepts and philosophy of a self-explaining, self-
enforcing road design, see Geometric Design Practices for European Roads (FHWA,
June 2001).

9.3.2 AESTHETIC CONSIDERATIONS

FLH standard practice is to:

● Emphasize curvilinear alignment, generally defined as having an equal or greater
proportion of the alignment in curves than on tangents, and
● Apply the general considerations, general design controls, and alignment coordination
found in Green Book Section 3.5.

Also strive to accomplish the following:

● Provide curvilinear alignment through scenic terrain.
● Avoid short, abrupt horizontal and vertical curves, especially if the central angle or
change in grade is small and a substantial length of both tangents is visible.
● Designate sufficient right-of-way area on the inside of curves, and at the ends of long
tangents, to facilitate adequate control of vegetation or setback of potential future
development that could impair sight distance, and tangential views, especially in scenic
terrain.

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Broken-back vertical curves are visually unpleasing and undesired, and should be substituted
with a single overall vertical curve when practical.

From an aesthetic standpoint, the geometric design for bridges should blend in with curvilinear
alignment. Design superelevation to avoid or minimize unsightly kinks, humps or dips in bridge
railing or curbs. Coordinate the vertical alignment closely with the bridge location. Consider
that bridges placed on conspicuous sag vertical curves can have an unfavorable appearance.

Coordinate the clearing, slope design, and vegetation management in vista areas to provide a
visual buffer, frame views, define spaces or to provide visual context for the roadway. Consider
aesthetic treatment of curbs, culvert headwalls, retaining walls, traffic barriers, and structures to
blend and de-emphasize new features and enhance prominent vistas. Consider the location
and type of signing, posts, fencing and other appurtenances to minimize blockage of views.

The ultimate test for an aesthetically pleasing facility is whether it complements the area through
which it passes and enhances the user’s appreciation of its context. The designer should strive
to achieve this goal.

9.3.3 HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL ALIGNMENT RELATIONSHIPS

Apply the general controls and guidelines for coordination of line and grade described in Green
Book Section 3.5.2, and also refer to Green Book Figure 3-46 for recommended alignment and
profile relationships in roadway design.

Horizontal and vertical alignments should not be designed independently. Horizontal and
vertical alignments are mutually related and their interrelationship can have a significant effect
on the operational and safety characteristics of the roadway. What applies to one is generally
applicable to the other. The highway designer should visualize the completed facility in a three-
dimensional mode to ensure that the horizontal and vertical alignments complement each other
and enhance the beneficial features of both. Excellence in a coordinated design will maximize
the sight distance and safety of the highway, encourage uniform speed and make a positive
contribution to the visual character of the road.

9.3.4 COMBINATIONS OF DESIGN ELEMENTS AND FEATURES

Consider design criteria and elements in combination with all the various elements and features
that interplay at any given location, and in sequence, along the highway, rather than each in
isolation. Specific considerations are described in the following sections.

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9.3.4.1 Human Factors and Driver Performance

In developing the highway design, consider human factors with the intent to minimize driver
error. Refer to Green Book Section 2.2 for information on the driving task, guidance tasks,
roadway information handling, and driver error. Also refer to the Highway Design Handbook for
Older Drivers and Pedestrians, FHWA-RD-01-103, which provide recommendations for
improving the highway design beneficial to all users.

9.3.4.2 Design Consistency

Provide geometric design elements and operational features consistent with driver expectancy
and the driving tasks required. Provide a highway design that minimizes:
● Changes in predicted 85th percentile operating speed,
● Changes in predicted roadway safety,
● Improper lane positioning,
● Complexity of traffic control devices, and
● Driver workload.

Consistency with respect to these measures can help minimize the potential for driver error.

At locations where the highway characteristics change, provide adequate visibility or notice of
the changed condition, and provide the safest environment possible.

Design consistency also relates to using consistent design speeds for the design of the various
individual geometric elements present along the corridor and consistent application of criteria for
various design elements. If design speed for a horizontal alignment is increased (e.g., to match
the posted speed limit), all design criteria must meet the standards for the increased speed.

Alignment consistency refers to the design of successive geometric design elements to

minimize large variations in operating speed, using curvilinear alignment design to avoid long
tangent lengths and designing sequences of horizontal and vertical alignment elements which
follow one another within acceptable ranges for variation in operating speed. Designs that
generally conform to the terrain contours (i.e., “laying lightly” on the landscape) will generally
result in a curvilinear alignment; however, variability in the alignment consistency can be
expected to increase as the severity of the terrain, or other alignment controls, increases.

It is especially important to consider successive curve radii in transitions from long tangents or
flat curves to those of minimal radius, since actual operating speeds typically exceed design
speeds on tangents and flat curves (radius greater than 1,500 ft [450 m]). In evaluating
alignment consistency the designer may assume 85th percentile operating speeds of 60 mph
[100 km/h] approaching curves following tangents or flat curves with radius greater than 1,500 ft
[450 m], for distances traveled in 30 seconds or more at the design speed, on rural two-lane
highways. See Section 9.3.1.13.4 for guidance on managing variations in operating speed
between successive curves.

Refer to NCHRP Report 502, Geometric Design Consistency on High-Speed Rural Two-lane
Roadways for additional information on design consistency.

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9.3.4.3 Combinations of Design Elements with Intersections and Bridges

Combinations of alignment and cross section design elements, together with such features as
intersections and bridge structures, must be carefully considered during design. The complex
traffic operations at intersections are sometimes difficult to predict, and may be exacerbated by
unforeseen traffic peaks and future operational conditions. The design of bridge structures may
far outlast the life of the original roadway alignment or cross section, and may in the future
experience greater traffic volumes and speeds than originally envisioned for the roadway. Avoid
using minimum design criteria at these types of locations, especially the combination of minimal
design criteria for multiple design elements (e.g., horizontal and vertical alignment, lane and
shoulder width, sight distance).

Where possible, locate bridge structures entirely on tangents, curves, or superelevation

transitions, but not on combinations of these. This may require minor adjustments in horizontal
alignment to avoid or minimize these types of combinations. Wherever possible, avoid the
introduction of new cross section elements (widening, additional lanes or shoulders) on the
bridge, but introduce the cross section element ahead of the bridge and carry the element
across the bridge structure.

9.3.4.4 Additive Design Risk Assessment

Safety and operational risks increase substantially as combinations of critical design elements
are added. Combinations of minimal horizontal curve geometry, minimal vertical curve
geometry, minimal roadway width and cross section elements, steep grades, limited sight
distance, presence of intersections and driveways, structures and barriers each add a greater
level of risk to the situation. While using minimum design criteria for a single design element
may not pose a great risk, the combination of minimum design criteria, or below-minimum
design criteria, or both, for several design elements at the same location may result in
unacceptably high levels of safety or operational risk. When using minimum design criteria is
proposed, the combinations of other roadway and design elements and features should also be
considered.

Consider the combinations of volume, speed and type of traffic that is exposed to the risk, in
evaluating the site-specific conditions (e.g., nighttime versus daytime traffic volume and speed)
to factor into design risk decisions.

9.3.5 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

Refer to Green Book Section 3.3.13 for general guidelines applicable to the design of all
horizontal alignment.

The horizontal alignment design should provide for safe and continuous operation at a uniform
design speed for substantial lengths of highway. Use an iterative geometric design process
consisting of sufficient analysis to determine the predicted operating speeds on tangents and
curves, and a feedback loop to adjust the horizontal alignment design. The design speed,
minimum radius, superelevation, and transitions are the primary criteria in horizontal alignment

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design. These design elements are related by the laws of mechanics and also involve side
friction factors, centripetal force, gravity, etc. that are discussed in detail in the following
subsections.

In addition to the above general criteria, apply the following considerations in all horizontal
alignment design:
● Safety,
● Functional classification,
● Topography,
● Compatibility between existing and proposed conditions (contextual controls)
● Tangent to curve transitions
● Vertical alignment,
● Compatibility with the roadway cross section,
● Design vehicle characteristics,
● Driver characteristics, driver expectancy and workload,
● Lines of sight,
● Drainage considerations,
● Construction cost,
● Environmental protection,
● Cultural development, and
● Aesthetics.

These factors, when properly balanced, should produce an alignment that is safe, economical
and in harmony with the natural contour of the land and the environment.

9.3.5.1 Horizontal Curves

Horizontal alignment design focuses on the design of horizontal curves, as they are the primary
controlling feature. The following sections address the elements for design.

9.3.5.1.1 Speed

Speed prediction is an essential element that should be considered in the development of the
geometric design and especially for design of horizontal alignment and curves. Refer to
Section 9.3.1.12 for a description of speed characteristics relating to highway design.

9.3.5.1.2 Side Friction Factor

FLH standard practice is to use the Green Book values of side friction factor for curve design.
Refer to Green Book Figure 3-6 and Table 3-7 for side friction factors assumed for design.

For unpaved roads, the designer may establish an appropriate value for side friction factor that
is less than the values provided in the Green Book. VLVLR Exhibit 17 lists ranges of traction
coefficients used by the Forest Service in design of unpaved or snow-packed roads

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(ADT ≤ 400), and recommends using a side friction factor that is 0.2 less than the listed traction
coefficients as a basis for establishing minimum radius.

9.3.5.1.3 Superelevation

FLH standard practice is to use AASHTO Method 5 for determination of design superelevation
rates for the various curve radii of a horizontal alignment. Refer to Green Book Figure 3-8 for a
description of the Method 5 procedure for superelevation distribution.

Superelevation may be minimized in low-speed urban areas, 45 mph [70 km/h] or less, by using
AASHTO Method 2 for design of curves. In such cases the roadway cross slopes may remain
normal crown in curves so long as the resultant side friction demand is less than the allowable
side friction factor, f, for design (Green Book Figure 3-6). Refer to Green Book Table 3-13 for
minimum radii and superelevation in low-speed urban areas, in cases where the typical
superelevation rates using AASHTO Method 5 are either undesired or impractical. See Green
Book Section 3.3.6 for additional guidance in such cases.

Very flat horizontal curves need no superelevation because the side friction needed to sustain
the lateral acceleration developed by vehicles, even at high speeds, is minimal. The minimum
curve radii for a section with normal crown (NC) are designated in the Green Book
superelevation tables (Tables 3-8 to 3-12). See Green Book Section 3.3.5 for more information.

9.3.5.1.4 Curve Radius

Refer to Green Book Section 3.3.5 for guidance on selection of the minimum curve radius.
Select a curve radius that fits the terrain and other controls, and that meets, and preferably
exceeds, the minimum criteria for the design speed. Strongly consider adjacent curves to
minimize excessive variations in operating speed and to promote design consistency. Refer to
Section 9.3.1.13.4 for guidance in managing variations in operating speed.

9.3.5.1.5 Reversals in Alignment

Avoid abrupt reversals in alignment by providing enough room between curves for
superelevation runoff or for spirals. See Section 9.3.5.2 for information on horizontal curve and
superelevation transitions. Design the tangent distance between reversing curves to either be
sufficiently long to establish a normal crown (tangential) driving mode, or a lesser length to
provide a flowing reversal of the superelevation with a continuous transition between the
reversing curves.

For simple, reversing curves with intervening normal crown template, design the tangent
distance to preferably exceed 6 to 7 seconds duration, at the design speed. For a continuous,
merged transition between the reversing curves, preferably design the tangent length to be
approximately 3 to 4 seconds duration. For simple curves, tangent lengths of 5 seconds
duration at the design speed may cause conflicts with the desired superelevation transitions.

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9.3.5.1.6 Broken Back Curves

Broken-back curves (i.e., adjacent curves in the same direction with short intervening tangents)
violate drivers’ expectations. When broken-back curves are visible for some distance ahead,
they present an unpleasing appearance, even with tangents as long as 1,300 ft [400 m]. It is
desirable to introduce a slight reverse curve between them to eliminate the broken-back effect.
Broken back curves with intervening tangent lengths of 200 ft to 400 ft [60 m to 120 m] are
especially undesirable. However, broken-back curves may be necessary in difficult terrain or
due to sever alignment controls. In some cases, a single long curve or compound curves may
be preferred to replace the broken-back curve.

9.3.5.1.7 Compound Curves

Avoid compound curves if practical because drivers do not expect, or readily discern, changes
in the rate of curvature within a curve and will tend to drift outside of their travel lane. However,
compound curves may be necessary in difficult terrain or due to severe alignment controls, to
eliminate excessive cuts or fills, encroachments into rivers or creation of broken-back curves. A
single curve, in cases of minimal additional impact, is always preferable to a compound curve.

Because neither compound nor broken-back curves are desirable, involve senior design
experience and judgment to determine which to use in an unavoidable situation.

When designing for compounding curves, the radius of the flatter curve should not be more than
one-and-a-half times that of the sharper curve. If this is impractical, design a partial spiral or a
curve of intermediate radius between the main curves. The rate of change in radius of a partial
connecting spiral should be approximately equal to the average for the normal spirals used on
the curves. Intermediate connecting curves should have a length not less than the runoff length
for the flatter main curve as obtained from the superelevation runoff tables as shown in the
Green Book.

The arc length of compound curves should be designed to provide at least 3 seconds, and
preferably 5 seconds, of driving time on each main curve, excluding transitions.

9.3.5.1.8 Small Deflection Angles

Small alignment angle deflections (less than 5 degrees) should have relatively long curves to
avoid the appearance of a kink. The minimum curve length should provide at least 3 seconds,
and preferably 4 seconds, of driving time on the curve.

Avoid very small angle deflections (less than 1 degree) if practical by substituting a single
tangent. Angle deflections of 15 minutes and less may become undetected and thus can create
computational problems with design or surveying software data, and should not be used in the
design. When very small deflections of between 15 and 40 minutes are required (e.g., to
connect with a previously established tangent construction), they do not necessarily require
using a curve, but it is preferable to locate changes in grade with vertical curves at these angle
points to mitigate the visible effect to the road user.

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Ensure tangency at all connections of tangents with curves or spiral curve transitions, and at
compound curves. In no case provide an angle point at these locations.

9.3.5.1.9 Curvature on Through-Fills

Use only very flat curvature on long, high through-fills, unless guardrail, or other measures (e.g.,
delineators, guardrail retro-reflectors), or both, are used to delineate the edge of the roadway.

9.3.5.2 Horizontal Curve and Superelevation Transitions

The design of horizontal curve transitions includes the transition of the roadway cross slope as
well as the possible incorporation of a spiral or compound transition curve in the alignment
geometry. Refer to Green Book Section 3.3.8 for general guidance on horizontal curve and
superelevation transitions.

The following sections provide guidance on specific design considerations for superelevation
transitions.

9.3.5.2.1 Attainment of Superelevation on Tangent and Curve

The following FLH superelevation transition standards apply:

● Provide at least the minimum superelevation runoff length (Lr) determined by Green
Book Equation 3-23,
● For determining the maximum superelevation runoff length, provide a relative gradient
that is at least 70 percent of the maximum relative gradient values in Green Book
Table 3-15, and
● Proportion the superelevation runoff on the tangent and curve within the allowable
ranges, as described below.

FLH standard practice is to design the tangent runout distance (Lt) based on the same relative
gradient as the superelevation runoff, as shown in Exhibit 9.3-B:

Lt = encr x Lr / ed
where: encr = normal crown rate (%)
ed = design superelevation rate
Lr = Superelevation runoff length

FLH standard practice is follow the Green Book recommended values for location of the
superelevation runoff, with inclusion of the additional criteria described herein. Green Book
Table 3-18 provides recommendations for allocation of the superelevation runoff between the
tangent and curve to minimize vehicle lateral shifts, based on theoretical considerations.

To resolve the transition conflicts caused by a short tangent distance between curves, FLH
standard practice includes the following:

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● Up to 50 percent of the runoff length may be located on the curve and 50 percent on the
tangent, if it is impractical to provide sufficient tangent length to accommodate the
standard allocation of superelevation runoff; however,
● At least 60 percent of the superelevation runoff length on the tangent is the minimum
desired, and 80 percent on the tangent is the maximum desired, for two-lane roadways;
and
● For certain situations such as a short curve length, or if necessary to accommodate
reversing curves with merged transitions, up to 90 percent of the superelevation runoff
length may be located on the tangent.
Where there is insufficient tangent length to accommodate the minimum superelevation runoff
length or allocation criteria between curves, redesign the curves to provide the minimum runoff
length, or address the situation as a formal design exception. If the portion of superelevation
runoff located on the tangent is not within the range of 50 to 90 percent, a formal design
exception is required for the superelevation transition.

Exhibit 9.3-B SUPERELEVATION ATTAINMENT BETWEEN TANGENT AND CURVE

9.3.5.2.2 Reverse Curve Transitions

FLH standard practice for reverse curve transitions includes the following:
● The minimum length of normal crown section between reverse curves is 100 ft [30 m],
● The desired length of normal crown section is at least 200 ft [60 m], or 3 seconds travel
time at the design speed whichever is greater, and
● In no case let tangent runouts overlap.

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Provide superelevation runoff between the minimum and maximum lengths, and proportion the
superelevation runoff on the tangent and curve within the allowable range, as described in
Section 9.3.5.2.1. Otherwise, treat the situation as a formal design exception.

If the initially designed length of normal crown section is less than 1½ times the normal cross
section interval, and less than 75 ft [30 m], FLH standard practice to resolve the situation
includes the following, (as shown in Exhibit 9.3-C):
● Combine (merge) the two transitions as a supercritical case; and
● If the resultant relative gradient is within the maximum and minimum values, use the
same uniform relative gradient for each transition, with the zero percent positioning
determined by the original designed (unadjusted) full super (FS) stations; or
● If the relative gradient is not within maximum and minimum values, locate the zero
percent position at a distance ratio based on the superelevation rate (e) of each curve,
and use the average of the two original designed relative gradients, that it is within the
maximum and minimum values.

Exhibit 9.3-C TREATMENT OF REVERSE CURVES: SUPERCRITICAL CASE

If the initially designed length of normal crown section is between 1½ and 2 times the normal
cross section interval, or between 75 ft and 100 ft [30 m and 40 m] either adjust the full super
stations to provide the necessary length of normal crown section, or provide an intervening
section of minimum super rate (reverse crown).

To resolve a superelevation transition conflict (critical case) and provide the minimum normal
crown section of at least 100 ft [30 m], the necessary length of normal crown section may be
provided by adjusting the locations of the superelevation runoff relative to the ends of each

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curve (PT and PC) as shown in Exhibit 9.3-D, or by increasing the relative gradient (i.e.,
reducing the superelevation runoff length), or by a combination of both of these solutions. FLH
standard practice in this case is to hold the original designed relative gradients and adjust the
FS stations, if necessary, to provide the minimum length of normal crown section, within the
following parameters:
● The portion of the superelevation runoff lengths located on each curve may be
increased, providing that the portion of the superelevation runoff located on the curve
does not exceed 50 percent.
● The original designed superelevation runoff length may be decreased, providing that the
minimum superelevation runoff length (Lr) determined by Green Book Equation 3-23 is
provided.

Exhibit 9.3-D TREATMENT OF REVERSE CURVES: CRITICAL CASE

For intermediate tangent lengths between reversing curves, when the initially designed tangent
length is insufficient to develop a minimum normal crown section of at least 100 ft [30 m], and
desirably 200 ft [60 m] or 3 seconds of travel time at the design speed, yet is too long to merge
the transitions comfortably between the curves with either the desired relative gradient, or
desired allocation of superelevation runoff on the curve, or both, a section of minimum super
rate (reverse crown) may be provided within the transition. FLH standard practice in this case
includes the following as shown in Exhibit 9.3-E:
● The transition from full super to minimum super (reverse crown) passing through zero
percent may be associated with either curve, depending on the geometric or pavement
drainage considerations,
● Provide a minimum length of reverse crown section of at least 50 ft [20 m], or 1 second
of travel time at the design speed whichever is greater, and

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● Design the resultant superelevation transitions to provide the same relative gradient for
each curve transition, within the maximum relative gradient recommended in Green
Book Table 3-15, with approximately one-third of the theoretical superelevation runoff for
each transition located on the curve and two-thirds on the tangent.

Exhibit 9.3-E TREATMENT OF REVERSE CURVES: USE OF REVERSE CROWN

9.3.5.2.3 Compound Curve Transitions

FLH standard practice is that the relative gradient of the superelevation transition must not
exceed the maximum relative gradient values in Green Book Table 3-15, and should not be less
than 70 percent of these values.

There are two primary considerations for designing superelevation transitions for compound
curves:
1. Transition length
2. Position with respect to the PCC (allocation percentage on each curve)

FLH standard practice includes the following:

● Determine the relative gradient(s) appropriate for each curve, based on the design of a
theoretical tangent transition for each curve;
● Determine the compound curve transition length, Lcc, based on Green Book
Equation 3-23 by substituting Lcc for Lr, and substituting the difference in the design
superelevation rates of both curves for ed, and the average theoretical relative gradient
of both curves for Δ;
● Determine the distribution percentages based on a ratio of the design superelevation
rate (ed) of each curve, divided by their sum:

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Highway Design August 2012

ed (curve1) ed (curve2)
and, ;
ed (curve1) + ed (curve2) ed (curve1) + ed (curve2)
● Allocate the lesser percentage of the compound curve transition length on the sharper
curve, and the greater percentage length on the flatter curve, to establish the position of
the full super stations with respect to the PCC.

Refer to Exhibit 9.3-F.

Exhibit 9.3-F COMPOUND CURVE TRANSITION

9.3.5.2.4 Broken Back Curve Transitions

FLH standard practice is that the minimum length of normal crown section between broken back
curves is 200 ft [60 m], or 3 seconds of travel time at the design speed whichever is greater.

Broken back curve transitions may be categorized as one of three treatments:

1. Short intervening tangent treated as a compound curve
2. Intermediate intervening tangent with a minimum super rate (reverse crown) section
3. Long intervening tangent with a normal crown section

For short intervening tangent length treated as a compound curve, refer to Section 9.3.5.2.3.
Avoid treatment as a compound curve if the intervening tangent length is greater than 200 ft
[60 m], or more than 3 seconds of travel time at the design speed whichever is greater.

For intermediate tangent lengths, conflicts occur when the initial design of broken back curves
have slightly overlapping superelevation transitions that cause the transition to be treated as a
compound curve, instead of a preferred transition using a minimum super rate (reverse crown)
template treatment. For a minimum super rate transition, there is no minimum length of reverse
crown section (can be a singular location), although a desired length is 50 ft [20 m], or 1 second

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of travel time at the design speed whichever is greater. Recommended guidance to resolve
such conflicts includes the following:
● If the initially designed lengths of reverse crown transitions overlap more than 50 ft
[20 m], the situation should be treated as a compound curve, or
● If the initially designed lengths of reverse crown transitions overlap less than 50 ft [20 m],
the situation may be treated either 1) as a compound curve, or 2) a minimal, or the
desired, length of reverse crown may be provided by adjusting the location of the super
transitions (full super to minimum super) relative to the ends of each curve (PT and PC).
In this latter case the portion of the superelevation transition lengths that are located on
each curve may be increased, providing that the portion of the theoretical superelevation
runoff lengths located on each curve does not exceed 50 percent.

Exhibit 9.3-G describes an example of a transition between curves in a broken-back situation

with minimum super rate (reverse crown) treatment.

Exhibit 9.3-G SUPERELEVATION TRANSITION ON SHORT TANGENTS

For longer intervening tangent lengths, conflicts occur when broken back curves initially have
superelevation transitions that are in close proximity, such that the length of the normal crown
section is less than the desired minimum of 200 ft [60 m], or 3 seconds of travel time at the
design speed whichever is greater. Recommended guidance to resolve such conflicts includes
the following:
● If the initially designed length of normal crown is less than 75 percent of the minimum,
the treatment should either be a transition using the minimum superelevation rate
(reverse crown) described above as treatment 2, or transition as a compound curve; or
● If the initially designed length of normal crown is more than 75 percent of the minimum of
200 ft [60 m] or 3 seconds of travel time at the design speed whichever is greater, the
necessary length of normal crown section should be provided by adjusting the location of

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the superelevation runoff relative to the ends of each curve (PT and PC), or by reducing
the superelevation runoff length, or both, such that at least the minimum length of runoff
as determined by Green Book Equation 3-23 is provided. In this situation the portion of
the superelevation runoff lengths that are located on each curve may be increased,
providing this portion does not exceed 50 percent.

9.3.5.2.5 Short Curve Transitions

Avoid designing short curve lengths, such as described in Section 9.3.5.1.8 if practical. A
superelevation transition conflict can occur if the length of curve is too short to accommodate
the combined standard proportions of the superelevation runoff lengths located on the curve,
creating an overlap. Recommended guidance for resolving such conflicts includes the following:
● Preferably, increase the curve length by redesigning it with a sufficiently larger radius,
with corresponding lower superelevation rate and resultant runoff length, to resolve the
conflict; or
● Alternatively, reduce the percentage of superelevation runoff length located on the
curve, but not less than 10 percent (preferably not less than 20 percent). If the above
treatments are impractical, the design superelevation rate (e) of the curve may be
truncated to a sufficiently lower value, with corresponding shorter runoff lengths that
properly fit within the curve.

9.3.5.2.6 Vehicle Tracking

Often the driver’s steered path is inconsistent with the alignment geometry such that the actual
vehicle path does not follow a true circle, and drivers ‘overshoot’ the curve (track a path sharper
than radius), and the tracked path is a spiral. Therefore, curve transitions should be designed to
minimize and mitigate erratic vehicle tracking entering, during and exiting the curve. FLH
standard practice is to:
● Provide traveled way widening in curves, and
● Use consistent methodology for the superelevation transition design from curve to curve,
so that the driver can expect similar transition effects on their driving task.

Refer to Section 9.3.9.1 for additional guidance on vehicle tracking and traveled way widening
on curves.

9.3.5.2.7 Spiral Transitions

Spiral transitions should be used whenever practical for smoother transitions and to enhance
safety, particularly if using near-minimum standards for roadway widths or design speeds. For
projects on a State DOT or local agency system, verify that using spiral transitions and the
transition design criteria is consistent with the State DOT or local agency design policy.

When spiral transitions are used, FLH standard practice includes the following:

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● The minimum length of spiral curve transitions is the length required for superelevation
runoff, based on maximum relative gradient, and typical minimum superelevation runoff
lengths are provided in Green Book Table 3-17;
● The superelevation runoff is applied uniformly over the full length of the spiral; and
● Design spiral transition curves to meet the additional criteria described in this section.

Ensure that the appropriate spiral length and transition treatment is used, and that the method
for selecting spiral length is applied consistently throughout the project.

A discussion of transition spirals is provided in Green Book Section 3.3.8 subsection entitled
“Spiral Curve Transitions”.

Exhibit 9.3-H MAXIMUM RADIUS FOR BENEFIT OF A SPIRAL CURVE TRANSITION

US Customary Metric
Design speed Maximum radius Design speed Maximum radius
(mph) (ft) (km/h) (m)
15 211 20 45
20 375 30 100
25 585 40 177
30 842 50 276
35 1150 60 397
40 1500 70 541
45 1900 80 706
50 2340 90 893
55 2830 100 1110
60 3370 110 1340
65 3960 120 1590
70 4590 130 1870
75 5270
80 5990

Note: Spirals may be used on flatter curves if beneficial for aesthetic purposes. This
table is not intended to define radii that either necessitate or prohibit the use of a spiral.

Green Book Table 3-20 provides recommendations on the maximum radius for spiral curve
transition use, corresponding to the radius at which the safety and operational benefits of spiral
curve transitions may become negligible. Based on consideration for aesthetics, anticipated
operating speeds, and the unique conditions of FLH projects, the recommended maximum
radius for use of a spiral transition curves for FLH projects are greater than the values provided

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in the Green Book. The maximum recommended radius shown in Exhibit 9.3-H are based on a
lateral acceleration rate of 0.07g; expressed as 2.3 ft/s2 [0.7 m/s2] in the following equations:

R = 2.1511V2/A (US Customary)

2
R = 0.07716V /A (Metric)
where: R is the maximum radius, ft [m]
V is the design speed, mph [km/h]
A is the lateral acceleration rate, ft/s2 [m/s2]

Green Book Table 3-21 provides recommendations on the desirable length of spiral transition
curves, corresponding to approximately 2.0 seconds of travel time at the design speed of the
roadway. Based on consideration for anticipated operating speeds, aesthetics, and the unique
conditions of FLH projects, the desired lengths of spiral transition curves for FLH projects are
increased slightly from the values provided in the Green Book. The values shown in
Exhibit 9.3-I correspond to 2.3 seconds of travel time. Spiral curve lengths longer than those
shown may be needed. To determine the minimum spiral length use the longest of:
● The minimum length for superelevation runoff (Lr) determined by the Green Book using
either Equation 3-23 or Table 3-17; or
● The minimum spiral length (Ls, min) determined by Green Book Equations 3-26 and
3-27; or
● The desired spiral length shown in Exhibit 9.3-I.

If necessary for especially tight alignment locations, the desirable spiral length shown in Green
Book Table 3-21 may be used, if it is greater than the minimum spiral length and the minimum
superelevation runoff length described above.

Green Book Equation 3-28 provides recommendations for the maximum length of spiral
transitions, based on the observed steering behavior of drivers. For FLH projects it is also
desirable to limit the spiral length to the distance traveled on the spiral in 4 seconds at the
design speed. The maximum spiral lengths shown in Exhibit 9.3-I are based on the greater of
this 4-second rule, or the superelevation runoff length (Lr) for the limiting superelevation rates
(see Green Book Table 3-19). If the maximum spiral length determined by Green Book
Equation 3-28 is less than these maximum lengths, limit the spiral length to the shorter length.
If the minimum length of superelevation runoff determined by Green Book Equation 3-23 is
greater than the maximum length of spiral transition determined by Green Book Equation 3-28,
do not use a spiral transition for the curve.

Determine the appropriate superelevation rate (ed) and length of spiral transition curve (Ls)
based on the given design criteria (design speed, maximum and minimum superelevation rates,
lane width, and curve radius). The calculated Ls is often associated with the minimum length of
spiral transition applicable for the given criteria and superelevation rate. Where practical, use
the longer desired length of spiral curve transition shown in Exhibit 9.3-I. Greater spiral lengths
up to the maximum length may be used in certain situations, such as minimizing or closing short

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intervening tangents between reverse spiral transition curves where the superelevation
transitions are merged.

Green Book Equation 3-29 and Table 3-23 provide recommendations for tangent runout length
(Lt) for spiral curve transition design. For FLH projects, the length of tangent runout for a spiral
curve transition should be based on the continuation of the same superelevation transition rate
(relative gradient) that is applicable to the superelevation runoff and which is applied on the
spiral curve transition.

Exhibit 9.3-I DESIRED AND MAXIMUM LENGTH OF SPIRAL CURVE TRANSITION

US Customary Metric
Design speed Desired Maximum Design speed Desired Maximum
(mph) length (ft) length (ft) (km/h) length (m) length (m)
15 50 125 20 13 36
20 65 130 30 19 38
25 85 170 40 26 51
30 100 200 50 32 61
35 120 215 60 38 67
40 135 235 70 45 78
45 150 265 80 51 89
50 170 295 90 57 100
55 185 325 100 64 111
60 200 350 110 70 122
65 220 380 120 77 133
70 235 410 130 83 144
75 255 440
80 270 470

Note: Minimum spiral length must equal or exceed the superelevation runoff length. Maximum
spiral length should not exceed the length determined by Green Book Equation 3-28.

9.3.5.2.8 Location of Profile Grade and Superelevation Pivot Point

Typically, the profile grade and superelevation pivot point on the highway cross section is at the
finished grade centerline for all two-lane highways. Alternatively, the superelevation pivot point
may be located at the finished grade roadway shoulder on the low side of the superelevated
section, for two-lane highways where conditions are appropriate (e.g., for drainage purposes in
flat low-lying terrain or swampy conditions). In this case, the profile grade elevation at centerline
will be adjusted.

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For two-lane or multilane highways with flush, paved medians 12 ft [3.6 m] width or less, the
center of the median should be used as the axis of rotation, with the entire roadway section
rotated about the axis. For multilane highways with medians wider than 12 ft [3.6 m] the median
may be held horizontal and the superelevation pivot points for the two roadway directions may
be located at the finished grade roadway shoulders adjacent the median, which are on the low
side of the outer lanes and on the high side of the inner lanes. In this case the full
superelevation stations of superelevation runoffs for both roadways should be designed at the
same (concentric) location. The type of terrain will influence the preferred median treatment.
For medians greater than 30 ft [9 m] it may be preferable to develop the superelevation for each
roadway independently. Also refer to Section 9.3.10.

9.3.5.2.9 Combination of Superelevation Transition and Grades

In areas of especially steep or flat grades, evaluate the gradients along the edge of traveled way
and the shoulder profiles, and correct or minimize any irregularities resulting from combinations
of the superelevation transitions and the vertical alignment.

Consider that superelevation transitions will increase the effective grade along the outside edge
of the traveled way. This increase is significant, particularly for trucks and recreational vehicles.
To minimize this effect on long continuous runs of near maximum grades, the designer should
flatten the grade throughout the horizontal curve to compensate for the effect.

Consideration of the effect of superelevation transition on the maximum grade at the edge of
roadway is especially important when the design contains climbing lanes, auxiliary lanes, or
turnouts adjacent the roadway that are superelevated.

In areas of minimum grades, evaluate the edge of traveled way and shoulder profiles to reveal
any level, or nearly level (less than 0.2 percent), areas on the roadway surface resulting from
superelevation transitions. Level areas are undesirable from a pavement drainage standpoint
and should be avoided or minimized. Coordinate the design of vertical and horizontal curves
such that the flat profile of a vertical curve will not be located near the flat cross slope of the
superelevation transition.

Consider the effect of superelevation transition on the ditch grades and in curb and gutter
sections in areas of minimum grades, to provide at least 0.5 percent gradient.

Refer to Exhibit 9.3-E for a method of adjusting the location of the flat template section between
reversing curves with a short tangent.

9.3.5.3 Risk Assessment and Mitigation

Consider that horizontal curves tend to be high crash locations. The average crash rate for
horizontal curves is about 3 times the average rate for tangents, and the average run-off-the-
road crash rate for horizontal curves is about 4 times that of tangents. Consider the AASHTO
Green Book assumptions, together with reliable information on actual speeds, site crash history,
roadside conditions in the vicinity of the curve, and available pavement friction in assessing risk
relating to horizontal curvature. Refer to the AASHTO Guide for Achieving Flexibility in Highway

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Design, Sections 3.2.2, 3.2.3 and 3.2.4 for guidance in applying flexibility in the AASHTO
guidelines, assessing risk and mitigating tight curvature.

Risk is primarily related to the traffic volume exposed to the situation. Risk varies with the
length of the horizontal curve and the central angle of the alignment deflection, with curve
angles greater than 30 degrees representing substantially higher risk. Risk increases as
operating speeds exceed the design speed. For roads with more than 10 percent commercial
truck traffic, the safety risk increases substantially if the operating speed exceeds the design
speed by 6 mph [10 km/h] or more. Other design elements (e.g., sight distance, superelevation,
pavement friction, signing, and delineation) can affect curve safety.

The project plans should include mitigation (e.g., curve signs, turn signs, advisory speed plates,
positive guidance, appropriate roadside design features) when a curve design is an exception to
the standard for the posted or regulatory speed limit. The MUTCD specifies installation of
advisory speed plates following a determination of the safe speed by an engineering study.
Also refer to the Horizontal Curve Signing Handbook, TTI, 2007.

Also refer to NCHRP Report 559, Communicating Changes in Horizontal Alignment, 2006 for
additional guidance on mitigating inconsistent horizontal curvature. Also see FHWA Report 07-
002, Low-Cost Treatments for Horizontal Curve Safety, 2006.

9.3.6 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

Refer to Green Book Section 3.4 for guidance applicable to the design of vertical alignments.
As practical, minimize vertical grades within the terrain context. Refer to Section 9.3.1.3 for
guidance on terrain classifications. In addition, consider the following design controls:
● Climate (snow, ice, rainfall)
● Topography and terrain,
● Functional classification,
● Design speed,
● Sight distance needs,
● Traffic volume
● Compatibility with existing slopes, approach roads and driveways adjacent the roadway,
● Length of grade,
● Horizontal alignment,
● Construction cost,
● Pedestrian and bicycle use,
● Drainage considerations,
● Surfacing type,
● Vertical clearances (if applicable),
● Vehicular characteristics, and
● Aesthetics.

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9.3.6.1 Vertical Curves

Refer to Green Book Table 3-34 for minimum design controls (K values) for crest vertical
curves, and Table 3-36 for design controls (K values) for sag vertical curves, based on minimum
stopping sight distances. If the design vertical curvature does not meet or exceed the
applicable standards for K value, treat the deviation as a formal design exception. When faced
with a choice of design exception, use a short sag curve rather than a short crest curve.

FLH standard practice includes the following:

● For design speeds less than 40 mph [60 km/h], the minimum vertical curve length should
be 300 ft [100 m], except for grade differences less than 3 percent the minimum vertical
curve length may be 200 ft [60 m],
● For design speeds of 40 mph [60 km/h] or more, the minimum vertical curve length
should be 400 ft [120 m], except for grade differences less than 3 percent the minimum
vertical curve length may be 300 ft [90 m], and
● The above minimum vertical curve lengths are not applicable for approach roads or
other minor roads.

Sag vertical curves that are visible on long horizontal tangents should be two or three times the
length required for stopping sight distance to avoid an abrupt appearance.

For sag vertical curves with a low point in curbed sections, consider the requirements for
pavement drainage. If possible, provide a minimum gradient of 0.3 percent within 50 ft [15 m] of
the low point.

Broken-back vertical curves consist of two vertical curves in the same direction separated by a
short tangent grade (i.e., less than 200 ft [60 m]). Avoid using broken-back vertical curves in
sags where the view of both vertical curves and the intervening tangent is evident.

For design of minimal vertical curves for driveways or low water crossings, limit the minimum K
value to accommodate the design vehicle clearances (undercarriage or tow hitch). In such
locations provide a minimum vertical curve length of 30 ft [9 m] and minimum K value of 1.5
[0.5].

9.3.6.2 Maximum Grade

Refer to the subsection on “Control Grades for Design” in Green Book Section 3.4.2 for general
guidance on maximum grades. Consider the functional classification, the type of terrain, design
speed, effect on operating speeds of the mix of vehicle types, along with the information
provided in the Green Book to determine the maximum allowable grades. For Park roads refer
to the Park Road Standards Table 3 to determine maximum design grades. If the applicable
maximum grade must be exceeded, treat the deviation as a formal design exception.

Also consider weather and climatic conditions, and surfacing type, when determining a
maximum practical gradient for design.

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FLH standard practice for areas with winter snow-packed conditions, or for aggregate surface
roadways, is to not exceed a maximum sustained grade of 9 percent (7 percent maximum grade
preferable).

Evaluate steep (over 5 percent) sustained grades of 0.5 mile [0.8 km] or more, which may affect
traffic operation in both uphill and downhill directions. If the critical length of grade is exceeded,
determine the speed profile for a loaded truck (see Section 9.3.6.4).

Recommended guidance includes the following:

● For sustained grades over 5 percent and over 1 mile [1.6 km] with design traffic volume
ADT greater than 2,000, determine the feasibility and, if applicable, the safety and
operational effects of providing a slow moving vehicle lane or turnout;
● On sustained downgrades over 7 percent and over 1 mile [1.6 km], for ADT greater than
2,000 and volume of trucks over 10 percent; determine the feasibility of providing a truck
escape ramp; and
● On sustained, steep grades also consider using wider shoulders, clear zones and
increased superelevation rates at the bottom of the grade.

Refer to the IHSDM and its references, or the HCM, or both, for guidance on determining the
safety and operational effects of design grades.

9.3.6.3 Minimum Grade

Refer to the subsection on “Control Grades for Design” in Green Book Section 3.4.2 for general
guidance on minimum grades. FLH standard practice includes the following:
● A level longitudinal grade (zero percent) is acceptable in tangent alignment along
through-fill sections where the roadway has proper crown to drain the surface laterally,
and is without curbing;
● A level longitudinal grade is acceptable in tangent alignment on uncurbed pavements in
cut sections where the pavement is adequately crowned, and special ditch gradients are
adequate to convey the surface drainage;
● Minimum grades (0.5 percent minimum, 1 percent desired) are applicable in all other
cases for providing drainage of roadway ditches in cut sections, drainage of curb
sections and to ensure pavement drainage on superelevation transitions;
◊ The 1 percent desired minimum grade particularly applies where flat grades on
crest and sag vertical curves have substantial lengths that are essentially level;
◊ The 1 percent desired minimum grade also applies where superelevation
transitions introduce sags in the ditch or gutter line;
◊ Evaluate ditch or gutter profiles to identify and correct any drainage problems;
special ditch grade profiles may be used to correct sags or minimum gradients in
the ditch line; and

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Highway Design August 2012

● Provide grades exceeding the 1 percent desired minimum gradient where superelevation
transitions create a pavement edge profile grade less than 0.2 percent (0.5 percent for
curbed streets) through the transition section.

In areas where heavy rainfall occurs, or winter snowpack and freezing conditions routinely exist
for portions of the year, particularly avoid the combination of minimum grades, or high or low
points in vertical curves, and superelevation transitions that result in locations with a level
surface on the pavement.

Refer to the subsection on “Minimum Transition Grades” in Green Book Section 3.3.8 and
Equation 3-30 for additional guidance.

Where curbing is used in conjunction with minimum grades, ensure the design of inlets and their
spacing will keep the spread of water on the traveled way within tolerable limits. Refer to
Section 9.5.5.4 for pavement drainage and FHWA, HEC-12, Chapter 2 for additional guidance
on recommended roadway geometry to provide for pavement drainage.

See Section 9.5.5.1 for guidance on design of roadway drainage ditches.

9.3.6.4 Critical Lengths of Grade

Where applicable, evaluate the length of a sustained grade in relation to desirable vehicle
operation and safety. The critical length of grade is the maximum length of a sustained upgrade
on which a loaded truck can operate without a 10 mph [16 km/h] reduction in speed. Consider
the guidance and recommendations for different conditions contained in “Critical Lengths of
Grade for Design” in Green Book Section 3.4.2.

9.3.6.5 Intersection Considerations

At intersections, the grade should not exceed 6 percent (5 percent maximum is preferred). As
practical, avoid designing crest vertical curves in the vicinity of intersections.

9.3.6.6 Hidden Dips

Avoid designing intervening sags in a vertical alignment that is otherwise a uniform grade, in
combination with tangent horizontal alignment or flat curvature, which create hidden dips. Also
avoid designing a rolling vertical alignment in combination with long horizontal tangents, as such
roller coaster profiles are visually distressing and may create hidden dips that are misleading for
passing on two-lane roads.

9.3.6.7 Switchbacks

Switchbacks may be necessary in mountainous areas with steep grades. Where practical,
reduce the gradient through sharp switchback curves to facilitate braking and vehicle control in
the vicinity of the switchback. For switchbacks with a curve speed of 20 mph [30 km/h] a

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maximum gradient of 4 percent is recommended, and for switchbacks with curve speed of
25 mph [40 km/h] a maximum gradient of 5 percent is recommended.

9.3.6.8 Drainage Considerations

Where the highway crosses a waterway, design the profile consistent with the design flood
frequency and elevation. The following FLH standard practices apply:
● For drainage structure inlets determine the design headwater elevation, and design the
roadway elevation to exceed the headwater elevation, and to provide sufficient
clearance and cover for construction of culverts and other components of the drainage
system.
● In swampy terrain and areas subject to overflow and irrigation, design the low point of
the subgrade to be at least 1.7 ft [0.5 m] above the ordinary high-water elevation.
● In areas of grades less than 2 percent, ensure drainage at the low point of the subgrade
and ditch grades in the area of horizontal curves, where superelevation may lower the
edge of the subgrade shoulder relative to tangents.

For roads located along main streams and rivers, refer to Section 7.4 for the appropriate
hydraulic controls.

9.3.6.9 Vertical Clearance

FLH standard practice is to provide sufficient vertical clearance for the largest design vehicle, for
the interim and ultimate potential roadway and pavement configurations, and with consideration
for the accommodation or management of occasional oversize vehicles. Also refer to
Section 10.4.1.1 for vertical clearances for structures.

The following standards apply:

● For local and collector roads, provide a vertical clearance of at least 14 ft [4.3 m] over
the entire roadway width, with an additional allowance for future resurfacing.
● For rural and urban arterials, provide 16 ft [4.9 m] clearance over the entire roadway
width for any new or reconstructed structures; and existing structures that provide
clearance of 14 ft [4.3 m] may be retained if allowed by local statute.
● For arterials in highly urbanized areas, a minimum clearance of 14 ft [4.3 m] may be
provided if there is an alternate route with 16 ft [4.9 m] clearance. Provide additional
clearance for future resurfacing.

Structures should provide an additional clearance of 3 in [76 mm] for future resurfacing of the
underpassing road.

Also consider needs for falsework and construction vehicles in determining vertical clearances.

Structures over railroads should typically provide a minimum vertical clearance of 23 ft [7.1 m]
over both rails. Refer to individual State requirements for vertical clearance over railroads, and

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coordinate with the railroad for any special requirements at the structure location such as the
potential for future electrification of the line.

9.3.6.10 Risk Assessment and Mitigation

The vertical alignment directly affects sight distance. Any evaluation of the vertical alignment
risks should consider the resultant sight distance that is available. Risk is primarily related to
the traffic volume exposed to the situation. Combinations of other higher risk road conditions
(e.g., intersections) with vertical curvature or steeper grades will also increase the relative risk.
Risk related to vertical curves generally increases where grade differentials are greater than
6 percent; and risks are greatest at or near the crest of the vertical curve. Crest vertical curves
with less than 300 ft [90 m] stopping sight distance are particularly related to greater risk.

Where steeper grades are used, evaluate the operational effects on heavy vehicles. Mitigation
of steep downgrades can include increased shoulder widths and clear zones, increased
superelevation rates, increased pavement friction and provision of truck escape ramps for
extended sustained downgrades. Provide flatter horizontal curves at the bottom of steep
downgrades, allowing for potentially higher operating speeds.

Where very flat grades are used consider using special drainage features, such as special ditch
grades, and provide special attention to the design of pavement cross slopes and reversals of
superelevation. Avoid or minimize flat spots on the pavement surface, particularly in regions
that experience intense rainfall, periodic snowpack or ice.

9.3.7 SIGHT DISTANCE

Maximize the continuous length of roadway ahead that is visible to the driver, and provide
sufficient preview of the roadway to safely accomplish various driving maneuvers. Coordinate
the geometric elements such that adequate sight distance exists for safe and efficient operation.
Determine the various sight distance requirements for all allowable maneuvers – emergency
stopping, passing, making a left-turn at an intersection, etc. Although design requirements are
expressed as a design distance, consider the component time requirements for the driver to
recognize the situation, understand its implications, decide on a reaction and initiate the
maneuver. Consider the effects of grade and speed on sight distance requirements, and on the
maneuver itself.

Green Book Section 3.2 provides criteria and guidance on stopping sight distance, decision
sight distance, passing sight distance, and sight distance for multilane highways. Green Book
Chapters 5, 6, 7, and 9 each has specific subsections on sight distance for local roads,
collectors, arterials, and intersections, respectively. Also, the ITE Traffic Engineering Handbook
(1999), Chapter 11 Geometric Design of Highways, has a section on sight distance, with
subsections on stopping sight distance, passing sight distance, decision sight distance, and
intersection sight distance.

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9.3.7.1 Determination of Sight Distance Requirements

FLH standard practice is to follow the Green Book recommendations for determination of sight
distance requirements, including consideration of:
● Perception-Reaction Time (PRT)
● Maneuver Time (MT), and
● Operating speed.

Refer to Green Book Section 3.2. Additional guidance for determination of these components is
provided in the following sections.

9.3.7.1.1 Perception-Reaction Time

Refer to Green Book Section 2.2.6 for guidance on determining perception-reaction time (PRT).
Consider that actual PRT can vary widely depending upon many factors specific to the site.

Refer to the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD) 2003, Section 2C.05,
Placement of Warning Signs. Also refer to the ITE Traffic Engineering Handbook (1999),
Chapter 2 Road Users, sections on perception-reaction time and sight distance, and the ITE
Traffic Control Devices Handbook (2001), Chapter 2 Human Factors, sections on driver
perception reaction time.

Also refer to the FHWA Guidelines and Recommendations to Accommodate Older Drivers and
Pedestrians, FHWA-RD-01-051 (2001), Rationale and Supporting Evidence section for
perception-reaction time and sight distance requirements for older drivers.

9.3.7.1.2 Maneuver Time

Maneuver time (MT) is the interval from the initiation of the vehicle control response (i.e., end of
the PRT) to the completion of the driving maneuvers (e.g., braking, turning, passing).

For braking MT refer to the “Braking Distance” discussion in Green Book Section 3.2.2 and
Equation 3-1. For turning MT refer to Green Book Section 9.5.3 for maneuver time design
values for the various control cases. For passing MT refer to the “Criteria for Design” inside
Green Book Section 3.2.4.

Consider that the actual MT, and distance needed for the safe and comfortable completion of
the maneuver, will vary with conditions of the site including tire-pavement friction, grade, vehicle
performance capabilities, and individual driver characteristics.

The ITE Traffic Control Devices Handbook (2001), Chapter 2 Human Factors, also has
guidance on maneuver time.

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9.3.7.2 Stopping Sight Distance

Provide the minimum stopping sight distance (SSD) at all points along the roadway.
Provide more generous stopping distances where practical.

Minimum stopping distance is the distance required to bring a vehicle traveling at the design
speed to a stop before reaching a stationary object in its path. Consider the actual distance will
vary, depending on the initial speed of the vehicle, the perception and reaction time of the
driver, the gradient, and the coefficient of friction between tires and roadway for the prevailing
conditions. The coefficient of friction is much lower for wet pavements; therefore, wet rather
than dry pavement conditions apply for establishing minimum values.

Ensure that the minimum SSD control (“K” value) is provided at all vertical curves, and that the
minimum SSD control (horizontal sightline offset) is provided at all horizontal curves.

Design controls for SSD are located in Green Book Section 3.2.2, Section 3.3.12, and both the
“Crest Vertical Curves” and “Sag Vertical Curves” discussions inside Section 3.4.6.

For additional information on SSD, also refer to Determination of Stopping Sight Distances,
NCHRP Report 400, 1997.

9.3.7.3 Decision Sight Distance

Decision sight distance (DSD) is the length of road a driver needs to receive and interpret
information, select an appropriate speed and path and begin and complete an action in a safe
maneuver. This distance is greater than the distance needed to simply bring a vehicle to a stop,
and provides for a reasonable continuity of traffic flow.

If possible, provide decision sight distance in advance of any feature requiring increased driver
awareness and action. This includes intersections, lane changes, congested areas, pedestrian
crossings, turnouts, pullouts or other features. When decision sight distance is unavailable and
relocation of the feature is not possible, provide suitable traffic control devices.

See design controls for DSD in Green Book Section 3.2.3. Refer to Green Book Table 3-3 for
recommended DSD values.

9.3.7.4 Passing Sight Distance

Passing sight distance (PSD) is applicable to two-lane, two-way roads. PSD is the length of the
highway ahead necessary for one vehicle to pass another before meeting an opposing vehicle
that might appear after the pass begins.

Provide as many passing opportunities as possible in each section of road, and if practical
ensure there are no long sections where passing is not possible. Evaluate the percentage and
distribution of passing and no-passing zone markings, and their implication for traffic operations,
in the geometric design of two-lane highways. Where operations indicate lack of PSD is a

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problem, consider design of passing lanes, truck climbing lanes, or intermittent slow-moving
vehicle turnouts as described in Section 9.3.9.

Also consider PSD at the end of truck-climbing and passing lanes where traffic must merge. If
practical, increase the sight distance in areas adjacent to passing zones where vehicles
completing passing maneuvers may operate above the design speed.

Minimum passing distances for all classes of two-lane roads are given in Green Book Table 3-4.
Also refer to the guidance in Green Book Section 3.2.4.

Current practice uses different PSD models in highway design and in marking of passing and
no-passing zones. Geometric design for minimum PSD requirements should not be confused
with values provided in the MUTCD for determining no-passing zone pavement striping. The
MUTCD recommends much shorter distances for marking no-passing and passing zones than
the Green Book recommends for developing a geometric design to provide PSD.

For developing a geometric design to provide PSD, consider the design vehicle characteristics,
road grade and vehicle speeds at the specific location. The design for minimum PSD may be
less than the minimum distances provided in the Green Book if consideration is given to the
possibility that the passing maneuver can be aborted. Shoulder characteristics should also be
considered in the geometric design for PSD. Also refer to NCHRP Report 605, Passing Sight
Distance Criteria for additional guidance on geometric design to provide PSD.

9.3.7.5 Intersection Sight Distance

Intersection sight distance (ISD) is the minimum sight distance needed by drivers to safely
negotiate intersections, including intersections with or without stop controls or traffic signals.

Provide sufficient sight distance to allow drivers to perceive the presence of potentially
conflicting vehicles. If possible, provide decision sight distance (DSD) for the approach to
intersections, if it is greater than the ISD.

FLH standard practice is to provide ISD based on Green Book Section 9.5. Also refer to the
Highway Capacity Manual, which provides guidance on gap acceptance for vehicles departing
from minor approaches.

For intersection sight distance in design of a left-turn from a stop based on gap acceptance refer
to Green Book Table 9-5 and Equation 9-1. Determine the sight distances required for vehicles
to turn left from a stop onto a two-lane highway and attain an average running speed without
being overtaken by a vehicle going the same direction. Where practical, avoid using sight
distances less than that required for the design vehicle, which will require the through traffic to
reduce speed. For approach to at-grade intersection provide sufficient sight distance for an
unobstructed view of the entire intersection and sufficient length of the intersecting roadway to
discern the movements of vehicles. For intersections with stop signs on the minor road provide
sight distance of the major highway to safely cross before a vehicle on the major highway
reaches the intersection. Under some conditions, if it is impractical to provide adequate site

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distance for cross road traffic to safely enter the main road, it may be necessary to install traffic
signals. (See Part IV of the MUTCD.)

Refer to Green Book Table 9-6, for minimum sight distance along the major road for level
conditions, for left turns from a stop. Refer to Green Book Table 9-4, for adjustment of sight
distance to reflect grades of the minor road approach.

Provide sight triangles along the intersection approach legs that are clear of obstructions that
can block driver’s view of oncoming traffic. The dimensions of the triangle are based on the
design speed of the intersecting roadways and the type of traffic control used at the intersection,
grades on the roadways, and the roadway width.

Within the sight triangle, remove, adjust or lower cut slopes, hedges, trees, signs, utility poles or
anything large enough to constitute a sight obstruction (see Green Book Figure 9-15). Eliminate
parking and offset signs to prevent sight distance obstructions.

Determine ISD for all applicable intersection maneuvers, including situations described in the
Green Book for through, left and right-turning maneuvers at intersections with no control, four-
way stop control, two-way stop control, yield control and signal control from the minor road; and
for a left-turning maneuver from the major road.

Provide additional intersection sight distance wherever significant visual distractions, messages
or driver workload exists, for example where there are:
● High traffic volumes on the major road;
● Complex signs (e.g. multiple destinations, route shield assemblies);
● Complex pavement markings (e.g. multiple turn lanes);
● Complex or unusual intersection geometry;
● Visual distractions in urban areas due to commercial signs and lighting; and
● A high percentage of unfamiliar or older drivers.

Also provide additional intersection sight distance wherever drivers are less likely to be
expecting to respond to an intersection, such as for:
● A stop condition after having the right-of-way on previous road sections;
● An isolated stop or signal-controlled intersection; and
● Intersections with high traffic volume, but signals are not yet warranted. For these
situations, ISD is a minimum and it is preferable to provide DSD.

For the following conditions, the sight distance for cross traffic to enter the roadway may need to
be lengthened:
● Turning right through the minor angle of skew intersection (i.e., where drivers must turn
their heads through a greater angle to assess the presence of oncoming vehicles);
● Crossing or turning at an intersection on a horizontal curve, especially where the main
road curves behind the driver gap, may be more difficult to assess; and
● Crossing at an offset or skewed intersection, and

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● Trucks turning.

Consider the need for additional sight distance where:

● The major road has complex signing, lane drops or other driver-attention demands prior
to the intersection,
● Traffic conditions or site information indicates problems accommodating entering traffic,
and
● At left-turn lanes where the decision to initiate the turn may occur significantly in
advance of intersection.

At intersections, consider the driver’s view of the intersection from all approaches. Of major
concern are intersections where a driver may fail to recognize a potential conflict location. An
example may be where an approach road intersects a divided roadway and the driver perceives
the intersection across the median as the primary concern, and does not recognize the initial
intersection. Evaluation of the driver’s viewpoint with respect to the signing and pavement
markings should be considered during the layout of the intersection.

9.3.7.6 Limiting Conditions and Restrictions

Provide adequate sight distance on horizontal curves by selecting the proper curve radius and
arranging for the removal or relocation of obstacles. Refer to the “Stopping Sight Distance”
discussion in Green Book Section 3.3.12 for guidance on evaluation of curve radius and
horizontal sightline offset.

The sight distance available on horizontal curves is proportional to the radius of the curve, and
depends on the location of obstacles to the line-of-sight across the inside of the curves. Verify
the location of obstacles (e.g., cut slopes, tall grass on cut slopes, trees, shrubs, farm crops,
buildings, bridge abutments and walls, bridge railing, traffic barrier) that may limit the sight
distance across the inside of a curve. To facilitate safe operation, horizontal sight distance must
equal or exceed the safe stopping distance for the selected design speed (listed in Green Book
Table 3-1). To obtain the required sight distance, horizontal curves may be redesigned with
larger radius or provide for the removal or relocation of obstacles.

See Green Book Figure 3-23 for a diagram illustrating horizontal sight line offset (HSO) to an
obstruction. For geometric design to obtain sight distance determine the limiting HSO for the
typical cut slopes and ditch configurations applicable for the project. See Exhibit 9.3-J for a
diagram of a horizontal sight line offset (HSO) on a cut slope, and applicable design
parameters.

Cut sections may restrict the horizontal sight distance, especially where crest vertical curves
coincide with horizontal curves and there is a substantial change in grade. In this case consider
using a longer vertical curve, flatter horizontal curve, wider and deeper ditch, flatter cut slope
ratio, additional clear area beyond the ditch or shoulder, or a combination of these.
Combinations of horizontal and vertical sight distance restrictions should be evaluated using a
3-dimensional design model and perspective views.

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Consider sight distance restrictions created by the presence of other vehicles, such as at
opposing left-turn lanes, or at right-turn lanes interfering with sightlines from the intersecting
road.

Exhibit 9.3-J LATERAL CLEARANCE FOR STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE

Horizontal Sightline Offset (HSO) = c + D + s + 0.5W

Where:

c = the drop (d) from the center of the inside lane to the bottom of the ditch
plus 2 ft [0.6 m] multiplied by the cut slope ratio.

D = the total ditch width from bottom of ditch to edge of shoulder.

s = the shoulder width

W = width of the inside lane

Note: When vegetation is expected to grow on the cut slope, reduce the drop (d) by the
estimated depth of the vegetation. When vegetation is not controlled on the cut slope,
reduce c to zero.

9.3.7.7 Risk Assessment and Mitigation

In some situations the sight distance standards may be difficult to meet, or may be less than
optimal. Trade-offs among competing requirements sometimes require compromising
decisions. In some cases, time requirements may be less than those assumed in the criteria
provided in the Green Book. In other situations, conditions may create a need to go beyond the
minimum standards. Risk is primarily related to the traffic volume exposed to the situation.
Combinations of multiple road conditions and additive demand for the driver’s attention and
decision-making will also increase the relative risk. When faced with a choice (e.g., determining
which of several back-to-back vertical curves to adjust), designers should use shorter sag
vertical curve lengths in favor of providing the longest crest vertical curve that is possible.

Stopping sight distance should always be provided because any road location can become a
hazard. If stopping sight distance is below standard at a number of locations then priorities for

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correction may need to be set. Examples of conditions, which are high priority with respect to
the need for stopping sight distance, are the following:
● Change in lane width;
● Reduction in lateral clearance;
● Beginning of hazardous fill slope;
● Crest vertical curve;
● Horizontal curve;
● Driveway;
● Narrow bridge;
● Roadside hazards (e.g., fixed objects at driveways);
● Unmarked pedestrian crossings;
● Unlit pedestrian crosswalks;
● High volume pedestrian crosswalks;
● Frequent presence of parked vehicles very near the through lane;
● Slow moving vehicles; and
● Frequent pedestrian or bicycle presence.

Examples of roadway geometric elements that are high priority to provide decision sight
distance include:
● First intersection in a sequence;
● Isolated rural intersections; and
● A change in cross-section (i.e., two-lane to four-lane, four-lane to two-lane, passing lane,
climbing lane, lane drop, deceleration lane, channelization).

Geometric or visual complexity combined with any of the above elements increases the needs
for decision sight distance. Frequent truck or recreational vehicle traffic, that block the view of
traffic control devices and road geometric elements may be mitigated by increased sight
distance for the specific area.

Sight distance problems may be evaluated by developing a sight distance profile that shows the
available sight distance (SSD, PSD) at each increment of the alignment location, to visualize
graphically the overall severity and extent of the problem, and potential interaction with other
geometric design elements or roadway features.

Recognize the complex realities of driver perception and behavior when evaluating sight
distance problems. Evaluate the sight distances available to support the various maneuvers
(i.e., SSD, PSD, ISD, DSD). The highway location may be divided into component sections
based on specific driving demands (i.e. to perform a task or maneuver). Then analyze each
section in terms of its availability of sight distance to support the specific task or maneuver.
Compare the available sight distance with the required sight distance to safely perform the
driving task.

Potential alternatives or mitigation for limited DSD include the separation of decision points to
different locations for the driver, simplify the decisions to be made, reduce the operating speed
to provide additional time for decision-making and to provide additional advance information.

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Potential mitigation for limited ISD includes:

● Clear sight triangles of all obstructions,
● Provide additional traffic control devices or restrictions,
● Adjust stop line placement,
● Use offset median left-turn lanes,
● Adjust length or offset of turn lanes to minimize potential obstruction by turning vehicles,
● Adjust roadway alignment, and
● Adjust intersection configuration.

Also refer to the AASHTO publication A Guide for Achieving Flexibility in Highway Design,
Section 3.5.1.4, Section 3.5.2.3, Section 3.5.3.3 and Section 3.5.4.3 for additional guidance on
mitigating insufficient sight distance.

9.3.8 GEOMETRIC CROSS SECTION

The highway cross section is defined as the finished or the proposed finished section between
construction limits as shown in Section 4.3.2.2.

Provide roadway section configurations consistent with the functional classification criteria.
Design cross-section characteristics of the roadway section based on, or State developed and
approved classifications, the NPS Park Road Standards or other applicable agency standards.

For urban cross section design guidance, also refer to Context Sensitive Solutions in Designing
Major Urban Thoroughfares for Walkable Communities, ITE, 2006.

9.3.8.1 Traveled Way (Lane) Width

Design the traveled way for the movement of through motorized and non-motorized vehicles,
including through lanes, HOV lanes, and auxiliary lanes for through traffic. It does not include
lanes for other purposes, such as turn lanes, acceleration lanes, deceleration lanes, or parking
lanes, although the number and the width of those lanes influence the width of the traveled way.
The Green Book and other agency standards show minimum recommended lane widths for
each functional classification for various design speeds and traffic volume ranges. Refer to
Green Book Table 5-5, Table 6-5 and Table 7-3, and the Park Road Standards Table 10.

When the percentage of trucks, tour buses or recreational vehicles is high in comparison to the
ADT, consider increasing lane widths. Refer to Green Book Section 4.3 and the Park Road
Standards Table 10 - footnote a/, as applicable for additional guidance.

A lane width should generally not exceed 12 ft [3.6 m], except where a wider outside lane up to
14 ft [4.2 m] is used for accommodating bicyclists, or where the center lane up to 16 ft [4.8 m] is
reserved for left turns.

Provide traveled way widening on curves, as applicable.

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9.3.8.2 Shoulder Width and Type

Design the shoulder width and type consistent with the functions that need to be provided,
including accommodation of stopped vehicles, emergency use, support of the traveled way, and
for use by pedestrians and bicyclists (where bicycle lanes and sidewalks or pathways are not
provided). Higher functional classification, higher speeds and higher traffic volumes generally
correlate with a need for wider shoulders.

The Green Book and other agency standards show minimum shoulder widths for each
functional classification for various design speeds and traffic volume ranges. Refer to Green
Book Table 5-5, Table 6-5 and Table 7-3 and the Park Road Standards Table 10.

In designing the shoulder width and type, consider needs for enhancing safety and enabling
recovery from errant or evasive driving maneuvers, as well as the following operational
functions:
● Contribution to capacity;
● Evasive maneuvers to escape potential crashes or reduce their severity;
● Space for stopping, emergencies, incidents, crash response, mail, trash pickup;
● Pedestrian and bicycle use;
● Law enforcement activities;
● Lateral clearance to roadside objects;
● Structural and lateral support of the pavement and base;
● Mail and other deliveries, garbage pickup
● Encroachment by oversize vehicles
● Routine maintenance activities;
● Flexibility for construction and maintenance of traffic;
● Needs for drainage off the roadway and in curbed sections; and
● Needs for snow removal.

When applicable, provide additional shoulder width beyond the minimum values for special
circumstances (e.g., mailboxes, transit bus stops, heavy pedestrian, bicycle use). Refer to
Table 3-2 of NCHRP Report 254: Shoulder Geometrics and use Guidelines, 1982 for
recommended widths for various shoulder functions and highway functional classifications.

For divided arterial highways with one or two lanes in each direction, a 4 ft [1.2 m] paved left
shoulder within the median is recommended. On divided arterials with three or more lanes in
each direction, a full-width shoulder within the median is recommended.

Shoulders with a minimum of 4 ft [1.2 m] stabilized or paved surface should be provided along
both sides of rural highways routinely used by pedestrians. For design of shoulders to
accommodate use by bicyclists refer to the AASHTO Guide for Development of Bicycle
Facilities.

In rural areas, paved shoulders should be included in all new construction and
reconstruction projects on roadways used by more than 1,000 vehicles per day; see
Sections 9.3.16 and 9.3.17. In urban areas, provide bicycle lanes or separate bicycle facilities.
In lower-speed urban areas with posted speeds of 40 mph [60 km/h] or less, shoulders may be

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limited by adjacent development to only the width necessary to accommodate bicycle use, and
may be further reduced or eliminated if separate bicycle and pedestrian facilities are provided,
and curbs are used. For urban transitional roadways with posted speed of 45 mph [70 km/h],
separate bicycle and pedestrian facilities should be provided, and shoulders also provided in
undeveloped areas. For high-speed urban roadways with posted speeds of 50 mph [80 km/h]
or more, separate bicycle and pedestrian facilities should be provided, and the standard
shoulder width also provided in all areas.

In determining the shoulder type consider the needs for pedestrian and bicycle use, safety,
structural stability, cross-slope for drainage, operational functions, traffic barrier installation, and
construction and maintenance costs. Consider the following types and their performance in the
design:
1. Earth. Earth shoulders are unstabilized soil generally without turf cover, and may be
applicable for very low-volume local roads, particularly where rainfall is low. The soil
should be well-graded and compactable material suitable for topping. Depending on
use, they may occasionally require re-grading and re-compaction to maintain their
usable width and to repair pavement edge drop-offs and rutting.
2. Granular. Granular shoulders are an aggregate base or surface course gradation which
may also be mixed with topsoil to sustain a turf cover. Granular or turf shoulders may be
applicable for low or medium-volume, low-speed roads and where the shoulder is
designed only for emergency use. Turf shoulders may also be applicable for higher
volume or high-speed roads where the turf is well maintained and is particularly desired
for aesthetics. Granular or turf shoulders should not be subject to high amounts of
surface runoff, vehicular use or off-tracking. With use, they typically require periodic re-
grading and re-compaction to maintain their usable width and to repair pavement edge
drop-offs and rutting.
3. Recycled Asphalt Pavement (RAP). RAP shoulders are pulverized asphalt pavement
material which may be mixed with additional emulsion or a recycling agent. The same
considerations should apply as for granular shoulders, except the RAP may be more
stable and applicable for shoulders with slightly higher use.
4. Surface Treatment. Treated shoulders may be bituminous penetration treatment or
other binder placed over aggregate material to reduce water infiltration and keep the
aggregate in place. The shoulders should receive periodic crack sealing, or additional
treatments, or both. Surface treatments may be applicable for shoulders subject to only
infrequent operational use and light vehicular traffic, or pedestrian or bicycle use.
5. Paved. Paved shoulders consist of the same pavement material as the traveled way,
and are generally preferred for all operational functions including pedestrian or bicycle
use, and particularly safety performance. The opportunity to install rumble strips on
paved shoulders further enhances their safety performance. A lesser structural section
depth may be provided for paved shoulders; however, the constructability and long-term
performance should be considered together with the lower material cost.
6. Combination. A combination of shoulder types and respective widths may be used, as
appropriate to balance cost, stability, operational performance, or aesthetics. A
minimum partially paved width of 2 ft [0.6 m] is recommended in all cases, and additional

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width desired for pedestrian or bicycle use. Instead of a combination of types, a fully
paved shoulder is particularly recommended for high-volume roads, arterials, or where
the shoulder receives frequent use, or is regularly used by pedestrians or bicyclists. Any
combination with an unstabilized shoulder type may result in eventual reduction of the
useable shoulder width.

9.3.8.3 Horizontal Clearance to Structures

Provide the required minimum horizontal clearance to retaining walls (including cut and fill
situations), and bridge structures in coordination with the Structural Design Unit.

A minimum offset of 18 in [500 mm] must be provided beyond the face of curbs, with 2 ft [0.6 m]
preferred, and with wider offsets provided where practical. This offset distance is not
considered the clear zone, although it must be clear of obstructions, but is needed for
operational and capacity reasons. See Section 9.3.12.3 for lateral clearance and offset distance
to features adjacent the roadway. Also see Section 8.5.3.3.4.

For roadside safety, the recommended clear zone and shy distances, or barriers, should be
provided as appropriate in accordance with the guidance provided in the AASHTO Roadside
Design Guide. When applicable, determine the requirements for clearance to railroad features
or major utilities.

For bridge structures, refer to applicable sections of the Green Book for minimum horizontal
clearance from the travel lanes to bridge railings, for the road functional classification and traffic
volume. For local roads see Tables 5-6 and 5-7, and for collector roads see Tables 6-6 and 6-7,
for minimum clear roadway widths for bridges; however, the full approach roadway width, plus
2 ft [0.6 m] lateral clearance on each side, is generally desired. For arterials the full approach
roadway width, including lateral clearance, should normally be provided for new bridges;
however, bridges having an overall length over 200 ft [60 m] may have a lesser width. For
arterials, an existing bridge to remain in place should have a width at least equal to the traveled
way plus 2 ft [0.6 m] clearance on each side. For a two-lane tunnel, the total clearance between
the walls should be a minimum of 30 ft [9 m].

9.3.8.4 Cross Slope

9.3.8.4.1 Travel Lane

FLH standard practice is for the cross slope on tangents on paved highways to be from 1½ to 2
percent. Typically, normal crown cross slopes of 2 percent are used on paved surface roads.

Normally, the normal crown cross slopes on gravel surfaced roads should be 4 percent to
facilitate roadway surface drainage.

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9.3.8.4.2 Shoulder

For paved shoulders less than 5 ft [1.5 m] width, the shoulder cross slope should be the same
as the adjacent traffic lane. Paved shoulders 5 ft [1.5 m] or wider may be sloped to drain away
from the traveled way, and should be sloped to drain away from the traveled way in areas of
routine snowplowing and on divided highways with a depressed median. In these cases,
consider shoulder cross slopes of 2 to 6 percent. With curb sections or when the shoulder
surface is an asphalt surface treatment, aggregate or turf, increasing the shoulder slope helps to
facilitate drainage. In these cases, consider cross slopes of 4 to 6 percent for gravel or asphalt
treated shoulders, and 6 to 8 percent for turf shoulders.

9.3.8.4.3 Differences in Cross Slope

Rollover is the difference in cross slope between two adjacent travel lanes or a travel lane and
its adjacent shoulder. On normal crown sections the rollover between adjacent travel lanes
should not exceed 4 percent, and between the travel lane and turf shoulder should not exceed 6
percent. On superelevated curves, the rollover in cross slope between the travel lane and
shoulder must not exceed 8 percent. See Green Book Section 4.2.2 and Section 4.4.3 for
additional guidance.

Typically, locate any breaks in cross slope at the edges of travel lanes or shoulders.
Alternatively, for 10 ft [3.0 m] travel lanes the slope break for shoulders may be located 2 ft
[0.6 m] outside the travel lane, and for 11 ft [3.3 m] travel lanes the slope break for shoulders
may be located 1 ft [0.3 m] outside the travel lane.

The cross slope on the tops of base courses and the subgrade should be the same as on the
finished pavement. For unpaved shoulders or shoulders wider than 7 ft [2.1 m], it is desirable to
have a reverse slope on the subgrade (on the high side of curves and outside the edge of the
pavement) to drain the shoulder surface away from the travel lane and drain moisture away
from the base.

9.3.8.5 Pavements and Geometric Design Considerations

The pavement structure refers to the material and depth of base and pavement placed on the
finished subgrade. Refer to Chapter 11 for guidance on developing the pavement structure
design including the materials and minimum thickness. Consider the following for the geometric
design of the roadway and pavement structure:
● Provide a smooth-riding, skid-resistant roadway surface,
● Minimize the necessary subgrade width and the overall depth of material necessary for
the design service life of the pavement,
● Design the top portion of the subgrade to utilize the highest strength material available
from the earthwork grading, and
● Design the roadway and overall geometric cross section to fully optimize, support and
integrate the pavement structure design.

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9.3.8.6 Risk Assessment and Mitigation

The traffic volume that is exposed to the condition primarily influences the safety and
operational risks regarding the roadway cross section. Where roadway width is less than
recommended, provide the safest roadside design possible, and provide enhanced delineation
and warning devices. For narrow roadway widths, consider using centerline rumble strips and
additional widening in curves beyond the normal guidelines.

Variations in the available shoulder width reduce the driver’s expectations that the full shoulder
width will be available when needed, and may affect driver behavior if evasive maneuvers are
required. Consider adding more frequent pullouts where there are combinations of narrow
shoulder width and severe terrain.

Also refer to the AASHTO publication A Guide for Achieving Flexibility in Highway Design,
Section 3.6.1.3 for guidance on mitigating narrow travel lanes, and refer to Section 3.6.2.2 and
Table 3-2 for additional guidance on mitigating narrow shoulder widths.

9.3.9 ROADWAY WIDENING

Consider the need for additional widening on curves, and the need for auxiliary lanes, turnouts,
etc. These additional widening considerations and requirements are described in the following
sections.

9.3.9.1 Traveled Way Widening on Curves

It is FLH standard practice to increase traveled way widths on curves, as recommended by

Green Book Section 3.3.10. Traveled way widening values are shown in Green Book Tables 3-
26 and 3-27.

When necessary, provide traveled way widening exceeding the minimum values. When
applicable, provide additional traveled way widening on curves where lane widths are less than
10 ft [3.0 m], or if necessary to accommodate vehicle tracking and safe operations due to:
● Greater difficulty for drivers to control the vehicle in curves,
● “Overshoot” path behavior at tangent to curve transitions,
● Variations in speeds within the curve resulting in changing lateral accelerations,
● Variations in e, f, and R within the curve with resultant changing lateral accelerations,
● Difficulty in discerning the vehicle lane position, both own vehicle and opposing traffic,
● Difficulty in judging the clearance from objects along the roadway,
● Off-tracking (offset) of rear wheel to front wheel paths and towed vehicles, and
● Reduced lateral clearance due to vehicle overhangs in front and rear.

For simple (non-spiraled) curves, apply the total travel way widening on the inside of curves and
transition it throughout the length of the superelevation runoff. The pavement joint and final
centerline striping should be adjusted from the geometric centerline to split the roadway width
and provide equal widening to both lanes.

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For curves with spiral transitions, split the widening equally to both lanes and transition it on the
spiral lengths.

Provide lane edge line striping consistent with the designed traveled way widening. Design the
edge striping for the traveled way widening to apply the widening only to the travel lanes, and to
maintain the same shoulder width in the curve as for the tangent section.

9.3.9.2 Auxiliary Lanes

Refer to the following sections for guidance on specific types of auxiliary lanes.

When evaluating the operational performance of alternatives to two-lane cross sections,

including passing lanes, climbing lanes and short four-lane sections, or determining the need for
passing lanes, consider the IHSDM Traffic Analysis Module, which uses the TWOPAS traffic
simulation module to estimate traffic quality of service measures for an existing or proposed
design under current or projected future traffic flows.

Coordinate signing and marking requirements of the MUTCD for the addition, continuation, or
drop of travel lanes with the design for location of such signing along the roadway, and with the
geometric design of the roadway and intersections. Refer to the MUTCD, Table 2C-4, Section
3B.09 and Figure 3B-12 for guidance on the minimum lengths and layout of lane reductions,
speed changes, and similar auxiliary lane transitions.

9.3.9.3 Parking Lanes

Refer to Green Book Section 4.20, Section 5.3.2, Section 6.3.2 and Section 7.3.3 for criteria on
design of parking lanes.

Exercise care in introducing any new on-street parking, as it affects operating speeds, capacity,
and potential safety risk. On-street parking is not recommended where operating speeds are
greater than 40 mph [60 km/h]. Parking lanes may be provided on lower-speed urban highways
with 40 mph [60 km/h] or less posted or regulatory speed. The design of transitional (45 mph
[70 km/h] and high-speed urban (50 mph [80 km/h] or more) arterial or expressway facilities
should only accommodate emergency stopping. Do not add on-street parking to facilities with
design or posted speeds of 50 mph [80 km/h] or more. Within lower-speed urban areas existing
developed and developing land uses may require on-street parking lanes. Parking lanes may
also be provided on rural highways passing through developed communities with urban cross-
section elements. When adding on-street parking to low-speed facilities, consider:
● The effect on the highway’s operating speed, safety and capacity,
● Sight distance requirements,
● Turning paths,
● Bicycle use,
● Needs for crosswalks, mid-block crossings and curb bulb-outs,
● Bus and transit use,
● Needs for access by emergency vehicles to adjacent buildings, and
● Snow removal and storage, if applicable.

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When land use development requires parking lanes, consider only parallel parking. Do not use
angle parking without a careful analysis of operational characteristics of the facility. Do not use
angle parking in areas of operating speed greater than 25 mph [40 km/h]. Where angle parking
is permitted and required to support adjacent land uses, back-in angle parking is the preferred
treatment over head-in angle parking for visibility of motor vehicle and bicycle traffic, and safety
of loading passengers and cargo.

The width of parallel parking lanes can vary from 7 ft to 12 ft [2.1 m to 3.6 m] depending on the
roadway function and type of use. The desirable minimum width of a parking lane is 8 ft [2.4 m],
particularly for areas with frequent parking turnover or loading activity. A minimum parking lane
width of 10 ft [3.0 m] is desirable in areas where there is a need for lateral clearance from the
traveled way, or there is substantial truck or recreational vehicle parking use, or for bus stops.
Wider parking lanes up to 12 ft [3.6 m] are desired to provide better lateral clearance to the
shoulder or traveled way, especially for higher function roadways, or to accommodate use of the
parking lane as a through-travel lane during peak periods.

For design of bicycle routes, the combined width for bicycle travel and parallel parking should be
a minimum of 14 ft [4.2 m]; 16 ft [4.8 m] being desirable. Refer to Section 9.3.17 for bicycle
considerations and facilities.

Parallel parking stalls may be 22 ft to 26 ft [6.7 m to 7.8 m] long; 25 ft [7.6 m] being typical.

For angle parking provide a minimum width parallel to the roadway for parking of 17 ft [5.2 m]
and preferably 20 ft [6 m]. Diagonal parking stalls may be 8 ft to 10 ft [2.5 m to 3 m] wide; 9 ft
[2.7 m] being typical. Wheel stops may be provided to limit encroachment of parked vehicles;
however, consider potential interference of wheel stops with snow removal operations if
applicable.

The cross slope of parking lanes may be from 2 percent minimum to 4 percent maximum.

Avoid design of parking lanes within an 8 ft [2.4 m] offset from adjacent traffic barriers.

Consider parking requirements to accommodate persons with disabilities. Refer to the

Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) Accessibility Guidelines for Buildings and Facilities
(ADAAG) for the applicable standards. The Green Book contains information on sidewalk curb
ramps in Section 4.17.3. Refer to Section 9.3.16.3 for accessibility requirements applicable to
the design of parking areas and passenger loading zones. In general, accessible on-street
parking should be located near facilities such as markets, post offices, drug stores, and medical
facilities. Also consider designating passenger loading zones for accessible on-street parking.
Where designing on-street accessible parking spaces consider the following:
● Design the cross-slope to not exceed 2.0 percent,
● If curbed, provide a curb ramp or locate accessible spaces adjacent to crosswalk,
● Provide an additional 5 ft [1.5 m] stall length to accommodate an access aisle,
● Avoid placing appurtenances adjacent to the accessible parking stall, and
● Avoid placing drainage inlets within the accessible parking stall.

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9.3.9.4 Speed Change and Turning Lanes

When applicable, provide acceleration and deceleration lanes, including tapered areas, for
vehicles entering or leaving the through traffic lanes. There are no definite warrants for
providing speed change lanes; however many considerations are involved in the determination.
The Green Book provides guidance on using these lanes in Section 9.7 and Section 10.9.6.

Consider providing speed change lanes for intersections on principal arterials. Also consider
speed change lanes when recommended as the result of a safety and crash study. Speed
change lanes should also be considered when:
● Operating speeds are 50 mph [80 km/h] or greater, and
● Daily peak hourly traffic volume of the through lane in the direction of travel exceeds 120
vph, and
● Turning vehicles frequently cause conflict with the through traffic, and
● The combined volumes of through traffic and vehicles entering or leaving the traffic lanes
typically cause through vehicles to slow more than 10 mph [15 km/h].

Refer to Section 9.3.14.5 for specific considerations and design of left-turn acceleration and
deceleration lanes, and Section 9.3.14.6 for right-turn lanes, at intersections.

9.3.9.5 Climbing Lanes

Evaluate the need for climbing lanes in areas with truck traffic and steep grades, or other areas
subject to slow-moving traffic. Climbing lanes should be provided to assure a uniform level of
service rather than as a necessity to avoid extreme congestion and disruption of traffic flow.
Climbing lanes should be considered when the critical length-of-grade is exceeded (i.e., the
length of grade causes a reduction of 10 mph [15 km/h] or more in the speed of a heavy truck)
and the flow of traffic is significantly affected (DHV flow for LOS D is not attained). Refer to the
Highway Capacity Manual or the IHSDM for methodology to analyze the traffic operations and
effect of climbing lanes for specific locations.

Evaluate the effect of steep grades, both upward and downward, on capacity and safety for high
traffic volumes and numerous trucks. In areas with especially long and steep grades, and high
traffic volume, consider providing a truck lane (creeper lane) for slow-moving downhill traffic
(e.g., trucks, vehicles with trailers, recreational vehicles), as appropriate. Design climbing lanes
independently for each direction of travel.

Consider climbing lanes on two-lane highways under the following circumstances for the DHV:
● The upgrade traffic volume exceeds 200 vph,
● The upgrade truck volume exceeds 20 vph,
● LOS D is not attained on the grade,
● A reduction of two or more levels of service occurs when moving from the approach
segment to the grade, or

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● Trucks will experience a speed reduction of 10 mph [15 km/h] or greater.

For those unfamiliar with the level-of-service concept, it is difficult to visualize the operating
conditions that characterize levels of service A through F. Green Book Table 2-4 presents a
brief description of the operating characteristics for each level-of-service and type of highway.

Other factors to consider, on the upgrade, are the amount and location of left or right turns at
intersections or driveways within the segment.

Refer to Green Book Section 3.4.3 for details on designing climbing lanes on two-lane
highways. The Highway Capacity Manual also contains guidance and sample calculations.

For justification warrants and design criteria for climbing lanes on multilane highways, refer to
Chapter 3 in the Highway Capacity Manual and Green Book Section 3.4.3.

If a climbing lane is provided, consider the following minimum criteria for design:
● The full width of the climbing lane should extend for the entire location where the truck
speed is less than 10 mph [16 km/h] of the passenger car speed;
● The entering taper of the climbing lane should be at least 15:1 and preferably 25:1;
● The exiting or merging taper should be at least 30:1 and preferably 50:1 or more;
● Locate the ending merging taper of climbing lanes in areas where the available sight
distance is maximized;
● The climbing lane width should equal or exceed that of the adjacent through lane, and
preferably be at least 12 ft [3.6 m];
● Avoid locating the ending or merging taper within 500 ft [150 m] prior to an intersection
or major side approach road;
● The merging taper should be located to avoid side approach roads or driveways on
either side of the highway;
● Superelevate the climbing lane in the same manner as for a multi-lane highway;
● The shoulder width should be the same as the adjacent two-lane section and at least 4 ft
[1.2 m];
● Provide the typical clear zone from the edge of the traveled way of the outer most lane
(climbing lane); and
● Provide signing and markings in accordance with the MUTCD.

9.3.9.6 Passing Zones and Lanes

Consider the accommodation of passing maneuvers as an essential element of two-lane rural

highway design. It is desirable to provide as many passing opportunities as possible, especially
in areas where there are limited opportunities to pass or on highways that may have slow-
moving traffic.

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9.3.9.6.1 Passing Zones

FLH standard practice is to develop the roadway geometric design to provide passing sections
based on the design controls for minimum passing sight distance found in the Green Book for
the functional classification and design speed of the highway. Refer to Green Book
Section 3.2.4 for guidance on the criteria for geometric design of passing sections (zones).

Consider the principles of design consistency in the geometric design of passing zones. The
provision of short passing zones intermixed with long passing zones can violate a driver’s
expectations. Design of minimum passing zones may be necessary in mountainous or rolling
terrain to permit passing of slow trucks and recreational vehicles when passing lanes or
climbing lanes cannot be provided.

Signs, if used, and markings to designate passing and no-passing zones are designed in
accordance with the MUTCD Sections 2B.29, 2B-30, 2C-35, and 3B-02.

9.3.9.6.2 Passing Lanes

Consider providing passing lanes in one or both directions of travel on a two-lane highway
having inadequate passing opportunities, to:
● Improve passing opportunities,
● Enhance safety, and
● Improve traffic operations by breaking up traffic platoons and reducing delay.

Passing lanes differ from climbing lanes in that passing lanes are considered regardless of
topography. Refer to Section 9.3.9.5 for guidance pertaining to climbing lanes.

Passing lanes can be used in either rolling or level terrain when passing restrictions exist
because of limited sight distances or high volumes of oncoming traffic. Consider providing
passing lanes particularly on highways with high traffic volumes (over 2,000 ADT) including
slow-moving trucks and recreational vehicles, and that lack frequent sections with adequate
passing sight distance, resulting in operational delays and potential safety conflicts. Consider
passing lanes are less effective on sections that already provide good passing opportunities, at
least during the off peak periods. Although potentially more costly, it may be desirable to locate
passing lane sections in the rolling terrain at locations where passing sight distance is generally
unavailable, rather than in level terrain sections. Passing should be allowed within passing lane
sections for the opposing traffic if passing sight distance is available and access conditions are
appropriate.

Refer to Green Book Section 3.4.4 and the Highway Capacity Manual for guidance on the
design of passing lanes.

FLH standard practice for design of passing lanes includes the following:
● Design passing lanes to be at least 1,000 ft [300 m] long, excluding tapers,

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● For two-way total DHV less than 600, the desirable length of a passing lane is 0.5 mile to
1 mile [0.8 km to 1.6 km], which does not include the taper length for the lane addition
and lane drop,
● Design the lane addition taper at a ratio of 25:1,
● Design the lane drop taper in accordance with the MUTCD, Section 3B-8, or at a ratio of
50:1, whichever is longer,
● Superelevate the passing lane in the same manner as for a multi-lane highway; and
● Provide passing lane signing and markings in accordance with the MUTCD.

The lane addition and drop should be located in areas where sight distance is maximized,
preferably where 1,000 ft [300 m] of sight distance is available, to allow a driver to anticipate the
passing opportunity and also its end. The end of the merging taper should be visible from the
lane reduction sign (W4-2R). Because of sight distance concerns, the merging taper should not
be located just beyond the midpoint of a crest vertical curve.

The passing lane width should equal or exceed that of the adjacent through lane, and preferably
be at least 12 ft [3.6 m]. The shoulder width should be the same as the adjacent two-lane
section. The typical clear zone should be provided from the edge of the traveled way of the
outer most lane (through lane).

Advance signing is beneficial to indicate to drivers that passing opportunities exist ahead (e.g.,
PASSING LANE 2 MILES AHEAD, PASSING LANE ½ MILE AHEAD).

The use of a passing lane is determined on a case-by-case basis. The justification for
increasing the frequency of passing opportunities is usually based on an engineering study that
includes judgment, operational experience and a capacity level-of-service analysis using
procedures of the Highway Capacity Manual. Measuring traffic traveling in platoons (traffic with
headway gaps of 5 seconds or less) can also be helpful in establishing need and identifying
potential sites for passing lanes. Evaluating the need for passing improvements should
consider traffic operations over an extended road length, usually at least 10 miles [16 km]. For
additional information on passing lane warrants, see the FHWA publication Low Cost Methods
for Improving Traffic Operations on Two-Lane Roads, Report No. FHWA-IP-87-2. It presents
approximate adjustments that can be made to the capacity methodology in the Highway
Capacity Manual. These adjustments can be used to estimate the level-of-service benefits from
adding passing lanes to two-lane facilities.

When determining where to locate passing lanes, consider the following factors:
1. Costs and Impacts. Locate passing lanes to minimize costs and impacts. Difficult
terrain will generally increase the costs and impacts for construction of passing lanes.
2. Appearance. The passing lane location, and its value, should appear logical and be
obvious to the driver.
3. Horizontal Alignment. Where practical, avoid locating passing lanes on segments with
lower-speed horizontal curves that restrict the speed for all vehicles.

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4. Vertical Alignment. Where practical, construct passing lanes on a sustained upgrade.

The upgrade will generally cause a greater speed differential between slow moving
vehicles and passing vehicles. However, passing lanes in level terrain still should be
considered where the demand for passing opportunities exceeds supply.
5. Intersections. Locations should be avoided that include major intersections or high-
volume access points (over 500 ADT). Use special care when designing passing lanes
through minor intersections and commercial entrances.
6. Structures. Avoid placing passing lanes where structures (e.g., large culverts, bridges)
may restrict the overall width of the traveled way, passing lane and shoulder.
7. Tapers. Avoid locating the ending or merging taper within 500 ft [150 m] prior to an
intersection or major side approach road. The merging taper should be located to avoid
side approach roads or driveways on either side of the highway.

Separate left-turn lanes may be provided in a passing lane section when left turn volumes are
significant. Refer to Section 9.3.14.5

When passing lanes are provided to improve the overall traffic operations over a length of
roadway, they should be constructed systematically at regular intervals. Typical spacing for
passing lanes may range from 3 to 8 miles [5 to 13 km] in the same traffic direction. Actual
spacing of passing lanes will depend on the traffic volumes, right-of-way availability and existing
passing opportunities. When spacing passing lanes in both directions, it is desirable to locate
the first passing lane for the advancing traffic direction prior to a passing lane for the opposing
traffic.

The design of three-lane roads with alternating passing lanes, in 0.5 mile to 1 mile [0.8 km to
1.6 km] increments, continuously over an extended section of road is known as “2+1” road
design. This concept has been used to convert wide two-lane roadways, or narrow four-lane
roadways, to a three-lane roadway with designated, alternating passing lanes in each direction
to improve safety and operations. These roadways may be considered an intermediate solution
to the ultimate future expansion to a four-lane highway constructed to full standards.

9.3.9.7 Bicycle Lanes

Bicycle lanes are portions of a highway or street that have been identified for bicycle travel by
signs, pavement markings, or both. Consider bicycle lanes particularly for urban street designs.
See Section 9.3.17 for guidance and details.

9.3.9.8 Slow Moving Vehicle Turnouts

Refer to the section on “Turnouts” in Green Book Section 3.4.4 for guidance on the design of
slow moving vehicle turnouts.

When applicable, design slow moving vehicle turnouts to provide sufficient room for a slow
moving vehicle to pull safely off the roadway, then re-enter the through lane after faster moving
vehicles pass.

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Consider the need for a turnout on paved roadways for the following situations:
● With limited passing opportunities,
● When slow-moving vehicles are prevalent but do not warrant climbing lanes, and
● Where the cost of an auxiliary lane is prohibitive.

Exhibit 9.3-K provides guidance for minimum dimensions of turnouts. Refer to Green Book
Table 3-32 for recommended lengths of turnouts including taper. Greater turnout widths should
be considered on curves and along steep fill slopes. Turnouts wider than 16 ft [4.8 m] are not
recommended. The riding surface of a turnout should be similar to the adjacent travel way.
Sign and mark all slow moving vehicle turnouts to identify their presence and purpose.

Turnouts should be located so that approaching drivers have a clear view of the entire turnout in
order to determine whether the turnout is available for use. The available sight distance should
be at least 1,000 ft [300 m] on the approach to the turnout. Provide adequate sight distance so
the vehicle can re-enter the traffic stream safely. Slow-moving vehicle turnouts should not be
located in areas where available sight distance is less than the length shown in the Green Book
for decision sight distance for avoidance maneuvers C, D or E for the type of road.

Exhibit 9.3-K SLOW-MOVING VEHICLE TURNOUT

9.3.9.9 Parking Pullouts

Parking pullouts are advantageous for vehicle checks, orientation, brief driving breaks, vistas,
recreation and other purposes. For operating speeds of 45 mph [70 km/h] or less, parking
pullouts should be a minimum of 14 ft [4.2 m] wide and 50 ft [15 m] long, excluding tapers, for
parallel parking beyond the normal roadway shoulder. For perpendicular or angle parking,
pullouts should be a minimum of 40 ft [12 m] wide and 80 ft [24 m] long, excluding tapers,
beyond the normal roadway shoulder. Tapers for parking pullouts should be at least 50 ft [15 m]
in length. For operating speeds over 45 mph [70 km/h], the pullout and taper dimensions should
be increased proportionately to the higher speed. Parking pullouts should not be located in
areas where available sight distance is less than the length shown in the Green Book for
decision sight distance for avoidance maneuvers C, D or E for the type of road.

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9.3.9.10 Shoulder Widening for Barriers

Refer to the AASHTO Roadway Design Guide for recommended offset distance from the
roadway to barriers such as guardrail, terminals, bridge railing, etc. Design sufficient shoulder
widening to accommodate the barrier and the offset.

9.3.10 MEDIANS

Refer to Green Book Section 4.11 for guidance on the general design of medians. Specific
guidance on the design of medians for collector roads, arterials and freeways is provided in the
applicable sections of the Green Book.

9.3.10.1 Benefits and Disadvantages of Medians

The primary benefit of medians is to improve safety. Medians improve safety by separating
opposing traffic thus reducing head-on and sideswipe crashes, and by providing a recovery area
for errant vehicles, and by providing a refuge area for crossing and left-turning vehicles from
intersecting roads. Medians also improve pedestrian and bicyclist safety by breaking up
crossing distances and providing a refuge area for pedestrians and bicyclists crossing the
roadway. Other benefits of medians include:
● Providing storage space for left-turning vehicles;
● Improving mainline traffic operations by controlling left turns from the mainline as well as
from minor driveways, and channelizing traffic movements;
● Providing space for drainage and drainage facilities, bridge piers, and other structures;
● Providing a refuge area for disabled vehicles, and providing a snow storage area;
● Traffic calming; and
● Providing opportunities for landscaping and aesthetic treatments, which help buffer
visual impacts and noise, and generally provide for increased driver comfort and ease of
operation.

There are also disadvantages to medians. Raised medians may complicate snow plowing,
storage and removal operations. In addition, plantings and other landscaping elements may
obscure sight distance in horizontal curves and at intersections, and may constitute roadside
obstacles. Such elements should be consistent with the AASHTO Roadside Design Guide.

For additional guidance on median width refer to NCHRP Report 375, Median Intersection
Design.

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9.3.10.2 Urban Medians

Medians for urban roadways are typically either raised or flush. Flush medians are typically 4 ft
to 16 ft [1.2 m to 4.8 m] and should be well delineated by either painting or paving with a
contrasting surfacing type, color or texture.

The raised area of urban medians should be curbed. Refer to Section 9.3.11. Raised medians
in urban areas should be as wide as practical, with 30 ft [9 m] normally being the maximum
width. Raised medians should be a minimum of 6 ft [1.8 m] width, which allows for a minimal
4 ft [1.2 m] width raised area with 1 ft [0.3 m] offset between the outside edge of the raised area
and the travel lane. To accommodate left-turn lanes with a raised median and offsets for curb
the raised median width in low-speed urban areas is 16 ft [4.8 m] minimum, and preferably 20 ft
to 24 ft [6.0 m to 7.2 m]. For transitional speed urban roadways with 45 mph [70 km/h] posted
speed, the recommended median width is 30 ft [9 m]. Raised, curbed medians are not
recommended for high speed roadways, particularly for design speeds of 55 mph [90 km/h] or
more. Instead, flush medians with traffic barriers are recommended, or widening the median to
obtain sufficient separation width.

Provide a parabolic (desired) or semi-circular bullet nose at the end of all raised medians. Refer
to Green Book Section 9.8 (including exhibits and tables) for design of median openings.

Consider a two-way continuous left-turn lane (TWLTL) if necessary to provide access in areas
with frequent driveway spacing in highly developed or commercialized areas. A TWLTL should
not be used on highways with more than two through lanes in each direction or average
operating speed over 45 mph [70 km/h]. A center lane width of between 12 ft to 16 ft [3.6 m to
4.8 m] is suitable for a TWLTL; however 14 ft [4.2 m] minimum width is desired. Careful
evaluation of individual sites is required for design of a TWLTL, as it may be inappropriate at
many locations. A TWLTL may increase rather than control access opportunities. An
alternative median treatment with dedicated left turn lanes where needed is preferable than a
TWLTL for safety and access management.

Also refer to AASHTO A Guide for Achieving Flexibility in Highway Design, Section 3.6.4.2, for
guidance on design of medians on urban highways.

9.3.10.3 Rural Medians

Medians for rural highways are typically either depressed or flush. In areas where there are no
driveways or approach roads to cause left turn movements, a flush paved median width of 4 ft
[1.2 m] or greater may be used. However, if there are regular turn movements a flush median
width of 10 ft [3.0 m] or greater should be provided.

An appropriate median should be provided in the design for all new or reconstructed rural multi-
lane arterials, including expansion of two-lane arterials to multi-lane facilities.

Depressed medians are generally used on rural divided highways for more efficient drainage
and snow removal. Median side slopes should follow the recommendations of the AASHTO
Roadside Design Guide. Careful consideration of longitudinal and transverse slopes, ditches

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and drainage features is necessary. Drainage inlets in the median should be designed either
with the top of the inlet flush with the ground or with culvert ends provided with traversable
safety grates.

Also refer to AASHTO A Guide for Achieving Flexibility in Highway Design, Section 3.6.4.1, for
guidance on design of medians on rural highways.

9.3.10.4 Variable Medians and Independent Alignments

For median widths greater than 40 ft [12 m], variable medians and independent roadway
alignments should be considered. Independent horizontal alignments and grades enable a
closer fit of the roadway to the topography and typically reduce the overall clearing footprint and
earthwork. With wider medians, especially with variable independent alignments, a desirable
ease and freedom of operation is obtained, the noise and air pressure of opposing vehicle traffic
is not noticeable, and the glare of headlights at night is greatly reduced. Additional opportunities
for preservation of existing vegetation and landforms within the median are available, which
enhances scenic beauty, environmental enhancements and wildlife crossings.

9.3.11 CURBS

The design of curbs and their offset should consider whether the highway cross-section is
classified as rural or urban, and if urban whether categorized as lower-speed (40 mph [60 km/h]
or less posted or regulatory speed) or transitional (45 mph [70 km/h]), or high-speed (50 mph
[80 km/h] or more). The location of the highway within the corporate limits of a city does not
determine if it should have an urban cross-section.

Curbs may be used for the following applications:

● On low-speed roadways for control of pavement drainage and to delineate and confine
the edge of the roadway, for pavement edge support, right-of-way reduction, and
aesthetics and for maintenance operations;
● In association with gutters or paved ditches for controlling drainage from a highway,
especially in embankment areas with erodible soils or steep and high slopes or that drain
into streams, lakes, wetlands and other bodies of water;
● With a paved foreslope ditch on the cut (uphill) side of a roadway for drainage control,
instead of a graded roadside ditch, where rugged terrain, environmental impacts or other
factors limit the space available for a conventional roadside ditch, and
● On low-speed roadways for channelization, access control, aesthetics, separation
between pedestrians and vehicles, and to enhance delineation of the roadway.

Caution should be exercised when using curbs on high-speed rural highways. Where curbs are
required for control of pavement drainage along high-speed rural highways, they should always
be located at or beyond the outside edge of the shoulder, and should be the sloping faced type.
The curb should be offset a minimum of 1 ft [300 mm] and preferably 2 ft [600 mm] outside the
normal shoulder line, or as described in Section 9.3.11.3.

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Curbs placed in front of traffic barriers can result in unpredictable impact trajectories, and should
be avoided if practical. Curbs should not be used with concrete median barriers. The use of
curbs with guardrail should be avoided, if not required for controlling drainage. Also refer to
Section 8.5.3.3.3.

If a curb is required in conjunction with guardrail, the following applies:

● Do not use curb within 50 ft [15 m] of terminal sections,
● The height-of-curb should be 4 in [100 mm] or less, and it should be the sloping-faced
type with batter 1V:3H or flatter, located flush with or behind the face of the guardrail;
except, for speeds 50 mph [80 km/h] or less a 6 in [150 mm] or less sloping-faced curb
may be used with strong-post (Type G) guardrails if the curb is located flush with or
behind the face of the guardrail, and
● Curbs should not be located between the roadway and the face of the rail, except under
the following conditions:
◊ For low speeds 45 mph [70 km/h] or less, guardrails may be used behind
sloping-faced curbs 6 in [150 mm] or less height if the face of the guardrail is
located at least 8 ft [2.5 m] behind the curb.
◊ For higher speeds up to 50 mph [80 km/h], guardrails may be used behind
sloping-faced curbs 4 in [100 mm] or less height if the face of the guardrail is
located at least 13 ft [4 m] behind the curb.

The above guidance results from crash testing; for additional guidance see NCHRP Report 537:
Recommended Guidelines for Curb and Curb–Barrier Installations.

Coordinate with the Geotechnical Unit where the need for curb is to protect erodible soils.
Coordinate with the Hydraulics Unit where curbing is used in conjunction with a closed storm
drainage system.

When designing curbs, provide drainage inlets or waterways to collect and convey the
concentrated water flow at low points, curb ends, intersections and prior to reversals in
superelevation. Refer to Section 7.3.3 for pavement drainage design guidelines.

Curb with gutter pan may be used to prevent infiltration of water along the face of curb joint and
to enhance the visibility of the curb and thus improve delineation. Gutter pans are typically 1.3 ft
[0.4 m] wide but may be 1 ft to 4 ft [0.3 m to 1.2 m] in width, with cross slope of 1V:12H to
1V:20H to enhance the hydraulic capacity. Gutter pan cross slopes generally must be modified
at curb ramps to meet accessibility requirements. When used on the high side of
superelevation the gutter pan may be sloped away from the roadway to contain some of the
gutter flow against the curb. Where the gutter pan is only used to enhance delineation and not
to enhance the drainage function it should be on the same cross slope as the roadway.

Where curbs or gutters are used, particularly in areas of flat grades, sag vertical curves, and in
through-cuts, consider the potential need for an edge drain or underdrain system where the
base and subbase do not drain to daylight.

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Curb designs are classified as either vertical or sloping, as described in the following sections.

9.3.11.1 Vertical Curbs

Vertical curbs should only be used on lower-speed roadways with posted speeds of 40 mph
[60 km/h] or less. Vertical curbs are undesired on transitional roadways with 45 mph [70 km/h]
posted speed, and instead sloping curbs are recommended if a curb is necessary. Avoid using
vertical curbs with posted or operating speeds greater than 45 mph [70 km/h]. Vertical curbs
are typically nearly vertical (approximate batter of 4V:1H) and are typically 6 in [150 mm] in
height. Vertical curbs taller than 6 in [150 mm] should be avoided. Curbs or dikes for
embankment drainage control are typically 4 in [100 mm] in height and are typically battered
from 2V:1H to 1V:1H, and are typically placed at or preferably beyond the normal edge-of-
shoulder. Vertical curbs within 7 ft [2.1 m] of the travel lane should be avoided in rural areas
that are routinely snowplowed in winter.

9.3.11.2 Sloping Curbs

Sloping curbs are more easily traversed than vertical curbs. Sloping curbs have an approximate
batter of 1V:4H or 1V:3H and are typically 3 in to 4 in [75 mm to 100 mm] in height. Sloping
curbs with a gutter pan function to control drainage and delineate the edge of the roadway,
foreslope or paved ditch while generally conforming to the cut slope behind it. Avoid using
sloping curbs in conjunction with an attached sidewalk, particularly along a parking lane. If
curbs are used on urban transitional roadways with 45 mph [70 km/h] posted speed, the sloping
faced type is recommended. Although in general neither vertical nor sloping curbs are desired
on high-speed roadways 50 mph [80 km/h] or more, if curb is necessary then use the sloping
faced type.

9.3.11.3 Curb Offsets

This section provides guidance on minimum curb offsets from the roadway, for design speeds of
45 mph [70 km/h] or less.

FLH standard practice includes the following:

● Curbs should be offset 2 ft [0.6 m] from the normal edge of shoulder, or 1 ft [0.3 m] if a
sloping curve is used,
● For roadways where shoulders are not provided, apply the minimum offset distance from
the traveled way for vertical curbs as shown in Exhibit 9.3-L, and
● For roadways where shoulders are not provided, the left offset distance from the traveled
way for sloping curbs may be 1 ft [0.3 m] less than shown in Exhibit 9.3-L.

Exhibit 9.3-L shows the minimum offset distances for vertical curbs. For sloping curbing
installations, the minimum left offset distance may be 1 ft [0.3 m] less.

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Where bicyclists are accommodated, provide at least 5 ft [1.5 m] and desirably 6 ft [1.8 m] offset
from the traveled way to the face of the curb. Provide bicycle-safe inlet grates, or preferably
recessed drainage inlets or curb inlets. For further information, see the AASHTO Guide for the
Development of Bicycle Facilities.

Exhibit 9.3-L OFFSET DISTANCES FOR VERTICAL CURBS

Left Right (Min.)

Lane Width Rural Urban Rural and Urban
(ft) (m) (ft) (m) (ft) (m) (ft) (m)
12 3.6 1 0.3 1 0.3 2 0.6
11 3.3 2 0.6 1 0.3 3 1
10 3.0 3 1.0 2 0.6 3 1

9.3.11.4 Accessibility Issues with Curbing

Refer to Section 9.3.16.3 guidance on design of curbs and ramps for accessibility and
accommodation for the disabled.

9.3.12 ROADSIDE DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

The roadside is the area between the shoulder and the construction limits. See Exhibit 4.3-A.
The roadside design should blend the roadway with the surrounding natural or man-made
community.

As practical, design the roadside to provide:

● A safe area for errant vehicles to recover,
● Separation of motorized and non-motorized travel,
● Areas for landscaping and for the control, storage, and filtration of drainage runoff, and
● A cohesive transition between the roadway facility and the environmental context
beyond the highway corridor.

The design of clearing, earthwork, drainage, approach roads, pedestrian facilities and similar
elements that extend outward from the roadside and interact with the surrounding context must
especially strive to match and blend with their natural, or manmade, counterpart elements
outside of the immediate roadway corridor. During the final design, emphasis should be placed
on minimizing the overall footprint of the immediate roadway corridor, which may tend to result
in a minimized and abrupt termination of the roadside design at the slope catch. However, a
similarly high level of emphasis should be placed on creating a smooth and un-noticeable
transition between the roadside design and the natural landscape, or the man-made community,
beyond the immediate roadway corridor. This may result in extending the construction limits
beyond what is minimally needed for the roadside design, and may create additional short-term

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impacts; however, the goal of this work is always to provide a more sustainable design with less
overall impact in the long term. This design goal is achieved through attention to the details of
quality roadside design; and by placing emphasis on restoring vegetation, improving vehicular
and pedestrian access points, providing enhancements of the roadside, and otherwise blending
the roadside at its interface with the adjacent landscape. See Section 9.5.4 for guidance on
landscaping and restoration of vegetation.

Green Book Section 4.8 provides general guidance on roadside design. Refer to the AASHTO
Roadside Design Guide, and A Guide for Transportation Landscape and Environmental Design,
AASHTO 1991, for specific guidance on the roadside design. Also refer to the AASHTO Guide
for Achieving Flexibility in Highway Design Section 3.6.3 for guidance on design considerations
and associated flexibility regarding treatment of the roadside.

9.3.12.1 Forgiving Roadside Concepts

Wherever practical, design the roadside to provide a margin of safety for driver error, and to
forgive driver errors when they occur. Ideally, the roadside should feature recoverable side
slopes free of fixed objects. Where practical, avoid or minimize the design of embankment
slopes steeper than 1V:3H. Slopes steeper than 1V:3H are non-traversable, and an errant
vehicle is likely to overturn on them. Barrier protection should be considered when these slopes
are located within the clear zone. While a 1V:3H slope is technically traversable by a passenger
vehicle, it is of marginal safety value compared to recoverable slopes. Errant drivers trying to
recover control of their vehicles often cannot successfully steer or brake on a 1V:3H slope.
Slopes of 1V:3H become potentially dangerous when other features (e.g., drainage features,
devices, trees, ditches) are located on or adjacent to the slope. Provide a recoverable slope
(i.e., 1V:4H or flatter) adjacent the roadway where practical. Locate roadside hardware outside
the recoverable clear zone or use breakaway devices. Relocate, redesign, or shield fixed
objects, and provide effective delineation of the roadside, especially of any hazards that cannot
be removed. Where practical, implement the concepts of the forgiving roadside beyond the
clear zone. Give special attention to provide a forgiving roadside where a design exception or a
variance from FLH standard practices is required for other geometric features such as
alignment, sight distance or roadway width. Refer to Section 8.1.4 for additional guidance. Also
refer to the AASHTO Roadside Design Guide, Chapter 1.2.

9.3.12.2 Clear Zone

As possible, provide an unobstructed, recoverable clear zone distance beyond the edge of the
traveled way, as recommended by the AASHTO Roadside Design Guide (RDG) for the
applicable functional classification in urban or rural areas, traffic volume, speed, curvature,
embankment and back slopes. Determine a recommended range of clear zone distance using
Table 3.1 or Figure 3.1 of the RDG.

Determine minimum clear zone distances commensurate with traffic volumes and speeds;
however, the prescribed range of clear zone values represent only a general approximation of
the needed clear zone distance. The effect of longitudinal grade, horizontal curves, drainage

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channels, and transverse slopes may influence the recommended clear zone distances. Use
engineering judgment to determine how much clear zone distance to provide throughout the
highway corridor. Document the applicable clear zone as a supplemental standard, and
document any exceptions. The minimum clear zone distance values should be increased for
horizontal curvature; and for areas where there is a crash history, or a relatively high potential
for future crashes, or both, as appropriate and practical. The minimum clear zone distance
should be increased at the outside of horizontal curves using RDG Table 3.2.

In cut areas the clear zone should be extended to the back of the ditch, which may be a greater
distance than is recommended elsewhere. Where minimum sight distance lines extend beyond
the clear zone in rural areas, or in undeveloped urban areas, the design should be adjusted to
maintain the necessary sight lines.

For high-speed urban roadways with 50 mph [80 km/h] or more posted speeds, the
recommended clear zone distances apply. For low-speed urban roadways, the recommended
clear zone distance should be provided wherever possible, such as in undeveloped areas. For
low-speed urban roadways where adjacent development constrains the clear zone, and curbs
are used, provide the maximum practical clear zone and the following guidance also applies:
● For lower-speed urban roadways with 40 mph [60 km/h] or less posted speeds and
parking lanes, the clear zone should extend at least to the minimum offset distance
beyond the face of curb as described in Section 9.3.12.3;
● For lower-speed urban roadways without parking lanes, the clear zone should extend at
least 4 ft [1.2 m] beyond the edge of traveled way or turning lanes, or at least to the
minimum offset distance beyond the face of curb, whichever is greater;
● For urban transitional roadways with 45 mph [70 km/h] posted speed, in undeveloped
areas, the recommended clear zone distance should be provided wherever possible;
and
● For urban transitional roadways in developed areas, the clear zone should extend at
least 7 ft [2.1 m] beyond the edge of traveled way or auxiliary lanes, or at least to the
minimum offset distance beyond the face of curb and preferably 4 ft [1.2 m] beyond the
face of curb, whichever is greater.

Refer to the Section 9.3.11 for design of curbs and offsets. Refer to Section 8.5.2 for additional
clear zone guidance.

9.3.12.3 Lateral Clearance and Offset Distance

Provide a minimum of 2 ft [0.6 m] lateral clearance from the edge of shoulder to any features
over 6 in [150 mm] height, such as guardrail, bridge rail, barriers, walls, signs, utilities, parking,
etc. Any lesser lateral clearance reduces the effective usable shoulder width by that amount.

For low-speed urban roads where curbs are used, provide a minimum offset distance of 18 in
[500 mm] beyond the face of the curb for clearance to obstructions, and preferably 2 ft [0.6 m],
with wider offsets provided where practical. For intersections provide a minimum lateral
clearance and offset distance beyond the face of curb of 3 ft [1 m] and preferably 4 ft [1.2 m], at

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the corner turning radii. For high-speed urban roadways where curbs are used, provide a
minimum offset distance of 4 ft [1.2 m] beyond the face of curb, with wider offsets provided
where practical.

See Section 9.3.8.3 for horizontal clearance to structures. Also see Section 8.5.3.3.4 regarding
shy distance to traffic barriers. Refer to Green Book Section 4.6.2 for additional guidance.

9.3.12.4 Considerations for Existing Features

In determination and application of clear zone concepts, consider the presence and value of
existing unique mature vegetation, natural and historic features, consistency of driver
expectations and safety risk assessment.

9.3.12.5 Access Management

Apply access management techniques according to the function of the roadway and the context
of the area through which it passes. Access management includes a wide range of regulatory
and design techniques to ensure that both access to adjacent land and regional mobility are
provided by highway facilities. Varying degrees of access control are appropriate depending on
the conditions. The roadside design should be consistent with established access management
guidelines of the land management agency and the highway facility owner. Most State highway
agencies have design standards for the provision of access onto State highways. For additional
guidance refer to the TRB Access Management Manual.

9.3.12.6 Driveways

Driveways and non-public approach roads are not considered intersections; however the
requirements and criteria for design of turning movements are similar.

As practical, locate driveways away from intersections and other driveways. Consider driveway
spacing guidelines recommended by the TRB Access Management Manual. Locate driveways
to provide:
● Favorable visibility, sight distance, and horizontal and vertical alignment conditions for
users of the driveway and the highway;
● Safety and convenience for all highway users;
● Non-interference with nearby driveways, intersections, or auxiliary lanes;
● Control and conveyance of drainage from the highway and from the driveway;
● Conformance with applicable State or local standards, or access management plan.

Driveways are intended for low-speed vehicle operation, and should have corner radii reflecting
low speeds. Single-lane driveways are appropriate for two-way traffic for single-family
residential uses and for small groups (less than 10) of residential units, and for small
commercial uses with employees only (no retail customers or regular visitors). For larger
groups of residential units, or commercial uses with retail customers and regular visitors, a two-

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lane driveway is appropriate. Maximum grades for residential driveways are 10 to 15 percent
depending on climate and terrain, and maximum 8 to 10 percent for commercial uses. Provide
a flatter landing area at the connection to the mainline.

Provide clearance to the design vehicle chassis for the design of driveway profiles, particularly
where there is curb, gutter or sidewalk. For a passenger car (P) design vehicle, the minimum
clearance consists of vertical departure angles of 12 degrees from the front and rear wheels,
and undercarriage clearance of 6 in [150 mm]. Limit the minimum K value of vertical curves to
accommodate the design vehicle clearances (undercarriage or tow hitch). For driveway profiles
provide a minimum vertical curve length of 30 ft [9 m] and minimum K value of 1.5 [0.5].

Sidewalks and bikeways must be considered in the geometric design of driveways. A minimum
4 ft [1.2 m] wide path of 1.5 to 2.0 percent maximum cross slope must be provided where a
driveway crosses a sidewalk. Where possible provide continuity of the sidewalk paving material
across the driveway, rather than continuity of the driveway paving material across the sidewalk.
Where paving materials are the same, the sidewalk should be outlined with joints or saw cuts
across the driveway. Provide minimal change to grade and cross slope of the sidewalk, even if
this requires a break in the driveway grade.

9.3.13 FORESLOPES

FLH standard practice is to design the foreslope ratio (i.e. the slope ratio from the edge of the
surfaced shoulder to the edge of the subgrade shoulder) in accordance with guidelines of the
AASHTO Roadside Design Guide (RDG). Although the RDG describes the foreslope as the
entire shape of the embankment from the edge of the roadway to an intersection with natural
ground or a backslope, FLH terminology describes the foreslope as the initial slope from the
edge of the surfaced roadway shoulder to the edge of subgrade shoulder on the embankment.
When using the RDG consider the entire shape of the embankment for evaluation of the
roadside geometry.

The slope ratio from the edge of the subgrade shoulder to the bottom of the ditch should
normally be an extension of the foreslope ratio.

Consider the foreslope to backslope ratios when designing foreslopes that are within the
designated clear zone, in accordance with the RDG.

9.3.13.1 Recoverable Foreslopes

Within the designated clear zone, FLH standard practice is to design slopes to be 1V:4H or
flatter and free of fixed objects, to the maximum extent practical. Flatter slopes of 1V:6H or
1V:10H are desirable, as they are easier to maintain and safer to negotiate. Foreslopes steeper
than 1V:4H are not considered recoverable and should be avoided within the clear zone.

When the existing roadway geometrics are retained and the foreslopes are steeper than 1V:4H,
reshaping to provide a 1V:4H foreslope or flatter is recommended.

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9.3.13.2 Traversable Foreslopes

Where practical beyond the clear zone, it is preferable to design slopes to be traversable (i.e.,
1V:3H or flatter) and free of fixed objects. The design of traversable 1V:3H fill slopes should
also provide for removal of fixed objects and a clear zone in the vicinity of the toe. Consider
available right-of-way, environmental concerns, aesthetics, economic factors, safety
performance and future safety needs in determining the width of a clear recovery area at the toe
of traversable slopes.

Refer to the Roadside Design Guide, Chapter 3 for roadside safety design guidance.

9.3.13.3 Pavement Edge Transitions

It is FLH standard practice to design pavement outside edge transitions that are either:
1. Sloped between 30 to 35 degrees; or
2. Sloped at the same ratio as the adjoining recoverable foreslope of 1V:4H (14 degrees)
or flatter, with a truncated edge less than 2 in [50 mm] high.

Avoid designing pavement outside edge transitions sloped steeper than 35 degrees or between
1V:4H (14 degrees) and 30 degrees. Design the adjoining graded slope or unpaved shoulder to
match and “shoulder up” with the top surface of the pavement edge transition with less than a
1 in [25 mm], and preferably an indiscernible, drop-off following the completion of construction.

For transitions listed in item 1 above, the adjoining graded slope or unpaved shoulder should be
designed either at the same cross slope as the roadway or within 6 to 8 percent rollover, for a
minimum distance of 2 ft [0.6 m] from the edge of pavement, before beginning the ditch slope or
embankment foreslope. See Section 9.3.8.4.2 for shoulder rollover. Provide recoverable
foreslopes within the clear zone.

Refer to The Safety Edge from FHWA for more information.

9.3.13.4 Pavement Drainage Considerations

Design roadway foreslopes to provide surface drainage away from the pavement. Provide
pavement drainage with consideration for safe traffic operations, control of drainage away from
sidewalks, driveways, adjacent slopes and developed private property and public land uses.
Paved foreslopes and paved ditches may be used where right-of-way or topography restrict the
use of normal graded ditches. Isolation of drainage away from the subgrade and base layers of
the pavement also should be provided. Refer to Section 7.3.4 for considerations, criteria, and
guidance on procedures for design of roadway pavement drainage. Also refer to Chapter 11 for
recommendations regarding drainage of the subgrade and structural pavement section.

9.3.13.5 Foreslope Considerations at Intersections

It is desirable to flatten crossroad or road approach foreslopes to 1V:10H. Provide at least a

1V:4H minimum slope. Move the crossroad or road approach drainage away from the mainline
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to maintain the integrity of the clear zone and minimize the length of culvert pipe required
crossing the approach road.

9.3.14 DESIGN OF INTERSECTIONS

This section provides guidelines for design of at-grade intersections. Refer to Green Book
Chapter 9 for additional guidance. For information on intersections with grade separation and
interchanges, see Chapter 10 of the Green Book.

The intersection design should accomplish the following general objectives:

● Provide adequate sight distances,
● Minimize points of conflict,
● Limit conflict frequency,
● Minimize severity of conflicts,
● Simplify the conflict areas,
● Minimize delay, and
● Provide acceptable capacity for the design year.

Consider the type of traffic control in developing the intersection geometry. Consider the traffic
characteristics, driver characteristics, driver expectations, physical features and economics in
the design of channelization and traffic control measures.

The intersection includes the areas needed for all modes of travel: pedestrian, bicycle, motor
vehicle, and transit. All users are affected by the intersection design. Therefore the intersection
design includes not only the roadway area, but also may include bicycle and pedestrian
facilities, bus stops and other multi-modal features and considerations. See Section 9.3.14.10.

Where a traffic engineering study is appropriate, it should include recommendations for

channelization, turn lanes, acceleration and deceleration lanes, intersection configuration and
traffic control devices. Coordinate with the safety and traffic engineer in the design of all such
intersection features. Refer to Section 8.6 for information on traffic engineering studies.

Consider the primary factors that determine the minimum dimensions of intersection design are
the speed at which vehicles approach and move through an intersection, and the type of the
design vehicle. The intersection design criteria (e.g., minimum sight distance, curve radii and
lengths of turning and storage lanes) directly relate to speed and design vehicle.

Refer to Section 9.3.7.5 for determination of minimum sight distance requirements for design of
intersections.

9.3.14.1 Intersection Characteristics

The intersection characteristics include both the intersection itself, as well as the approach to
the intersection. The functional area of the approach to an intersection or driveway consists of
three basic elements:

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● Perception reaction distance;

● Maneuver distance; the maneuver distance includes the length needed for both braking
and lane changing when there is a left or right-turning lane. In the absence of turn lanes,
the maneuver distance is the distance to brake to a comfortable stop; and
● Queue storage distance.

Evaluate the intersection characteristics for determination of appropriate treatment. Consider

and address the following factors in the intersection design:
● Physical characteristics (e.g., roadway width, sight distance, curbs, sidewalks, medians,
islands, drainage features, obstacles),
● Operational characteristics (e.g., lane use, lane delineation, speed, traffic controls, turn
prohibitions, pedestrian controls, crosswalks, accessibility),
● Traffic characteristics (e.g., traffic volumes, vehicle composition, peaking characteristics,
pedestrian and bicycle volumes),
● User characteristics (e.g., driver familiarity, age, experience), and
● Location characteristics (e.g., functional classification, rural or urban, roadside
development, access control, proximity to traffic generators).

9.3.14.2 Intersection Types

The three-leg, four-leg, multi-leg, and modern roundabout configurations are the basic types of
intersections. See Green Book Section 9.3.

For new construction or reconstruction of intersections having traffic controls on the mainline,
particularly those having low speeds and traffic volumes, a roundabout configuration should be
analyzed as an alternative to other proposed or existing intersection types; unless the
intersection has no current or anticipated safety, capacity, or operational problems.
Roundabout design and analysis of their operation should be done using specialized
roundabout design software, such as SIDRA, RODEL or ARCADY. For detailed information on
modern roundabouts see the FHWA publication Roundabouts: An Informational Guide (FHWA-
RD-00-67) and NCHRP Report 572, Roundabouts in the United States. Also refer to Green
Book Section 9.3.4 and the Highway Capacity Manual, Chapter 17, pages 45-48.

9.3.14.3 Intersection Design Vehicle

The design vehicle for any intersection depends on the roadways involved, the location of the
intersection and the types and volume of vehicles using the intersection. Exhibit 9.3-M provides
a guide to determine the design vehicle appropriate for various intersections.

Design an intersection so the design vehicle can make all turning movements without
encroaching on adjacent lanes, opposing lanes, curbs or shoulders. Design the intersection
with consideration that oversize vehicles, on necessary occasions, need to maneuver through
the intersection with an encroachment, if allowed by the State’s vehicle code. Using a taper at

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the exit end of the right-turn corner will reduce the radius and the pavement area. For the
recommended right-turn lane corner design described in Section 9.3.14.6.

For urban streets with parking lanes, or bike lanes, or both, consider the effective turning radius.
Refer to Green Book Section 5.3.5 and Figure 5-3.

Exhibit 9.3-M INTERSECTION DESIGN VEHICLE

Design Vehicle Inside Radius

Intersection Type
Desired Minimum Desired Minimum
US Customary
Junction of Major Truck Routes WB-67 WB-62 130 ft 100 ft
Junction of State Routes WB-62 WB-40 100 ft 65 ft
Ramp Terminals WB-62 WB-40 100 ft 65 ft
Other Rural WB-40 SU-30 75 ft 50 ft
Urban Industrial WB-40 SU-30 75 ft 50 ft
Urban Commercial SU-30 P 50 ft 30 ft
Residential SU-30 P 50 ft 30 ft
Metric
Junction of Major Truck Routes WB-20 WB-19 40 m 30 m
Junction of State Routes WB-19 WB-12 30 m 20 m
Ramp Terminals WB-19 WB-12 30 m 20 m
Other Rural WB-12 SU-9 23 m 15 m
Urban Industrial WB-12 SU-9 23 m 15 m
Urban Commercial SU-9 P 15 m 9m
Residential SU-9 P 15 m 9m
Note:
P = Passenger car, including light delivery trucks
SU-30 [SU-9] = Single unit truck, overall wheelbase of 30 ft [9 m]
WB-40 [WB-12] = Semitrailer truck, overall wheelbase of 40 ft [12 m]
WB-62 [WB-19] = Semitrailer truck, overall wheelbase of 62 ft [19 m]
WB-67 [WB-20] = Semitrailer truck, overall wheelbase of 67 ft [20 m]

9.3.14.4 Intersection Alignment

Refer to guidance in Green Book Section 9.4 on intersection alignment. Specific considerations
that should be addressed in the intersection design are discussed in the following sections.

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9.3.14.4.1 Horizontal Alignment and Skew

Design Intersection angles between 75 degrees and 105 degrees, and desirably as near 90
degrees as practical, to facilitate traffic control, good visibility, and safe operation by drivers and
pedestrians. When the desirable alignment is not attainable for an intersection, suitable curves
introduced into the horizontal alignment of the less important road will reduce the angle of the
intersection. The horizontal alignment approaching a stop sign may be designed to a lower
speed, consistent with the deceleration, comfortable rate, shown in Green Book Figure 2-25.
Any adjustment must provide the minimum stopping sight distance, and preferably decision
sight distance, for the intersection approach at the normal design speed. Green Book
Figure 9-14 shows some examples of intersection horizontal realignments.

For highways with a maximum superelevation rate greater than 6 percent, the horizontal
curvature of the main road through intersections should be designed such that the
superelevation rate is 6 percent or less. For highways in areas where snow and ice routinely
accumulate in winter, and with a maximum superelevation rate greater than 4 percent, the
horizontal curvature of the main road through intersections should be designed such that the
superelevation rate is 4 percent or less.

9.3.14.4.2 Lane Shifts

Avoid lane shifts through intersections. When lane shifts are unavoidable, provide a smooth
alignment consisting of horizontal curves and interconnecting tangent meeting the design speed
of the approach. Because pavement markings are often not placed through the intersection, the
shifting of traffic can be confusing to the driver. Pavement markings through the intersection
may be needed to ensure the following vehicles have a clearly delineated path to follow.

9.3.14.4.3 Vertical Alignment

Provide intersection approach alignment grades as flat as possible. Provide a flatter area for
the minor road approach grade where vehicles are stopped.

When the gradient of an intersecting approach roadway exceeds the cross slope of the through
pavement, it is desirable to adjust the vertical alignment of the approach using suitable grades
and vertical curves. The vertical alignment approaching a stop sign may be designed for a
lower speed, consistent with a braking deceleration rate of 11.2 ft/s2 [3.4 m/s2]. Any adjustment
must provide the minimum stopping sight distance, and preferably decision sight distance, for
the intersection approach at the normal design speed.

In areas of ice or snow conditions, it is desirable that the grade and cross slope be less than 3
percent through the intersection, and the grade and cross slope should not exceed 5 percent.
Provide a minimum grade of ½ percent (1 percent desired) for drainage at the intersection.

Where the cross slope of the main road is in the same direction as the gradient of the
intersecting cross road, adjust the vertical alignment of the cross road to meet the pavement
cross slope of the highway.

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If possible, avoid or realign intersections where the cross slope of the superelevated main road
is not in the same direction as the grade of the intersecting cross road. If this is unavoidable,
adjust the vertical alignment of the cross road far enough from the intersection to provide a
smooth junction and proper drainage. Provide a vertical alignment that enables the mainline
and approach road traffic to view the entire layout of the intersection sufficiently in advance, and
provides adequate decision sight distance for the approach to the intersection.

9.3.14.4.4 Intersection Lane Widths

Lane widths may need to be increased at intersections to enhance safety and operations. Refer
to Exhibit 9.3-N for recommended minimum lane widths at intersections.

Exhibit 9.3-N MINIMUM RECOMMENDED INTERSECTION LANE WIDTHS

Roadway Functional Through Lanes Turn Lanes Bicycle Lane

Classification (ft) (m) (ft) (m) (ft) (m)
Arterial (Rural) 12 3.6 12 3.6 5 1.5
Arterial (Urban) 12 3.6 12 3.6 4 1.2
Collector (Rural) 12 3.6 11 3.3 5 1.5
Collector (Urban) 11 3.3 11 3.3 4 1.2
Local (Rural) 10 3.0 10 3.0 5 1.5
Local (Urban) 10 3.0 10 3.0 4 1.2

9.3.14.4.5 Intersection Cross Slopes

Refer to Section 9.3.14.3 for guidance to design the intersection approach vertical alignment, as
applicable for situations described below.

When both the mainline and the approach roadways are at normal crown (or the approach
roadway does not require superelevation) the intersection cross slopes should be treated as
follows:
● If the approach is a stop condition, or is a signalized crossing with a design speed less
than 45 mph [70 km/h] through the intersection, maintain the normal crown on the
mainline roadway. Transition the approach edge of travel lanes to match the longitudinal
gradient of the mainline roadway, not exceeding the maximum relative gradient for the
design speed of the approach roadway.
● If the approach is a signalized crossing with a design speed of 50 mph [80 km/h] or
greater through the intersection, transition the mainline cross slope to a plane section
through the intersection. The mainline may be designed with a cross slope between
zero and 2 percent to best accommodate the approach crossing grade. Maintain a
minimum mainline longitudinal gradient of 0.5 percent and preferably 1 percent.
Transition the edge of travel lanes on all approaches to match the intersection plane, not

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exceeding the maximum relative gradient for the design speeds of the mainline and
approach roadways, respectively.

When the mainline roadway is superelevated and the approach is either normal crown or does
not require superelevation, maintain the design superelevation rate of the mainline. Transition
the edge of travel lanes of the approach to match the longitudinal grade of the mainline roadway
and not exceed the maximum relative gradient for the design speed of the approach roadway.

When both the mainline and approach roadways require superelevation, adjust the horizontal
and vertical alignments of either the mainline or the approach, or both, such that the cross slope
of the approach can match the longitudinal grade of the mainline roadway, and can also meet
allowable superelevation or side friction design criteria. In extreme cases, a broken back curve
may be needed.

9.3.14.4.6 Turning Roadways at Intersections

Turning roadways include separated turn lanes, connections for channelized intersections, and
ramps. As applicable, determine the appropriate design speed, radii, width, superelevation, and
stopping sight distance for turning roadways based on the design vehicle, and consideration for
accommodating a larger oversize vehicle with encroachment. Refer to the following sections of
the Green Book:
● Section 3.3.7 for guidance on selection of design speed for the turning roadway and use
of compound curves,
● Section 3.3.11 for the design widths of turning roadways,
● Section 9.6.6 for superelevation guidelines, and
● Section 9.6.7 for stopping sight distance.

Determine the operational classification as one of 3 cases (I, II, or III), and determine the design
traffic condition as one of 3 conditions (A, B, or C), as described in the Green Book to allow for
passing a stalled vehicle on the turning roadway. The recommended design pavement widths
of turning roadways for typical conditions of mixed traffic and various radii are provided in Green
Book Table 3-29. Determine the width of the shoulders or equivalent lateral clearance outside
the traveled way using Green Book Table 3-30.

9.3.14.5 Left-Turn Lanes

Left-turn lanes should be used for the major road approaches of 3-leg or 4-leg intersections
where significant turning volumes exist or to reduce crashes related to left-turning vehicles.

Determine the volumes of left-turning and opposing vehicles for the major approaches, which
are critical factors in the evaluation of intersection capacity, delays, queuing and traffic signal
timing. Design left-turn channelization with enough operational flexibility to function under peak
loads and adverse conditions. Also see Section 9.3.9.4.

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Exhibit 9.3-O LEFT-TURN STORAGE GUIDELINES FOR UNSIGNALIZED

TWO-LANE HIGHWAY INTERSECTIONS

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At unsignalized intersections on two-lane highways, use Exhibit 9.3-O for guidance on the need
for left-turn lanes. Criteria for left-turn lanes are also provided in Green Book Table 9-23,
Section 9.3, Section 9.7, and the “Speed-Change Lanes” portion of Section 10.9.6. Also refer to
NCHRP Report 279, Intersection Channelization Design Guide (1985), and the left-turn lane
guidance in the Highway Capacity Manual.

Consider the need for additional decision sight distance approaching the intersection, in
advance of left turn maneuvers, and where possible avoid beginning design of left turn lanes on
crest vertical curves or horizontal curves where sight distance is limited. Also consider that left-
turning vehicles may not slow to a stop (Green Book Case F), and may decide to begin turning
in advance of the intersection coupled with the need for additional decision sight distance to
judge the presence or gap of opposing traffic from a location significantly in advance of the
intersection.

Consider a left-turn acceleration lane when operating speeds are 50 mph [80 km/h] or greater
and daily peak hourly traffic volume, i.e. vehicles per hour (vph) of the through lane in the
direction of travel exceeds 120, turning vehicles from the approach frequently cause conflict with
the through traffic, or when the turning volume from the approach exceeds 100 vph.

At unsignalized intersections, the storage length must accommodate the number of turning
vehicles expected to arrive in an average 2-minute period within the peak hour. The minimum
storage length should be 100 ft [30 m], or longer if necessary to store at least one car and one
truck representing the design vehicle if there are over 10 percent trucks. Provide a 6 ft [1.8 m]
space between queued vehicles. At signalized intersections, the left-turn storage length is
dependent on capacity and level-of-service criteria found in the Highway Capacity Manual. For
signalized intersections a capacity analysis should be performed to determine the storage
requirements. Specialized software such as Vissim or Synchro or Sim Traffic should be used
for such capacity analyses. Exhibit 9.3-P provides additional left-turn storage for trucks to
accommodate a left-turn lane. For left turn volumes over 300 vph consider double left-turn
lanes. See Green Book Section 9.7 for additional design guides and for left-turn treatments on
multilane facilities.

FLH standard practice is to determine the minimum length of acceleration and deceleration
lanes based on the AASHTO Green Book guidelines for acceleration and deceleration lanes
and transition tapers, including grade adjustment factor, plus queuing. Refer to the
“Deceleration Length” discussion in Green Book Section 9.7.2; and Tables 10-3 to 10-5. The
deceleration or acceleration is typically for a stop condition from or to the highway design speed.

FLH standard practice is to design the taper length based on the AASHTO Green Book
guidelines, and the following:
● In urban areas, a 10 mph [16 km/h] deceleration is permissible in the through lane
before entering the taper, and
● In rural areas, all deceleration should be accommodated within the taper and
deceleration lane.

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Exhibit 9.3-P ADDITIONAL LEFT-TURN STORAGE FOR TRUCKS AT

UNSIGNALIZED TWO-LANE HIGHWAY INTERSECTIONS

Trucks in Left-Turn Movement

Standard
10% 20% 30% 40% 50%
Storage
Length Additional storage length to be added to
standard values of left-turn lengths.
US Customary

100 ft 25 ft 25 ft 50 ft 50 ft 50 ft

150 ft 25 ft 50 ft 50 ft 75 ft 75 ft
200 ft 25 ft 50 ft 75 ft 100 ft 100 ft
Metric

30 m 7.5 m 7.5 m 15 m 15 m 15 m

45 m 7.5 m 15 m 15 m 22.5 m 22.5 m

60 m 7.5 m 15 m 22.5 m 30 m 30 m

Refer to Green Book Figure 9-49 for recommended taper design for auxiliary lanes; however,
the following also applies:
● Do not use the straight line taper and instead use either a partial tangent taper or
reverse curve taper design,
● A 15:1 approach taper rate should be used in rural areas with design speeds above
30 mph [50 km/h],
● A 100 ft [30 m] minimum approach taper length is applicable for urban areas, and
● Provide a 25:1 departure taper at the end of acceleration lanes.

9.3.14.6 Right-turn Lanes

Right-turn lanes should be considered for the major approaches of intersections where
significant turning movements exist, or to reduce crashes involving right turns. Also see
Section 9.3.9.4. Consider the following factors for right-turn lane design, and right-turn lane
applicability to a particular location:
● Speeds,
● Traffic and pedestrian volumes,
● Design vehicle,
● Percentage of trucks,
● Type of highway,
● Volumes and capacity, and

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● Arrangement and frequency of intersections.

Right-turn movements at intersections influence intersection capacity, although not usually to

the same extent as left-turning movements. Conflicts between the opposing traffic and the right-
turning vehicle are usually not a factor. Pedestrian movements, especially those in the
crosswalk of the leg into which the turn is being made, affect right-turning vehicles.

Consider right-turn lanes at unsignalized intersections when:

● Approach and right-turn traffic volumes are high (see Exhibit 9.3-Q),
● Presence of pedestrians requires right-turning vehicles to stop in the through lanes,
● Restrictive geometrics require right-turning vehicles to slow considerably below the
speed of the through traffic,
● The decision sight distance is below minimum at the approach to the intersection, and
● Crashes involving right-turning vehicles are high.

Exhibit 9.3-Q RIGHT-TURN LANE GUIDELINES

Notes:
1. For two-lane highways use the total peak hour approach volume. For multi-lane, high Speed
(posted at 45 mph [70 km/h] or above) highways use the total peak hour approach volume per
lane.
2. Reduce peak hour right-turn volume by 20 VPH when all three of the following conditions are met:
● Posted speed ≤ 45 mph [70 km/h],
● Right-turn volume > 40 VPH, and
● Total approach volume < 300 VPH.

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Consider a right-turn acceleration lane at unsignalized intersections when operating speeds are
50 mph [80 km/h] or greater, and daily peak hourly traffic of the through lane in the direction of
travel exceeds 120 vph, right-turning vehicles from the approach frequently cause conflict with
the through traffic, or the right-turning volume from the approach exceeds 50 vph.

At signalized intersections, perform a capacity analysis using the Highway Capacity Manual or
specialized traffic software to determine if right-turn lanes are necessary to maintain the desired
level-of-service.

For the design of right-turn lanes refer to Green Book Section 9.6.4 and Figure 9-42. Also refer
to the right-turn guidance in NCHRP Synthesis 299, Recent Geometric Design Research for
Improved Safety and Operations.

Design right-turn lanes to provide space for the deceleration, storage of turning vehicles and
turning maneuvers to occur outside of the normal flow of highway traffic. Design of right-turn
lanes includes the taper and deceleration area.

Right-turn corner designs should allow the design vehicle to turn without encroaching on
adjacent lanes, curbs, shoulder edges or opposing traffic lanes. Also consider the largest size
vehicle that may periodically use the roadway, with allowable encroachments.

Exhibit 9.3-R shows typical design details for a right-turn pocket and a right-turn taper. At
signalized intersections, some encroachment on adjacent lanes of the approach leg is usually
acceptable to obtain an adequate radius for oversize vehicles.

Exhibit 9.3-R RIGHT-TURN POCKET OR TAPER

Posted
L
speed limit
Below 35 mph 100 ft
Below 60 km/h 30 m
35 mph or above 175 ft
60 km/h or
50 m
above

Note: See Exhibit 9.3-M

for right-turn “R” values.

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See the subsections on “Minimum Edge-of-Traveled-Way Designs” and “Design for Specific
Conditions (Right-Angle Turns)” in Green Book Section 9.6.1 for guidance on use of compound
curves and other guidelines for corner radius returns.

Consider that the corner radius also affects the pedestrian crossing time and provision of
islands. FLH standard practice for design of corner radius includes the following:
● For passenger cars provide a corner radius of from 15 ft [4.5 m] minimum to 25 ft [7.5 m]
desired,
● For SU-30 [SU-9] truck or motor home provide a corner radius of from 25 ft [7.5 m]
minimum to 40 ft [12 m] desired, and
● For WB-40 [WB-12] truck or bus provide a corner radius of from 40 ft [12 m] minimum to
50 ft [15 m] desired, if minor encroachment is allowable. If no encroachment is
allowable outside a single approach and departure lane, a corner radius of 80 ft [24 m]
may be needed for a WB-40 [WB-12] truck design vehicle. In this situation, a 3-radius
corner or a turning lane with a corner island may be preferable.

Refer to Section 9.3.14.9 for design of corner islands.

FLH standard practice is to base the minimum length of right-turn acceleration and deceleration
lanes based on AASHTO Green Book guidelines for acceleration and deceleration lanes and
the transition tapers, including grade adjustment factor, plus any storage length for queuing if
applicable (e.g., for pedestrian movements at signalized intersections). The following also
applies:
● In urban areas, a 10 mph [16 km/h] deceleration rate is permissible in the through lane
before entering the taper.
● In rural areas, all deceleration rates should be accommodated within the taper and
deceleration lane.

Refer to the “Deceleration Length” discussion in Green Book Section 9.7.2; and Tables 10-3,
10-4 and 10-5. The deceleration or acceleration is typically for a stop condition from or to the
highway design speed.

FLH standard practice is to design the taper length based on AASHTO Green Book guidelines.
Refer to Green Book Figure 9-49 for recommended taper design for auxiliary lanes; however,
the following also applies:
● Do not use the straight line taper and instead use either a partial tangent taper or
reverse curve taper design,
● A 15:1 approach taper rate should be used in rural areas with design speeds above
30 mph [50 km/h],
● A 100 ft [30 m] minimum approach taper length is applicable for urban areas, and
● Provide a 25:1 minimum departure taper at the end of acceleration lanes.

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Storage for turning traffic is advantageous and provides improved intersection capacity and
safety performance. Storage length calculations should consider the queue from the adjacent
through-movement might affect entry to the right-turn lane. If right-turn lanes are necessary at a
signalized intersection, the storage requirements should be determined by a capacity analysis.
Specialized software such as Vissim or Synchro or Sim Traffic should be used to perform such
signalized intersection capacity analyses.

9.3.14.7 Bypass Lanes

Bypass lanes may be used on rural two-lane highways to accommodate occasional left-turning
vehicles at unsignalized Tee intersections, if needed to address speed differential or improve
safety. Where frequent queuing of left-turning vehicles may be expected, a dedicated left-turn
lane may be necessary instead of a bypass lane, to address capacity. Use of a bypass lane
may be justified, in lieu of a left-turn lane, to reduce crashes or improve traffic operations.
Consider a bypass lane where:
● The sight distance in advance of the intersection is less than the decision sight distance
for avoidance maneuver B shown in Green Book Table 3-3,
● Opposing traffic volume often cause a delay for the left-turn movement, or
● A crash history is identified at the location that may be alleviated by separating left-
turning traffic from through traffic.

A bypass lane should only be designed if a left-turn deceleration and storage lane is not
practical. A bypass lane should not be a substitute for a conventional left-turn lane as part of a
reconstruction or major redesign project where right-of-way is available and construction is
feasible. Provide the same shoulder as the rest of the roadway for the bypass lane.

The length recommended for bypass lanes varies with the posted speed of the highway. Refer
to Exhibit 9.3-S for recommended lengths of bypass lanes.

Exhibit 9.3-S RECOMMENDED MINIMUM LENGTHS FOR BYPASS LANES

(US Customary)
Posted Speed Approach Approach Departure Departure Total Bypass
(mph) Taper (ft) Lane (ft) Lane (ft) Taper (ft) Length (ft)
30 180 180 180 180 720
35 245 210 190 245 900
40 320 240 200 320 1080
45 540 270 210 540 1570
50 600 300 220 600 1740
55 660 330 230 660 1910
60 720 360 240 720 2080

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(Metric)
Posted Speed Approach Approach Departure Departure Total Bypass
(km/h) Taper (m) Lane (m) Lane (m) Taper (m) Length (m)
50 58 55 55 58 226
60 84 70 60 84 298
70 157 82 64 157 460
80 179 90 67 179 515
90 201 101 70 201 573
100 224 110 73 224 631

Note: Taper lengths are based on the MUTCD taper design for lane reduction,
Section 3B.09 for 12 ft [3.6 m] lane. For narrower lane widths, reduce taper
length proportionately.

9.3.14.8 Channelization

When applicable, provide channelization to separate traffic into definite paths of travel using
combinations of pavement markings, markers, rumble strips, contrasting pavement, or raised
islands, to facilitate the safe and orderly movement of vehicles, bicycles and pedestrians.

It is FLH standard practice to use curbing for channelization only on urban and suburban
highways with a design speed of 45 mph [70 km/h] or less. On these types of highways, drivers
expect to encounter confined facilities and raised channelization is applicable.

Preferably, use pavement markings consisting of painted stripes reflectorized with glass beads
to delineate travel paths. Raised Pavement Markers (RPM), reflectorized and non-reflectorized,
may supplement pavement striping when increased visibility is desirable. RPM may replace
painted stripes when climatic or traffic conditions warrant as described in Section 8.7.1.3.

The use of curbing or raised islands for channelizing traffic should be kept to a practical
minimum, as they can present problems, especially for winter maintenance. Curbing for
channelization is undesirable at any location where painted pavement markings with or without
reflective lane markers attain the same objective.

Curbing is permissible for channelization under the following conditions:

● Low design speed,
● Prevention of mid-block left-turns,
● Raised divisional and directional islands,
● Raised islands with luminaries, signals or other traffic control devices,
● Pedestrian refuge islands, and
● Landscaped areas within the roadway.

The two general classifications of curbing for channelization are sloping curbs and vertical curbs
of the types shown in Green Book Figure 4-5. Use sloping curbing for channelization when
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vehicles may occasionally mount the curb (e.g., inscribed radius of roundabouts). Use vertical
curb for raised islands with traffic control devices or luminaries and for pedestrian refuge.

9.3.14.9 Islands

An island is a defined area between traffic lanes for channelization. The use of raised islands
should be limited to those urban and suburban highways with a design speed of 45 mph
[70 km/h] or less. Provide the minimum curb offsets to raised islands as described in
Section 9.3.11.3 and Green Book Figures 9-38 and 9-39. Provide the required lateral clearance
and offset distance within raised islands, and where possible, provide the recommended clear
zone. See Sections 9.3.12.2 and 9.3.12.3.

Consider islands when needed to perform the following functions:

● Control and direct traffic movement,
● Separate opposing or same direction traffic streams,
● Provide refuge for pedestrians, and
● Provide for proper placement of traffic control devices.

Traffic separation islands are normally elongated and should be at least 4 ft [1.2 m] wide and
20 ft to 25 ft [6 m to 8 m] long. For pedestrian refuge islands with crosswalks provide a
minimum width of 6 ft [1.8 m], and preferably 8 ft [2.4 m], to accommodate pedestrians
(including ADA requirements such as detectable warnings and landing) and bicyclists. When
practical, the beginning of raised median islands should be offset 4 ft to 8 ft [1.2 m to 2.4 m]
from the travel lane and transitioned to a normal curb offset, typically 2 ft [0.6 m] desired. See
Green Book Figure 9-41.

Corner islands may be used to reduce conflicts and to delineate turning path where large (50 ft
[15 m] or more) radii or oblique intersections lead to large areas of pavement. Corner islands
are typically triangular with one side curved concentric with the corner radius and the noses
rounded and offset from the travel lanes. In rural areas, they should contain an area of at least
75 square feet [7 m2] with 100 square feet [9 m2] as a desirable minimum. In urban areas where
speeds are low, raised islands should be a minimum size of 50 square feet [5 m2], with
100 square feet [9 m2] as a desirable minimum. Raised islands with traffic control devices or
luminaries, and islands crossed by pedestrians, require 200 square feet [18 m2] as a minimum
area.

Design triangular shaped islands as shown in Green Book Figures 9-38 and 9-39 for urban or
rural locations, respectively. For painted islands in rural areas, the offset distances from the
through lane are not required if the lane width is 12 ft [3.6 m]. Where a curbed corner island is
proposed on a roadway with shoulders, the face of curb on the corner island should be offset by
an amount equal to the shoulder width. If the corner island is preceded by a right-turn
deceleration lane, the shoulder offset should be at least 8 ft [2.4 m].

Corner islands should accommodate turning roadway widths of 14 ft [4.3 m] minimum and allow
turning vehicles to keep their wheel tracks within the traveled way by approximately 2 ft [0.6 m]
on both sides. If large trucks are used as design vehicles this may result in wide lanes that

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could encourage the driver to use the facility as if it had two lanes. Paint or other flush markings
can delineate the desired path and discourage this behavior. Refer to Green Book
Section 9.6.5, Figure 9-43 and Table 9-18.

The offset from the edge of through travel lanes must be no less than the shoulder, and should
be offset from the normal roadway edge, especially if no gutter pan is used. Refer to
Exhibit 9.3-L for the minimum offset distances recommended for vertical curbs. For sloping
curbing installations, the left offset distance is optional. Avoid roadway offset distances wider
than 5 ft [1.5 m] as this gives the appearance of an added lane. Retro-reflective (preferably), or
reflective, raised pavement markers may supplement island pavement markings.

Raised islands at crosswalk locations require barrier-free access for the disabled, including curb
ramps, detectable warnings, and maneuver or refuge platforms. Pedestrian refuge platforms in
islands or raised medians should be elevated a minimum of 2 in [50 mm] above the pavement
surface. See Section 9.3.16.3.

Design approach ends of islands to provide adequate visibility and advance warning of their
presence. A sloping curb should typically be used on the approach nose to minimize damage to
errant vehicles or to snowplows. Also see Green Book Figure 9-40 for nose ramping. Islands
should not cause a sudden change in vehicle direction or speed. Transverse lane shifts should
begin far enough in advance of the intersection to allow gradual transitions. Avoid introducing
islands on a horizontal or vertical curve. When islands on curves are unavoidable provide
adequate sight distance, and illumination, or extension of the island, or both. Consider using a
flexible raised delineator, or a rumble strip, or both.

Avoid using islands to channelize mid-block access “right-in, right-out” turning movements,
unless a physically closed, depressed or raised median is used for the main roadway.

See Green Book Section 9.6.3 for additional design criteria for islands and Part III of the
MUTCD for markings for the islands.

9.3.14.10 Pedestrian, Bicyclist and Transit Considerations at Intersections

Pedestrian crossing distances should be minimized at intersections. Crossing locations should

correspond to the placement of sidewalks along approaching streets, and likely crossing
locations. Balance intersection widening for vehicle turning lanes and clearances at the curb
returns against the need to keep the pedestrian crossing distances to a minimum. In urban
areas with parking lanes and curbs, consider ending the parking lane ahead of the intersection
and adjusting the curb returns to be just offset to the travel lane or bike lane. These intersection
curb “bulb-outs” have the effect of narrowing the overall roadway, slowing traffic and reducing
the distance of the pedestrian crossing. Pedestrian facilities must meet the requirements of the
disabled. Pedestrian facilities include curb ramps and sidewalks, adequate longitudinal slopes
and cross slopes, and detectable warnings. New signal installations at intersections with
pedestrian facilities must include accessible pedestrian signals, with well-placed locations of
pushbutton activation controls. For design of intersections use a maximum walk speed of 3.0 ft
[0.9 m] per second over the entire length of crosswalk plus the length of one pedestrian curb cut
ramp. See Section 9.3.16.3 for additional information.

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Consider how bicyclists will negotiate intersections. Approach roadways may include provision
for bicyclists, including: separate off-highway multi-use paths, designated (striped with special
markings) bicycle lanes or undesignated (striped without special markings) bicycle lanes.
These will need to be accommodated through the intersection. Bicyclists may position
themselves for their intended destination regardless of the presence of bike lanes or shoulders.
If bicycle lanes are not provided, the bicyclist may use either the shoulder or the traffic lane. If
bicycle lanes are present, provide that bicyclists can merge to the proper location for any travel
direction. Consider the needs of the bicyclist as well as the interaction of bicycle traffic with the
motorized vehicle users.

Transit stops are typically located at intersections, particularly where transit routes cross. The
design vehicle for most types of transit service is the AASHTO City-Bus, which is 40 ft [12 m]
length. Transit stops may be located at intersections either as a near-side stop on the approach
to the intersection, or as a far-side stop on the departure leg. For a near-side intersection bus
stop provide a minimum length of 70 ft [21 m] and preferably 100 ft [30 m] space. For far-side
intersection bus stop, provide a minimum length of 50 ft [15 m] and preferably 70 ft [21 m]
space. Consider providing bus turnouts based on the volume and turning movements of both
the bus and through traffic, the distance between bus stops, and right-of-way limitations.

9.3.14.11 Signalization

Refer to Section 8.7.2 for information on warrants and design for signalization. For highway
design purposes, consider the following options to the installation of signalization at
intersections:
● Improve the sight distance of the mainline, or approaches, or both;
● Revise the geometry at the intersection to channelize vehicular movements and reduce
the time required for a vehicle to complete a movement;
● Add lanes on the minor approach to reduce the number of vehicles queued for each
movement;
● Relocation of the stop line(s) to reduce crossing maneuver time;
● Install advance warning signs of the intersection on the mainline;
● Install advisory or regulatory speed limit signing to encourage lower speeds on the
approaches;
● Install a flashing warning beacon;
● Install roadway lighting for nighttime operations;
● Restrict one or more turning movements if alternate routes are available, or possibly on
a time-of-day basis;
● Install multi-way STOP sign control if the warrant is satisfied; and
● Construct a modern roundabout.

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9.3.15 RAILROAD-HIGHWAY GRADE CROSSINGS

Refer to the FHWA Railroad-Highway Grade Crossing Handbook, FHWA-SA-07-010. Also,

refer to Green Book Section 9.12 for guidance on the design of railroad crossings. Refer to
Section 12.4 for agreements and right-of-way considerations and requirements in design of
railroad crossings. Refer to Section 8.7.4 for traffic control and protection at railroad-highway
grade crossings. Coordinate with the Division Traffic Safety specialist and the railroad company
for design of all railroad-highway grade crossings. Even if no improvements are made to the
railroad crossing, coordination is needed early with the railroad company in regard to temporary
traffic control that may affect the railroad. Include the special considerations and coordination in
the Temporary Traffic Control Plan and in the Special Contract Requirements.

Sight distance is of primary consideration at grade crossings. If possible, avoid designing a

grade crossing on a horizontal curve of either the highway or the track. The condition at a
railroad grade crossing is comparable to that of intersecting highways where a corner sight
triangle must be kept clear of obstructions. Where feasible remove obstructions that reduce the
desired sight distance. The corner sight distance should allow a driver approaching the grade
crossing to see an approaching train at such a distance to either allow the vehicle to cross prior
to the train’s arrival, or to comfortably stop in advance of the crossing. For either case, establish
both the vehicle and train speeds to determine the necessary corner sight distance. Stopped
vehicles require additional sight distance to safely proceed across a crossing. This is measured
along the track and is determined by establishing both the train’s approach speed and the time
required for the motor vehicle to accelerate and clear the crossing as shown in Green Book
Table 9-32. The ITE Traffic Control Devices Handbook (2001), Chapter 11 “Highway-Rail
Grade Crossings” also contains discussion of sight distance requirements for at-grade
crossings.

When any of the sight distances are insufficient at a crossing, either:

● Increase available sight distances (corner, stopping, or clearing) by clearing obstructions
or modification of the horizontal alignment of the crossing;
● Establish a posted approach speed for the highway that provides sufficient time for the
sight distance; or
● Provide applicable crossing protection such as automatic flashing light signals, either
with or without gates.

Consider the need for providing an additional stopping lane for vehicles that are required to stop
at the crossing, particularly if the crossing is a high-speed, multi-lane highway. If provided, the
stopping lane geometry should meet the following minimum guidance:
● The approach taper to the stopping lane should be at least 165 ft [50 m] long and the
width may vary from zero to 12 ft [3.6 m];
● The length of the full width stopping lane should be at least 100 ft [30 m] in advance of
the centerline of the first set of tracks to 85 ft [25 m] beyond the last set of tracks;
● The acceleration taper should be at least 200 ft [60 m] long and the width may vary from
12 ft [3.6 m] (full width) to zero; and

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● The shoulder along the stopping lane should be a minimum width of 3 ft [0.9 m].

The decision to add stopping lanes is made on a project-by-project basis after review of the site
and after determining legal requirements under the applicable State regulatory authority.

Establish the grade and cross slope of the roadway to match the grade along and across the
track rails, corresponding to the alignment, gradient and superelevation of the railroad. Provide
an approach section with vertical alignment having a maximum deviation of 3 in [75 mm] at a
distance of 30 ft [9 m] from the rails as shown in Green Book Figure 9-75. For vertical
alignments with minimum K values greater than 15 [5], a lesser deviation may be necessary.

Provide a smooth, high-friction surface as an important part of the railroad-highway grade

crossing that contributes to the safety of crossing vehicles. Typical types of crossing surfaces
for railroad/highway grade crossings include:
● Asphalt concrete,
● Concrete,
● Steel,
● Timber,
● Rubber (elastomeric) panels,
● Linear high density polyethylene modules, and
● Epoxy-rubber mix cast-in-place.

Provide adequate drainage to channel runoff and subsurface water away from the crossing,
including adjusting the vertical grades of the roadway, special ditch grades, underdrains,
controlling pavement drainage, curb and gutter, inlets or a storm drain system.

For crossings with gates, consider providing at least 100 ft [30 m] of vertical face curb in each
direction, extending to 12 ft [3.6 m] from the track centerline, to discourage traffic from passing
around the gates.

Consider that the railroad crossing protection devices may be a fixed object hazard that
warrants the use of a traffic barrier or a crash cushion. Design all traffic barriers or crash
cushions to be installed outside the minimum railroad clearance as shown in the MUTCD.

Consider providing illumination of railroad crossings to improve visibility and supplement other
traffic control devices for nighttime railroad operations. Consider lighting where train speeds are
low, where crossings become blocked for long periods, or where crash history shows that
motorists experience difficulty in seeing the crossing, trains or control devices at night.

As early in the preliminary design process as possible, provide highway design plans, profiles,
cross-sections and structure clearance, if applicable, to the owner agency and request their
review and comments. A request to begin preparation of the formal agreement can accompany
this submittal. Check with the railroad company if any future tracks are proposed, to ensure that
the project clears both existing and planned tracks.

Plan and profile on both the railroad and highway should show for a minimum of 500 ft [150 m]
on both sides of the crossing. Extend the roadway profile as necessary to show all important

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vertical alignment data. Also, show other important features that may affect the design of traffic
operation of the crossings. These features include proximity of crossroads or city street
intersections, nearby driveways or entrances, highway structures, vehicular ADT (including
percentage of trucks and number of school buses) and train ADT.

The railroad stationing and curve data, including beginning and ending of the curves through
areas affected by encroachment or crossing, must be shown on the highway plans. Show on
the plans all railroad and highway right-of-way lines and widths, including easements. Compute
the ties at right angles from the highway centerline and show all intersecting corners of the right-
of-way. Show the ties at the beginning and the end of each encroachment and at the points of
maximum encroachment. Show all railroad drainage structures and other topographic data
pertaining to railroad buildings, head blocks and other points of control.

If the railroad track is superelevated, the highway profile must conform closely to the grade
across the top of the rails.

For a new crossing of the railroad tracks, prepare a special profile on either side of the crossing
along the track centerline for several hundred feet [meters]. An adjustment in the railroad line
(e.g., raising or lowering tracks to accommodate highway construction) is occasionally
necessary. In this case, a special profile along the railroad alignment will show the full extent of
the raising or lowering of tracks. Carry the profile a sufficient distance outside of the adjusted
area to give a complete picture of the proposed adjustment.

On the highway design plans, show the basic roadway dimensions of shoulders, medians, traffic
lanes, stopping lanes and acceleration lanes, including pavement markings requirements.
Show the angle of crossing, number of tracks, location of signals and other railway facilities
(e.g., signal power lines, signal control boxes, switch control boxes). The name of the railroad
and whether the track is a mainline or branch line should be noted.

Include typical sections in the highway design railroad crossing plans to show roadway and
lanes widths, stopping lanes if provided, shoulders, crossing surfacing, and other roadway
details.

Provide profiles for any proposed special drainage or waterway channels affecting the railroad
property.

The final PS&E package review should ensure that the contract contains all conditions listed in
the approved railroad agreement.

9.3.16 PEDESTRIAN CONSIDERATIONS AND FACILITIES

The FHWA guidance entitled Accommodating Bicycle and Pedestrian Travel includes a
DOT policy statement that walking facilities will be incorporated into all projects, unless
exceptional circumstances exist. In rural areas, paved shoulders should be included in
all new construction and reconstruction projects on roadways used by more than 1,000

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vehicles per day. In urban areas, provide sidewalks or separated paved pathways in new
construction and reconstruction projects unless:
● Pedestrians are prohibited by law from using the roadway,
● The cost exceeds 20 percent of the project, or
● There is well demonstrated absence of potential need.

Pedestrians include persons of all ages and abilities, and their actions are less predictable than
motorists. Designers must be sensitive to this situation and keep their needs in mind in the
design of pedestrian facilities. Pedestrian needs can conflict with the requirements for vehicular
travel, particularly when crossing, but pedestrian facilities may provide safe and efficient
solutions. Pedestrian facilities consist of adequate shoulders, sidewalks, crosswalks, pedestrian
refuge areas, hiking or walking trails, shared use paths, and pedestrian grade separation
structures. Sidewalks are generally located immediately adjacent to the highway or parking
area. Walking and hiking trails are independently aligned and usually serve recreational
activities (e.g., paths from parking areas to scenic overlooks). Refer to Green Book Section 2.6
and Section 4.17 for pedestrian considerations, as well as the Guide for the Planning, Design
and Operation of Pedestrian Facilities (AASHTO, 2004). Pedestrian separation structures are
not discussed here. Green Book Section 4.17.2 addresses pedestrian structures. Also see
How to Develop a Pedestrian Safety Action Plan, FHWA-SA-05-12, and the Pedestrian and
Bicycle Information Center.

9.3.16.1 Sidewalks

As applicable, provide paved sidewalks along the edges of roadways suitable for pedestrian use
in areas where pedestrian activity is present, expected or desired. Consider sidewalks to
increase the safety of pedestrians along the roadway, improve access, and reduce conflicts.
Refer to Green Book Section 4.17.1 and the references described in Section 9.3.16 for
additional guidance on the design of sidewalks.

All sidewalk designs must accommodate persons with disabilities, unless it is not
technically feasible; see Section 9.3.16.3.

It is FLH standard practice to provide continuous sidewalks along both sides of urban area
highways, particularly where there is a need for pedestrian access to schools, parks,
commercial areas, transit stops and where there is frequent pedestrian activity. In suburban
residential areas, provide a continuous sidewalk on at least one side of the highway and locate
it close to the right-of-way line, if possible.

Sidewalks must have a minimum width of 4 ft [1.2 m]; however 5 ft [1.5 m] minimum width is
preferred. Sidewalks in residential areas should have 5 ft [1.5 m] minimum width.

In lightly populated suburban areas and in rural areas, consider sidewalks at points of
community development (e.g., schools, businesses, industrial plants, transit stops).

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In urban and in major residential areas, sidewalks should be raised above the roadway.
Sidewalks that are adjacent to the back of curb should be 6 ft [1.8 m] minimum width. To
provide a planting strip between the sidewalk and curb allow a minimum of 2 ft [0.6 m], and
additional width that may be needed to provide horizontal clearance to obstructions. For design
of sidewalks adjacent curb parking, widen the sidewalk 2 ft [0.6 m] more than the minimum
width elsewhere, to accommodate open doors of parked vehicles.

Sidewalks in areas of high pedestrian traffic (e.g., schools, businesses, industrial areas) should
be wider than the minimum. In areas of very high pedestrian traffic (e.g. transit stops, entrances
to schools or businesses) sidewalks should be paved to the curb in most cases.

Sidewalks on bridges should be 6 ft [1.8 m] minimum width, and 12 ft [3.6 m] if it is designed for
shared use with bicycles.

Design of raised sidewalks should slope to drain toward the roadway at 1.5 to 2.0 percent. A
slope of 1.5 percent is recommended for design, for accessibility and to allow a construction
tolerance and lessen the potential for violating the ADAAG requirement of maximum cross slope
of 2.0 percent.

In many cases where pedestrians may use the roadway shoulder for walkways, there are no
special markings or signs for pedestrian use. In rural, low-speed areas of pedestrian use, an
additional 4 ft [1.2 m] of paved shoulder width may satisfy the purposes of a sidewalk. A wider
shoulder is desirable when there is significant truck traffic or higher traffic speeds. An 8 in
[200 mm] solid white stripe should mark the edge of the traveled way at these locations.

Pedestrian crosswalks are regularly marked in urban areas. In residential and rural areas,
marked crosswalks are normally not necessary except in locations of regular pedestrian use
such as pedestrian routes to schools. In the vicinity of schools, convalescent centers, local
parks or community centers, marked crosswalks should be considered. For multi-lane highways
consider geometric features that improve the pedestrian environment, such as crossing islands
or curb extensions. Align crosswalks with connecting curb ramps and sidewalks. For additional
details on pedestrian crosswalks see the MUTCD and the ITE Traffic Control Handbook. Also
refer to NCHRP Report 562, Improving Pedestrian Safety at Unsignalized Crossings.

9.3.16.2 Walking and Hiking Trails

These pedestrian facilities usually provide connections with existing trails, lead to roadside
points of interest, allow access to streams or permit leisurely walks. They often have a natural
surface, except in high-use locations. These locations may require paving to protect existing
environmental conditions.

The design standards for shared use paths and trails are specific to the function of the path or
trail:
● Shared use paths and pedestrian trails that function as sidewalks shall meet the same
requirements as sidewalks. Where shared use paths and pedestrian trails cross
highways or streets, the crossing also shall meet the same requirements as street
crossings, including the provision of detectable warnings.
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● Shared use paths and pedestrian trails that function as trails should meet the
accessibility guidelines proposed in the Access Board’s Regulatory Negotiation
Committee on Accessibility for Outdoor Developed Areas Final Report. This report also
has guidelines for Outdoor Recreation Access Routes (routes connecting accessible
elements within a picnic area, camping area, or a designated trailhead).
● Recreational trails primarily designed and constructed for use by equestrians, mountain
bicyclists, snowmobile users, or off-highway vehicle users, are exempt from accessibility
requirements even though they have occasional pedestrian use.

Typically, trailside and trailhead structural facilities (parking areas, restrooms) must meet the
ADAAG standards.

Prior to designing walking/hiking trails, verify with partner agency and owner that non-ADA
compliant trails are acceptable. The following guides for walking and hiking trails apply when
persons with disabilities do not require accommodations:
● The clear area around walking and hiking trails should encompass 8 ft [2.4 m] laterally
and 10 ft [3.0 m] vertically. Any trees or brush removed from this area must be flush cut
at ground level and intruding branches trimmed flush with the tree trunk.
● Walking trails should be a minimum of 4 ft [1.2 m] wide and have a maximum grade of
10 percent. The trail should have independent horizontal and vertical alignment. Always
locate a trail outside the clear recovery zone or behind guardrail when it parallels the
main roadway. If behind guardrail locate the trail beyond the guardrail deflection zone.
● Hiking trails should have a minimum surface width of 2 ft [0.6 m] and a maximum
sustained grade of 10 percent. The grade may be up to 20 percent for short distances.
A hiking trail constructed in a riprap slope, talus slide or other rock slope should have all
voids filled at least 2 ft [600 mm] below the rock surface. Provide a 3 in [75 mm] cover of
soil or small rock for a final surface.

For guidance on design of shared-use trails, refer to the Evaluation of Safety, Design, and
Operation of Shared-Use Paths, FHWA-HRT-05-139, 2006.

9.3.16.3 Accommodation of the Disabled

Pedestrian access is required by the Rehabilitation Act - Section 504, 1973 and the
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) – Title II, 1990. Where pedestrian access is provided
it must also accommodate those with disabilities. This includes providing continuous
unobstructed sidewalks, and curb cuts with detectable warnings at highway and street
crossings. There are no exceptions to this policy, unless a solution is determined to be not
technically feasible. Unit cost is typically not considered the primary factor in such feasibility
determinations. For information on ADA refer to the U.S. Department of Justice ADA Home
Page.

The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) Accessibility Guidelines for Buildings and Facilities
(ADAAG) contains most of the applicable standards. The Revised Draft Guidelines for
Accessible Public Rights-of-Way (PROWAC) are recommended for use as current best practice

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for highway design; however these have not yet been officially adopted by the FHWA. When
the guidelines for public rights-of-way are completed and adopted by the US DOT and DOJ as
standards under the ADA and Section 504, they will supersede the currently used standards
and criteria.

The Green Book contains information on sidewalk curb ramps in Section 4.17.3. Refer to the
AASHTO Guide for the Planning, Design and Operation of Pedestrian Facilities, 2004, and the
FHWA Designing Sidewalks and Trails for Access, Part II: Best Practices Design Guide, 2001.
Also see the Access Board alterations guide Special Report: Accessible Public Rights-of-Way
Planning and Design for Alterations.

All sidewalk curb transitions and ramps require installation of a tactile and visual device known
as a detectable warning surface (truncated domes) to warn disabled persons that they are
leaving the sidewalk and about to enter the roadway. Refer to the Access Board PROWAC
Section R304 for guidance on design of detectable warning surfaces. FHWA guidance is also
provided by the FHWA Memorandum, ADAAG Detectable Warnings, May 6, 2002, the FHWA
Memorandum, ADAAG and Detectable Warnings, July 20, 2004; and the US DOT Final Rule,
November 29, 2006, Transportation for Individuals With Disabilities; Adoption of New
Accessibility Standards.

As with new construction, incorporate accessibility improvements to existing pedestrian facilities

for any alterations that may affect access, circulation, or use by persons with disabilities; or
changes that could affect the structure, grade, function, or use of the roadway. This includes
reconstruction, rehabilitation, structural resurfacing (e.g. mill and overlay), widening, signal
installation, pedestrian signal installation, and projects of similar scale and effect.

Design facilities to maintain existing pedestrian access during construction, including

accommodation of those with disabilities. This includes provision for removal of snow, debris
and surface disruptions, and maintenance of a safe, accessible and detectable pedestrian
access route in work zones.

9.3.17 BICYCLE CONSIDERATIONS AND FACILITIES

The FHWA guidance entitled Accommodating Bicycle and Pedestrian Travel includes a
DOT policy statement that bicycle facilities will be incorporated into all projects, unless
exceptional circumstances exist. In rural areas, paved shoulders should be included in
all new construction and reconstruction projects on roadways used by more than 1,000
vehicles per day. In urban areas, provide bicycle lanes or separated paved paths in new
construction and reconstruction projects unless:
● Bicyclists are prohibited by law from using the roadway,
● The cost exceeds 20 percent of the project, or
● There is well demonstrated absence of potential need.

In rural areas, for design of a shared-use facility that both bicycle and motor vehicle travel are
designed to share the roadway, a combined lane and shoulder width of at least 14 ft [4.2 m]
should be provided, which is the minimum necessary for a motor vehicle and bicycle to operate

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side by side. In rural areas with motor vehicle design ADT greater than 1,000 and bicycle ADT
greater than 25, a paved shoulder width of 5 ft [1.5 m] is recommended to accommodate bicycle
use.

Where applicable, design bicycle lanes specifically for bicycle use, to provide a dedicated space
for bicycle travel along the roadway, and a consistent separation between bicyclists and passing
motorists, and pedestrians. Design striping and signing to designate bicycle lanes in
accordance with the MUTCD.

Bicycle lanes that are not physically separated from the highway should be located between the
travel lane and the roadway shoulder. A minimum width of 4 ft [1.2 m] is required for a bike
lane; however 5 ft [1.5 m] bicycle lanes are preferred for most conditions, especially when the
lane is adjacent to a curb, curbside parking, or guardrail. Exclude the width of gutter from the
bicycle lane design width. Where parking is permitted, the combined width for bicycle travel and
parking should be a minimum of 14 ft [4.2 m], and 16 ft [4.8 m] desired. Where motor vehicle
operating speeds exceed 45 mph [70 km/h], or the volume of trucks and buses is 30 or more
per hour, the minimum bicycle lane width is 5 ft [1.5 m], and 6 ft [1.8 m] bicycle lane width is
desirable. Bicycle lanes wider than 6 ft [1.8 m] are generally not used since they may
encourage inappropriate use by motor vehicles. Designate bicycle lanes with a 6 in [150 mm]
solid white line on the right edge of the motor vehicle travel lane, bicycle lane pavement
markings, and signs at periodic intervals. The solid lane marking should change to a broken
white line before any intersections on the right side, providing sufficient distance for motorists to
merge to the right side of the roadway before making a right-turn. A 4 in [100 mm] solid white
line, or parking space markings, on the right edge of the bicycle lane should be used when
adjacent to parking areas or parking lanes.

Provide bicycle-safe drainage grates for all inlets adjacent to bicycle facilities. Design all grates
and utility covers to be set flush with the pavement surface. Design the pavement cross slope
to not exceed 10 percent, and avoid design of an abrupt pavement edge at the inlet. Where
shoulder width, or a bike lane, adjacent to a curb is less than 5 ft [1.5 m], recessed drainage
inlets or curb inlets should be used.

Where the corridor is constrained and a separate bicycle lane or path is beneficial, it may be
practical to provide the facility in only one direction of travel.

When applicable, consider including a separate two-way bikeway or shared-use path in the
overall design of the highway project when the level of bicycle use is high and safety,
operational or other benefits to the mix of facility users are sufficient to justify a designated
bicycle facility, either on a separate independent alignment or parallel to the roadway. See
23 CFR 652. Provision of shared-use paths is particularly suited to high-speed, high-volume
highways where the traffic characteristics or the roadway geometry is incompatible with typical
bicycle and pedestrian use. However, exercise care in the design of shared-use paths to
minimize the conflicts between bicyclists and pedestrians. Two-way bikeways and shared-use
paths should always be physically separated from the roadway by a significant terrain feature
and at least 5 ft [1.5 m] width, or by a crashworthy barrier system. The paved width of a two-
way bike path should be a minimum of 8 ft [2.4 m]. Where pedestrians will routinely share the
path with bicyclists it should be a minimum width of 10 ft [3.0 m], and 12 ft [3.6 m] desired. The

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presence of a bikeway or shared-use path near a highway does not eliminate the need to
consider the presence of bicyclists in the design of the highway, unless bicycle use is
specifically prohibited on the facility.

The AASHTO Guide for Development of Bicycle Facilities provides criteria for the design of
bikeways. For guidance on design of shared-use trails, refer to the Evaluation of Safety,
Design, and Operation of Shared-Use Paths, FHWA-HRT-05-139, 2006. Also see Bikesafe:
Bicycle Countermeasure Selection System, FHWA-SA-05-006, and the Pedestrian and Bicycle
Information Center.

9.3.18 TRANSIT CONSIDERATIONS AND FACILITIES

The design of public transit facilities requires specialized planning and operational expertise.
Refer to Green Book Section 2.1 for bus characteristics and turning paths; Section 4.19 and
Section 7.3.18 for design of bus stops, turnouts, and lanes; and Section 84.8 for
accommodation of transit. Also refer to the Interim Geometric Design Guide for Transit
Facilities on Highways and Streets, AASHTO, 2002 for applicable design guidance. Also refer
to the Guide for High-Occupancy Vehicle (HOV) Facilities, AASHTO, 2004 and the Guide for
Park-and-Ride Facilities, AASHTO, 2004.

9.3.19 PARKING LOT LAYOUT CONSIDERATIONS

Parking lot stalls should be a minimum of 9 ft [2.7 m] wide and 18.5 ft [5.6 m] length; however,
preferably 10 ft [3.0 m] wide and 20 ft [6.0 m] length, if practical. For short-duration high-
turnover parking, or where loading of vehicles is common, a 10 ft [3.0 m] stall width should be
provided. Parallel parking stalls should be a minimum of 22 ft [6.7 m] and preferably 25 ft
[7.6 m] length, if practical. Parking access aisles should be a minimum of 13 ft [4.0 m] width for
one-way traffic flow and 20 ft [6.0 m] width for two-way traffic flow; however, preferably 14 ft
[4.3 m] width for one-way traffic flow and 24 ft to 26 ft [7.3 m to 7.9 m] width for two-way traffic
flow, if practical.

For angle parking, design parking stalls as rectangles with the above dimensions, with no
encroachments or overhang into the parking access aisles. For end stalls, provide a return area
sufficient for maneuvering and backing.

Bus parking stalls should be a minimum of 10 ft [3.0 m] wide and 50 ft [15 m] deep; however, for
parallel bus parking provide a minimum of 100 ft [30 m] length for the first bus stall and 50 ft
[15 m] length for a second bus stall. For multiple bus stalls, provide angled (11.3 degrees) bus
parking with 12 ft [3.6 m] wide and 60 ft [20 m] long stalls, with a 8 ft to 10 ft [2.4 m to 3.0 m]
clearance offset from the access aisle for maneuvering and backing. Where longer, articulated
buses are used: add 20 ft [6 m] for all the above length dimensions.

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The inside turning radius in parking lots should be a minimum of 20 ft [6 m] for passenger cars
and 30 ft [9 m] for busses; however, desirably 30 ft [9 m] for passenger cars and 40 ft [12 m] for
busses, where practical.

Provide and locate pedestrian walkways in parking lots to avoid conflict with vehicles, to the
maximum extent practical.

See Section 9.3.16.3 for applicable requirements, dimensions, and number of required
accessible spaces and access aisles.

Refer to Section 9.3.9.3 for design of parking lanes.

For additional guidance on parking lot design refer to the Guide for Park-and-Ride Facilities,
AASHTO, 2004.

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9.4 RESURFACING, RESTORATION AND REHABILITATION (RRR)

DESIGN
See Section 4.4.2 for the RRR projects design approach. Also see FHWA Technical Advisory
T 5040.28 and TRB Special Report 214, Designing Safer Roads for additional guidance. Also
refer to the Technical Practices described in Chapter 5 of FHWA-SA-07-001, Good Practices:
Incorporating Safety into Resurfacing and Restoration Projects.

Before beginning design on RRR projects perform a site inspection (see Section 4.3.3).

9.4.1 APPLICATION OF DESIGN STANDARDS

The design policy applicable for RRR projects is the same as for new construction and
reconstruction, unless a separate FHWA approved State or local RRR design policy is
applicable to the project (see Section 4.4.1). Identify all substandard features and document
each exception to the standards as outlined in Section 9.1.3.

9.4.2 IMPROVEMENT OF SAFETY PERFORMANCE

Use a safety conscious design process for RRR improvements. See T 5040.28. Also see
pp. 190-193 of TRB Special Report 214, Designing Safer Roads. Evaluate the safety
performance of RRR projects based on analysis of the facility’s crash history. Collect and
analyze crash numbers, types and rates for the project to identify safety problem areas
(Section 4.3.2.4). Also refer to FHWA-SA-07-001. For RRR projects on local roads, also refer
to Low Cost Local Road Safety Solutions, ATSSA, 2006.

All safety elements of an RRR project require specific consideration. During site inspections
and field reviews identify and evaluate potentially hazardous conditions, and include practical,
low-cost safety enhancements in all RRR projects. These may include the following:
● Roadside obstacle removal,
● Traffic barriers and terminal sections,
● Bridge rails and transitions,
● Traffic control devices,
● Shoulder improvements,
● Minor widening,
● Minor horizontal or vertical alignment adjustments,
● Minor intersection improvements,
● Sight distance improvements,
● Longitudinal rumble strips,
● Skid-resistant surface texture,
● Railroad-crossing improvements, and
● Illumination.

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Many of these items will enhance the traffic operation as well as safety performance. Refer to
Section 9.4.5 for guidance on traffic operation improvements, and signing and marking
requirements for RRR projects.

When applicable, consider the predicted safety performance of the facility over the project’s
anticipated design service life when making decisions regarding the above safety enhancement
items, based on evaluation of:
● Past safety performance,
● Future traffic conditions,
● Existing roadway geometry, and
● Roadside conditions.

Consider using the crash prediction module of the IHSDM in such evaluations.

9.4.3 EVALUATION OF EXISTING GEOMETRIC DESIGN

Evaluate existing geometric design elements (Section 4.3.2.2) that are not performing in a
satisfactory manner. As applicable, evaluate geometric deficiencies in the following areas:
● Horizontal and vertical alignment,
● Cross-sectional elements,
● Sight distance,
● Pedestrian facilities including ADA compliance, and
● Bicycle facilities.

It is FLH standard practice to restore the normal crown cross slope on tangent sections to at
least 1.5 percent and preferably 2.0 percent.

Select a maximum superelevation rate, emax, (Section 9.3.1.11) that is practical to apply for the
project, and determine applicable superelevation rates for horizontal curves.

It is FLH standard practice to provide the standard superelevation (Section 9.3.5.1.3) and
transitions (Section 9.3.5.2), to the maximum extent practical. The maximum practical depth for
correction of superelevation deficiencies is equivalent to, or less than, the nominal pavement
thickness. If the existing conditions or the ability to provide the standard superelevation rate of
curves cannot be verified during the design process, provide construction contract provisions
specifying that the superelevation rate will be verified and corrected during construction
operations, to the maximum extent practical. When standard superelevation rates are
impractical, the highest practical rate applies, subject to approval through the design exception
process. Even if it is not possible to construct the standard superelevation rate for a particular
curve, it is essential to design a consistent superelevation rate uniformly throughout the entire
curve, with proper transitions. Where exceptions are necessary, engineering studies should be
performed to identify locations for advisory speed and warning sign installations and other
mitigation techniques.

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The superelevation deficiencies of an asphalt surface may be improved by providing a leveling

course. This additional course depth may increase the pavement structure capabilities and
should be considered in the pavement structural design when leveling is relatively uniform over
the length of the project. If adequate field measurements for calculating leveling course
quantities are not practical, increase asphalt concrete pavement quantities approximately 20 to
25 percent for use as leveling material. When considering an additional leveling course, ensure
that sufficient roadbed bench width exists to support the additional foreslope width, without
creating a pavement edge drop-off or reduction in the standard ditch capacity.

Provide the standard superelevation and transitions particularly where the inferred design speed
of a horizontal curve is less than the average running speed. In addition to improving
superelevation, consider flattening horizontal curves when crash data indicates that geometrics
are a contributing factor.

When horizontal curvature is the probable cause of crashes, consider corrective action. This
can range from positive guidance (e.g., placement of additional warning signs and markings) to
reconstruction. If existing substandard horizontal and vertical alignments do not warrant
reconstruction, evaluate improvements to signing and marking, longitudinal rumble strips, or
other cost beneficial safety enhancements. Consider alignment improvements when crash
experience is high and previously installed warning signs, markings or other devices have been
ineffective.

When the operating speed for a horizontal or vertical curve is less than 15 mph [20 km/h] below
the operating speed of the adjacent sections, and has a low crash history, improvement of signs
and marking may be applicable in lieu of reconstruction. When the difference in operating
speed is 15 mph [20 km/h] or more, or the operating speed of the horizontal or vertical curve is
less than 20 mph [30 km/h], or if the location has higher crash history, corrective action is
essential. In this case consider cost-effective geometric improvements to the curve site,
including curve flattening, lane or shoulder widening, additional roadside recovery area,
additional superelevation, enhanced sight distance, slope flattening, removal of obstructions,
selective clearing, or other physical modifications, even if such modifications exceed the normal
roadbed bench width. Where the ADT is greater than 750, and the difference in the average
running speed and the inferred design speed of the horizontal curve is more than 15 mph
[20 km/h], also evaluate spot reconstruction of the horizontal curve. If improvement to correct
the difference in operating speed is not possible, provide the appropriate signs and markings
and other provisions to best facilitate proper speed transition.

Evaluate the need for restoration or improvement of sight distance on the inside of horizontal
curves and at intersections. Include practical, low-cost corrective measures such as relocating
signs and sight obstructions, selective clearing, minor widening of ditches, flattening minor cut
slopes, etc. on RRR projects as needed.

Generally, grades cannot be flattened significantly on RRR projects. However, steep grades
combined with restricted horizontal or vertical curvature, or crash history, may warrant corrective
action in the form of spot improvements of the geometry, roadway cross section, or roadside
safety features. For crest vertical curves where the ADT is greater than 1,500 and the
difference in the average running speed and the inferred design speed of the vertical curve is

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more than 20 mph [30 km/h], and the crest hides from view a major hazard such as an
intersection, sharp horizontal curve, or narrow bridge; evaluate spot reconstruction of the
vertical curve.

If alterations adjoin pedestrian facilities, they must meet current ADA standards and be
reconstructed, if necessary for compliance (Section 9.3.16.3).

As applicable, adjust existing features that are affected by the resurfacing, such as pavement
drainage spillways, inlets and grates, catch basins, manholes, and utility access covers.

9.4.4 IMPROVEMENT OF ROADSIDE CONDITIONS

See Section 8.1.4 for general approach to roadside safety applicable to RRR projects.

Design the final surface of unpaved shoulders and roadway foreslopes to match the finished
edge of pavement, to prevent a pavement edge drop-off and to provide a stable surface, after
construction.

Evaluate existing traffic barrier rail and end treatments, bridge rail and transitions, guardrail and
terminal sections, for crash worthiness and compliance of hardware with current standards
(NCHRP Report 350 evaluation criteria). Include upgrading all substandard barrier hardware
elements, or document their retention as a formal exception. Alternatively, guardrails meeting
NCHRP Report 230 evaluation criteria may be retained for RRR projects; however, include
upgrading all terminal sections not meeting current standards. Refer to Section 8.5.4. As
applicable, adjust guardrail height to meet current standards.

Evaluate the widths and consistency of the existing clear zone throughout the project. Establish
a minimum clear zone for the project that is as wide as practical, considering the guidelines in
the AASHTO Roadside Design Guide, and the width of the existing roadbed bench including the
foreslope and ditch. During field reviews visually inspect the established clear zone for potential
roadside hazards; see Section 8.4.2.1. Give particular attention to the clear zone at identified
high roadside crash locations (fixed object crashes), and the outside of sharp horizontal curves,
and at the bottom of downgrades on horizontal curves. Determine the severity of identified
roadside hazards and analyze appropriate countermeasures (e.g., do nothing, remove, protect)
to address or mitigate the hazardous conditions. On the basis of these analyses, determine the
appropriate remedial action.

Consider the following roadside safety enhancements on all RRR projects:

● Extending cross pipes outside of the clear zone, if practical,
● Removing headwalls or non-traversable end sections within the clear zone and replacing
with traversable end sections,
● Relocating, protecting or providing breakaway features for sign supports and luminaires
located in the clear zone,
● Shielding exposed bridge piers and abutments within the clear zone,

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● Modifying raised drop inlets that present a hazard within the clear zone, and
● Clearing vegetation within the clear zone for lines of sight to meet the standard sight
distance requirements.

Consider widening to provide additional clear distance through short sections of rock cuts. In
longer rock cuts, isolated protrusions should be cut back or protected where warranted.

Review crash data to define dangerous obstructions as applicable. Apply engineering

judgment, cost effectiveness, analysis of operational and safety effects, and consideration of
environmental and community impacts in improvement decisions.

In cases where the existing roadbed bench width will not accommodate recoverable foreslopes
of 1V:4H or flatter, and ditch filling to provide width or widening of foreslopes is restricted;
consider strengthening the existing pavement structure through a recycling-in-place process
rather than overlaying the existing pavement. Depending on the type of traffic and existing
roadbed width, reducing the overall pavement structure thickness to maintain a 1V:4H
recoverable foreslope and prevent an undesirable edge drop-off may be a reasonable
compromise.

Provide a minimum lateral clearance of 2 ft [0.6 m] from the edge of shoulder to any
obstructions. Where curb is used, the minimum lateral clearance for obstructions should 2 ft
[600 mm] behind the curb and a minimum lateral clearance of 18 in [500 mm] must be provided
behind the curb, in all cases. Where there are sidewalks, it is desirable to locate the
obstructions behind the sidewalk.

9.4.5 IMPROVEMENT OF TRAFFIC OPERATIONS

Sign and mark all RRR projects in accordance with the MUTCD.

It is FLH standard practice on RRR projects to correct existing non-conforming, substandard or

deficient signing and markings, and to replace sign panels not meeting minimum retroreflectivity
standards and sign posts that are not crashworthy.

It is FLH standard practice to use edge line pavement markings on all RRR projects.

Refer to Section 8.7 for guidance on the evaluation of existing traffic operations and low cost
traffic operations improvements. As applicable, consider low-cost enhancements of traffic
operations including:
● Enhanced guide signing,
● Raised pavement markers,
● Post delineation,
● Enhanced directional and recreational signing,
● Minor improvements of intersections, approach roads and driveways,
● Channelization,
● Illumination, and

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● Access management features.

Refer to Section 9.3.4.2 for evaluation of design consistency including existing operating speed
variations, variations in theoretical inferred design speed, variations in template width,
superelevation, etc. When advisory speed plates are warranted, design curve signs, turn signs
and advisory speed plates based on the theoretical design speed criteria of the existing
geometry, in relation to the posted or regulatory speed limit. Normally, show the design of
signing and pavement markings on the plans; however, supplemental studies may determine
the need to forward additional engineering data to the field.

If engineering data is unavailable for design of curve signs, provide construction contract
provisions to specify a field method of measuring speed for horizontal curvature using a slope
meter, more commonly referred to as the ball bank indicator, after construction of cross slope
corrections. See the subsection on “Side Friction Factor” in Green Book Section 3.3.2 for a
discussion on the relationship of ball bank readings and curve speeds.

Where applicable, provide signing and markings for pedestrian crossings, bicycle facilities,
school areas, and highway-rail crossings, as recommended by the MUTCD.

9.4.6 EVALUATION OF PAVEMENT AND DRAINAGE STRUCTURES

See Section 11.6 for guidance on evaluation of existing pavement performance and
rehabilitation methods, and details on the design of asphalt and concrete pavements. Refer to
Section 11.7 for guidance on pavement preservation.

See Section 6.3.3 for guidance on performing site and subsurface investigations to identify
subgrade problems, subsurface drainage problems, etc.

Refer to Section 7.1.6.3 for guidance on evaluation and treatment of existing and rehabilitated
drainage structures.

Refer to Section 10.3.6 for guidance on evaluation of bridges within RRR projects.

9.4.7 MITIGATION OF SUBSTANDARD DESIGN FEATURES

When reconstruction of substandard design features to current standards is not feasible,

determining the appropriate design criteria to be applied for the roadway, including lane and
shoulder widths, is sometimes difficult. In some cases, the project may be the only
improvement on a route for many years. In other cases, the maintaining authority may have a
policy that only resurfacing projects will be applicable to a route, to conserve available funding
for other higher priority transportation facilities. In these instances, the compatibility with
adjacent sections of the highway may be the primary consideration. When compatibility with
adjoining roads is the controlling factor, a design exception may be appropriate to establish the

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specific design criteria for the RRR project such that a consistent and uniform approach is taken
for the corridor design.

Extraordinary cost or adverse environmental impacts could also result in design exceptions for
the incorporation of substandard design features. When the highway operating agency’s
approved transportation plan specifies less than the standard lane and shoulder widths for a
route, this width also requires documentation as a design exception. Exceptions to geometric
design controlling criteria other than widths are usually limited to site-specific locations. The
designer must mitigate these design exceptions through the established design exception
process, as described in Section 9.1.3.

Refer to applicable portions of Section 9.3 for guidance on mitigation of substandard design
features. Guidance for assessing risks and identifying appropriate mitigation of geometric
design features and safety considerations is also available in Chapter 3 of the AASHTO
Flexibility Guide. For mitigation of substandard design features, also refer to FHWA-SA-07-011.

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9.5 OTHER HIGHWAY DESIGN ELEMENTS

The following sections address highway design elements other than the geometric design.

9.5.1 EARTHWORK DESIGN

As applicable, consider the following when developing an earthwork design:

● Clearing and grubbing,
● Removal of structures and obstructions,
● Excavation and embankment,
● Earthwork computation,
● Borrow and waste,
● Rock blasting,
● Watering,
● Structural excavation and backfill,
● Conservation of materials,
● Subgrade treatments and stabilization,
● Linear grading, and
● Roadway obliteration.

Also refer to the FP-XX, Division 200.

9.5.1.1 Clearing and Grubbing

FLH standard practice is to design clearing widths to extend a minimum of 5 ft [1.5 m] beyond
the outer limit of slope rounding for cuts and 5 ft [1.5 m] beyond the toe of fill.

For shallow cuts and fills, and daylight sections, extend the clearing width beyond the edge of
the slope intercept as necessary to provide the designated clear zone. Refer to the Roadside
Design Guide for information on determining clear zone widths and recommended slope ratios.

Evaluate the needs for additional intersection and decision sight distance near intersections,
and evaluate sight distance restrictions on the insides of horizontal curves, which may require
wider clearing than normal. See Exhibit 9.3-J and Green Book Figure 3-23 in determining
lateral offset and widening needed to provide adequate sight distance. When wider clearing is
necessary to provide horizontal sightline offset, determine the location of sight lines and
designate the wider clearing dimensions on the plans.

In heavily forested areas, consider selective thinning methods for a more natural appearing
edge of clearing and a natural transition effect of the forest edge. Consider scalloped clearing
lines and vista clearing to promote and frame scenic views will enhance the roadway aesthetics.
In selected areas, the design should retain vegetation close to the roadway clear zone. Design

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slopes and clearing to emphasize variations in the clearing width, slope ratios, and proximity of
vegetation patterns on either side of the roadway.

When applicable, widen the clearing to create openings and irregularities in a long straight
clearing line, to emulate natural conditions. Designate varying clearing treatments with the type,
size and density of the trees and ground cover, and on the terrain.

Consider additional clearing and grubbing width for the following situations:
● Selective thinning of vegetation at the top of high cuts,
● Scalloping and opening vistas to improve visual interest,
● Accommodation of utilities, and
● Solar exposure to assist in melting snow in high elevations.

Clearing and grubbing widths may be reduced in sensitive environmental areas and limited
right-of-way.

9.5.1.2 Removal of Structures and Obstructions

Identify and specify the removal and disposal of all buildings, fences, structures, old pavements,
abandoned pipelines and other obstructions that interfere with construction or otherwise cannot
remain in place.

9.5.1.3 Design of Excavation and Embankment

The design of excavation and embankment should vary with the characteristics of the material.
The designer should refer to the Geotechnical Report for recommended slope ratios. Cut and
fill slope treatments are addressed in Section 9.5.2.

During earthwork design analyze the earthwork distribution to consider haul lengths, haul
direction (upgrade or down), and the capabilities of typical earthmoving equipment. In general,
strive to minimize the length of individual cuts and fills for efficient earthmoving operations.
Consider that long cuts and fills over 1,000 ft [300 m] may require use of dump trucks loaded by
front-end loaders or hydraulic excavators, instead of direct movement by track or wheel type
bulldozers. Determine the location of earthwork divisions and identify areas and quantities
where the haul length is over 2,000 ft [600 m], and evaluate possible alignment, grade or slope
adjustments to minimize the volume and length of long hauls, particularly where they are
upgrade.

9.5.1.3.1 Roadway Excavation

Design the roadway excavation to include all material excavated from within the right-of-way or
easement areas, except subexcavation (see Section 9.5.1.16.1) and structure excavation.
Roadway excavation volume includes all type material encountered regardless of its nature or
characteristics.

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Although not included in the roadway excavation quantity, consider the disposition of
subexcavation and structure excavation materials for culverts, bridges and retaining wall
structures. Consider the disposition of all excavated materials that affect the earthwork design,
whether directly part of the roadway or for associated work adjacent the roadway.

9.5.1.3.2 Embankment

Identify the needs for embankment construction and compaction of roadway or borrow
excavation, including:
● Preparing embankment foundations;
● Benching for side-hill embankments;
● Constructing dikes, ramps, mounds and berms; and
● Backfilling subexcavated areas, holes, pits and other depressions.

Account for all embankment materials in the earthwork design, whether directly part of the
roadway or for associated work adjacent the roadway.

Embankment is normally not measured or paid for separately as a bid item. However, when the
volume of embankment is much greater than the roadway excavation, consider measurement
and payment for embankment in lieu of measurement and payment for roadway excavation and
borrow excavation.

9.5.1.4 Determination of Excavation and Embankment Volumes

9.5.1.4.1 General

In cases where there is a preponderance of curvature in one direction, or large cuts and fills are
greatly offset from centerline, in sharp curvature, consider the effect of curvature on the
earthwork volumes.

Account for miscellaneous excavations and embankments in addition to the roadway prism
excavation and embankment, for determination of the total excavation and embankment
quantities.

9.5.1.4.2 Shrink and Swell Factors

See Section 6.4.6.2 and coordinate with the Geotechnical unit for determination of specific
project site material shrink/swell factors.

9.5.1.5 Balancing Earthwork

The earthwork is balanced when the volume of excavation (with the appropriate allowances
made for shrink and swell) approximately equals the volume of embankment.

Consider the disposition of all materials that will be incorporated in the earthwork construction
(e.g., subexcavation removed and topsoil conserved) in determination of the earthwork balance.
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Consider the effect of materials that are imported from outside the roadway and used within the
prism, or that are exported for use outside the roadway prism.

The Geotechnical Unit should evaluate the sites and provide recommendations on classification
of borrow material or slopes and depth of embankment allowed in disposal sites. Appropriate
environmental considerations apply to reclamation or rehabilitation plans for any borrow or
waste disposal sites. Coordinate with the site landowner to ensure reclamation and
rehabilitation plans are in conformance with the owner’s requirements.

9.5.1.6 Haul

The designer should consider haul when developing the earthwork design of grading projects,
and strive to minimize the overall haul volume and cost. When applicable, the cost for haul
should be estimated, based on equipment needs and labor rates to move the material, for
development of the pay item unit price analysis.

9.5.1.7 Mass Diagram

As applicable, a mass diagram should be used to evaluate and optimize the earthwork design to
minimize the overall excavation, embankment and haul. When appropriate, provide a mass
diagram in the plans to represent the earthwork design.

9.5.1.8 Borrow and Offsite Borrow Areas

As applicable, borrow areas may be designated and included as part of the overall design and
PS&E preparation. Roadway guidance for grading, drainage, slope treatment, restoration of
vegetation, etc., is also applicable to offsite borrow areas.

9.5.1.9 Waste and Offsite Waste Areas

As applicable, waste areas may be designated and included as part of the overall design and
PS&E preparation. For purposes of drainage, slope treatment, restoration of vegetation, etc.,
the same guidance for the roadway is applicable to offsite waste areas. Provide site-specific
details for grading, slope ratios, and any compaction requirements.

9.5.1.10 Rock Blasting

Coordinate closely with the Geotechnical Unit for the design of materials and slopes that are
anticipated to require rock blasting.

9.5.1.11 Watering and Water Sources

Consider the need for watering and water sources to facilitate the compaction of embankment
materials and for dust control during grading operations. Water may also be needed for
irrigation during plant establishment periods for restoration of vegetation. The water quantity

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needed should be evaluated as part of the design process. When applicable, adequate water
sources should be designated and included as part of the overall design and PS&E preparation.

9.5.1.12 Structural Excavation and Backfill

When applicable, determine the quantity of structure excavation for pipe culverts, box culverts
or other drainage structures. In this case, prepare a cross section at the structure location,
showing the roadway template and the structure grade line.

Consider the volume and costs of structural excavation and backfill in developing the unit price
analysis for the drainage structure.

9.5.1.13 Conservation of Materials

Consider the conservation of materials for selected uses in the earthwork design to minimize the
cost of importing materials and to improve the quality and durability of the overall roadway
construction. When applicable, evaluate the materials within the proposed construction limits
for use as topsoil, subgrade topping, riprap, crushed aggregate, select backfill, reinforced fill for
mechanically stabilized embankment, and other special uses. Coordinate with the Geotechnical
Unit to investigate, sample and test materials that are of value above their use in general
roadway embankments. When applicable, designate in the design and PS&E that the proven
materials be conserved and used for these purposes.

9.5.1.14 Roadway Obliteration

Roadway sections no longer needed for traffic and located outside the cuts or fills should be
obliterated by restoring the ground to approximately the original contour to produce a natural
appearance by forming naturally shaped slopes. In obliteration areas evaluate existing drainage
pipes regarding need for removal, or to be plugged, or to remain in place. Natural drainages
should be restored to their original condition. Evaluate salvaging existing base rock or other
surfacing materials from obliteration areas for incorporation into the new construction.

9.5.1.15 Linear Grading

When applicable, consider linear grading in lieu of the design, control and measurement of
roadway excavation quantities. Consider linear grading for light re-grading of existing roads
where the close adherence to a designed alignment and grade is not essential, and a
reasonable roadway finished product can be anticipated without precise surveys or normal
geometric design engineering processes. Linear grading should not be used where the existing
roadway geometry is unsatisfactory.

9.5.1.16 Subgrade Treatments and Stabilization

When applicable, consider subgrade treatments that may be necessary, or simply cost-effective
to improve the subgrade. Coordinate closely with the Geotechnical Unit to determine the need
for any subgrade treatments or stabilization. The Geotechnical Report should identify the
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location of and propose a solution for any subgrade problems. When applicable, incorporate
appropriate corrective measures into the design including any Special Contract Requirements
and special drawings into the PS&E package. Refer to Chapter 6 for additional guidance using
earthwork geotextiles.

Consider the techniques described in the following sections.

9.5.1.16.1 Subexcavation

When applicable, consider subexcavation of material from below subgrade elevation in cut
sections or from below the original groundline in embankment sections. Consider the need to
remove topsoil, humus material, or loosely compacted materials. Consider that subexcavation
may be needed to remove unsuitable material, or to remove otherwise suitable material that
must be dried, screened, crushed or processed for appropriate use in the roadway.
Subexcavated materials may be replaced with granular backfill or topping to improve the
subgrade.

Coordinate with the Geotechnical Unit for the need and design of any subexcavation areas.

9.5.1.16.2 Subgrade Stabilization

When applicable, consider stabilizing poor quality subgrade materials in-situ with additives (e.g.,
lime, fly ash, cement). Consider that subgrade stabilization in-situ may be an economical
alternative to removal of the poor quality materials, waste and backfill with imported materials;
or to the design of a stronger pavement structural section for the poor quality subgrade
materials. Coordinate closely with the pavements and geotechnical units when considering the
development and design of in-situ subgrade stabilization measures.

9.5.1.16.3 Topping

Where applicable and cost-effective, consider topping with a quality granular soil material in the
upper layer of the subgrade to increase subgrade strength and bearing capacity, and reduce the
pavement structure or to increase its durability. When applicable, topping may be placed in the
upper 6 in to 12 in [150 mm to 300 mm] of the subgrade, in excavation areas after excavating
below the subgrade or subexcavation, and in embankment areas after finishing the normal
embankment to a lower subgrade elevation. Topping material may be either conserved from
the roadway excavation in areas where the material meets the quality requirements, or
furnished from offsite borrow areas.

9.5.1.16.4 Earthwork Geotextile Stabilization

Where applicable, consider using earthwork geotextiles to increase support values of the
subgrade or base materials, and to enhance the function of roadway materials when
conventional local materials are of lesser quality, or if higher material performance is needed.
Coordinate closely with the Geotechnical and Pavements Units when geotextile applications are
considered. Refer to Chapter 6 for additional guidance on using earthwork geotextiles.

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9.5.1.16.5 Subgrade Drainage and Underdrains

Where applicable, consider using subgrade drainage systems including drainage blankets,
underdrains, sheet drains and pavement edge drains. Consider subgrade drainage systems
when needed to facilitate the interception and removal of water from the subgrade to improve
the strength and bearing capacity, and to improve long-term performance of the base and
pavement. As applicable, consider subgrade drainage and underdrains where subsurface water
is apparent and abundant. In addition to subgrade drainage systems, consider widening and
deepening shallow ditches in cut areas. Also consider longitudinal subgrade drainage systems
in cut areas where side slope stability is a concern. Coordinate closely with the Geotechnical
Unit in the location, depth, materials and other aspects of the subgrade drainage design, as
described in Chapter 6.

9.5.2 SLOPE TREATMENTS

Slope treatments are essential roadside design elements and affect safety, stability, and the
restoration of vegetation, cost, aesthetics and environmental impacts. To the extent practical,
flatten and shape slopes to fit the existing topography and to provide a pleasing, natural
appearance consistent with effective revegetation, erosion control, and drainage. Specific
considerations and requirements to be included in the design are discussed in the following
sections.

9.5.2.1 Safety Considerations

Within the designated clear zone, it is FLH standard practice to design slopes to be recoverable
(i.e., 1V:4H or flatter) and free of fixed objects, to the maximum extent practical. Where
practical beyond the clear zone, preferably design slopes to be traversable (i.e., 1V:3H or flatter)
and free of fixed objects. Refer to Section 8.1.4 for general guidance on roadside safety design
and Section 9.3.13 for design of foreslopes.

9.5.2.2 Geotechnical Considerations

Geotechnical reports may not be available for the project when beginning a design. If this is the
case, then design cut and fill slopes based on available survey or field review data. When a
geotechnical report becomes available, the designer must review the slopes initially used and
make any necessary adjustments in the earthwork design.

9.5.2.3 Grading Techniques

FLH standard practice is to use variable slope ratios for both cut and fill slopes. Avoid using
constant slope ratios. When varying slopes, a rule-of-thumb is at minimum to vary one unit of
the horizontal slope ratio over one cross-section interval of 50 ft [20 m] of linear roadway
distance, e.g. a transition from a 1V:2H slope to a 1V:4H slope should be over a minimum
distance of two cross-section intervals or 100 ft [40 m], for constructability.

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Use slope rounding at the top of cuts.

Design slopes for stability, to balance material quantities, as well as to enhance the roadway
corridor appearance.

Evaluate the proposed slope and grading design, both in-office and during on-site reviews, for
opportunities to enhance natural features that are adjoining or will be affected during the grading
operations, and adjust the grading design accordingly. Whenever possible, use an
interdisciplinary design approach with expertise from specialists in landscape architecture,
geotechnical, restoration of vegetation, construction, and other applicable disciplines to assist in
the grading design and to optimize the use of the grading techniques that are described.

Whenever practical, warp and blend slopes to emulate the existing landforms. Slope blending is
done in addition to variable slope and rounding techniques. The intent of slope molding is to
create natural variations instead of an engineered uniformity of a finished slope.

Warp slopes around existing large boulders and preserve stable rock outcrops as practical.

In areas with natural draws, lay back or flatten the cut slope to match that of the draw. This
additional flattening only generates a relatively small amount of additional material but greatly
enhances the appearance of the cut slope. This material can be used to flatten fill slopes or
mold them into more natural appearing landforms representative of the project vicinity.

To the maximum extent practicable accent ridges by designing steeper slopes adjacent to these
locations, in conjunction with rounding slopes. Stable slopes are a primary objective for any
slope treatment, so the steeper slope design should not exceed Geotechnical
recommendations.

For large or extended cuts, merely laying back the slopes into draws and accenting existing
ridges may not be sufficient to produce the natural appearance desired. Consider additional
excavation of flatter slopes to exaggerate existing small draws, and exaggerate the creation of
steeper slopes in slight ridges, to recreate the natural diversity of the landforms; however, these
exaggerated grading techniques could result in a substantial increase in the roadway excavation
or environmental impact if the flattening is overdone, or create surface slides if the steepened
material is not stable at the steeper designed slopes.

9.5.2.3.1 Slopes of Cuts and Fills

Design slopes to be as flat as is reasonable. Cut and fill slope design is a compromise between
aesthetics, safety, stability, and economics. Generally, low cuts and fills are economical to
construct on relatively flat slopes and will enhance aesthetics, safety, and maintenance. Where
practical, embankment slopes should be 1V:4H or flatter. Slopes 1V:3H are generally
traversable by an errant vehicle that has run off the road but do not provide for vehicle recovery.
Since a high percentage of errant vehicles will reach the toe of these slopes, the recoverable
area should be extended beyond the toe of slope. Refer to the AASHTO Roadside Design
Guide for methods of determining the preferred extent of the runout area. Slopes 1V:3H and

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flatter are also traversable by self-propelled mowers, and should be used at locations where the
grass will be regularly cut. High cuts and fills normally have steeper slopes.

For higher speed roadways over 45 mph [70 km/h], a slope of 1V:6H or flatter is recommended
whenever achievable, and 1V:10H embankment slopes are desirable for safety. Recoverable
slopes are slopes 1V:4H or flatter. Motorists who encroach on recoverable slopes can generally
stop their vehicles or slow them enough to return to the roadway safely.

Regardless of the slope steepness, it is desirable to round the top of intersecting slopes so an
errant vehicle is more likely to remain in contact with the ground. Where runout distance exists,
the toe of intersecting slopes should be rounded to prevent vehicles from nosing into the
ground.

Right-of-way, excavation, borrow and environmental impacts typically influence the decision of
slope width and steepness. In some cases, the cost and difficulty of effectively stabilizing,
vegetating and maintaining steep slopes may exceed the initial cost and short term impact of
additional grading and right of way to provide a flatter slope.

In level or gently rolling terrain with grassy vegetation, it may be desirable to use a constant
distance to the slope catch point and a continuously varying slope may be appropriate to blend
to the natural landscape.

In steep terrain, the slopes may be varied slightly from standard slopes in order to better fit the
topography or eliminate high “sliver” cuts or fills. Transition slopes between common material
and rock require special consideration. Blend the ends of cut slopes into the natural terrain by
rounding, flattening, or otherwise shaping the ground line.

Exhibit 9.5-A lists commonly used slopes for cuts and fills in earth materials. Use this table as a
guide for preliminary slope design of projects. Use the recommended slope ratios provided by
the geotechnical engineer, or in the geotechnical report as soon as it is available, to then design
the slopes on the project. The fill slope ratios listed as desired should be used as the
recommended maximum slope ratio for roadways with design speeds of 50 mph [80 km/h] or
higher. All fill slopes steeper than 1V:4H should be evaluated for safety. See the Roadside
Design Guide, Chapter 3 for additional guidelines.

9.5.2.3.2 Transitioning Cut and Fill Slopes

If possible, transition fill slopes from the main portion of the fill into the cut section. Transitions
between flat and steep slopes should be sufficiently long to provide a pleasing appearance.
When varying slopes, a rule-of-thumb is at minimum to vary one unit of the horizontal slope ratio
over one cross-section interval of 50 ft [20 m] of linear roadway distance, e.g. a transition from a
1V:2H slope to a 1V:4H slope should be over two cross-section intervals or a minimum distance
of 100 ft [40 m], for constructability.

At culvert inlets in cut sections, transition the ditch width and depth and cut slope ratio to provide
a smooth transition and to emulate natural draws.

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Exhibit 9.5-A DESIRABLE AND MAXIMUM SLOPES

Cut and Fill Slope Ratios for Soil Materials

Height Slope Flat Rolling Mountainous
(ft) (m) Type Des. Max. Des. Max. Des. Max.
0-3 0-1 Cut 1V:6H 1V:4H 1V:6H 1V:4H 1V:6H 1V:3H
Fill 1V:6H 1V:4H 1V:6H 1V:4H 1V:6H 1V:4H
3-10 1-3 Cut 1V:4H 1V:3H 1V:3H 1V:2H 1V:3H 1V:2H
Fill 1V:4H 1V:4H 1V:4H 1V:4H 1V:3H 1V:3H
10-15 3-4.5 Cut 1V:3H 1V:2H 1V:3H 1V:2H 1V:3H 1V:2H
Fill 1V:4H 1V:3H 1V:4H 1V:3H 1V:3H 1V:2H
15-20 4.5-6 Cut 1V:3H 1V:2H 1V:2.5H 1V:2H 1V:2H 1V:1.5H
Fill 1V:3H 1V:2H 1V:3H 1V:2H 1V:2H 1V:1.5H
> 20 >6 Cut 1V:3H 1V:2H 1V:2H 1V:1.75H 1V:2H 1V:1.5H
Fill 1V:3H 1V:2H 1V:3H 1V:1.75H 1V:2H 1V:1.5H
Note: Cut and fill slopes steeper than 1V:2H should be avoided in clay or silty soils subject to
erosion. Fill slopes steeper than 1V:1.5H may be used in critically tight areas with geotechnical
guidance when the fill material is composed of quality rock.

9.5.2.3.3 Slope Rounding

It is FLH standard practice to use slope rounding at the top of cuts on all grading projects.

The amount of cut slope rounding may depend on the environmental impact and on the desires
of the agency having jurisdiction. A general recommendation is to extend the clearing limits and
provide additional width for slope rounding beyond the slope catch point for a distance of
approximately 1/3 the vertical height of the cut slope, or for a distance of 10 ft [3.0 m].

Where applicable, consider using fill slope rounding to transition the toe of fill slopes with the
natural terrain, within the clearing limits. Fill slopes that are within the clear zone should be
rounded beyond their intersection with the natural ground for a distance of at least 6 ft [1.8 m].
Fill slope intersections parallel to the roadway and within the clear zone (e.g. at culverts,
driveways, intersections) should be rounded longitudinally for a total distance of 20 ft [6 m].

9.5.2.3.4 Slope Roughening and Terracing

Slope roughening is applicable to slopes in medium to highly cohesive soils or in soft rock,
which can be excavated without ripping. When applicable, design slope roughening to provide
flatter spots and small pockets on the slope to facilitate seed germination and plant
establishment, and to help control erosion. All slopes steeper than 1V:4H and greater than 7 ft
[2.1 m] of vertical height should be designed for slope roughening. As applicable, these types of
slopes should also be designed for more intensive terracing or pocketing to provide larger
planting areas, yet still achieve a random and natural appearance.

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Only minor slope roughening is recommended for slopes 1V:1.5H or steeper overall. Slopes
steeper than 1V:1.75H are generally inaccessible by tracked equipment except during the time
that the slope is being constructed in lifts. Materials that would normally be stable on a 1V:1.5H
slope may be designed for 1V:1.75H or 1V:2H with slope roughening techniques. Slopes
steeper than 1V:2H should be designed to be randomly terraced or stair-stepped with short,
intermittent, benches only wide enough to retain sediment that may erode from the steeper
slope above.

Where practical, slopes steeper than 1V:4H up to 1V:2H, and greater than 10 ft [3.0 m] vertical
height, should be designed with allowance for a series of compound, gradient terraces to
emulate adjacent natural slopes and to reduce runoff velocity and minimize erosion. Gradient
terraces should not be designed on slopes steeper than 1V:2H or in areas with sandy or un-
cohesive soils. If used, the design for gradient terraces should be included on the plans and
cross sections or typical details, as a general feature to be incorporated during the construction
of the slopes to suit local conditions. The gradient terraces should be designated as intermittent
for a random appearance, rather than designed as continuous benches. In special
circumstances, compounded slopes may be designed in cuts or fills and controlled as part of the
slope construction.

9.5.2.3.5 Embankment Slope Benching

Consider the need for embankment slope benching consisting of excavation of a series of
benches into the existing terrain to interlock and found the new embankment into the existing
natural ground. Embankment slope benching may also be necessary for the construction
equipment to grade and compact narrow embankments that are less than 15 ft [5 m] horizontal
width from the outside of the embankment to the existing ground.

Embankment benching should be designed for construction of embankments placed on existing

ground that is sloping 1V:3H or steeper, and for narrow embankments. The bench height
should be an increment of one or more layers of the embankment lift thickness as applicable for
material type and conditions encountered.

As applicable, consider the compaction of material excavated for benching in the design of
earthwork volumes, shrinkage factor and balancing of earthwork quantities.

9.5.2.3.6 Slope Daylighting

In shallow cuts, it is recommended to daylight the excavation slope to facilitate drainage,

roadside safety, visibility and future maintenance activities, when practical. Daylight slopes are
typically constructed at a 1V:20H or 1V:10H slope similar to an embankment slope, and may
extend outward as much as approximately 20 ft [6 m] horizontally to intersect the natural ground
that is sloping downward away from the roadway. Slopes should normally daylight from the
normal ditch flow line elevation, or from a slightly deeper ditch in transitions from cut to fill.

In locations where the view of the road from other locations is a concern, slope daylighting may
not be appropriate.

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9.5.2.3.7 Slope Snow Drifting and Storage Considerations

In areas subject to frequent winter snow and wind, consider providing an aerodynamic cross
section that allows the roadway to be naturally swept clear by the wind. Also consider adjusting
slopes to provide snow storage upwind from the road. Where applicable, consider the following
recommendations to improve snow storage and alleviate drift-prone areas:
● Flatten backslopes and foreslopes to at least 1V:6H ratio and preferably flatter,
● Widen ditches as much as practical,
● Raise the road profile to 2 ft [0.6 m] above the ambient snow cover,
● Provide a ditch section that is adequate for storing snow plowed off the road,
● Widen cuts to provide increased snow storage,
● Flatten slopes to eliminate the need for traffic barrier, and
● If traffic barrier is necessary, consider cable or box-beam rail in lieu of W-beam rail.

9.5.2.4 Slope Waterways and Catchment Basins

As applicable, adjust the design of cut and fill slopes and ditches at the location of slope
waterways and catchment basins to emulate natural waterways. Design cut slope waterways to
intercept natural drainages that are undercut by excavation slopes, and design embankment
slope waterways to convey pavement or ditch drainage over or along embankment slopes.
Design catchment basins to collect drainage from ditches or slope waterways at inlets to
culverts. Refer to Section 7.3.2 for channel lining design and permanent erosion protection for
slope waterways and catchment basins.

9.5.2.5 Rock Cut Slopes

9.5.2.5.1 General

Consider presplitting along a rock slope face or along a number of benched rock faces may be
beneficial for slope stability; however, presplitting may not be appropriate in all locations. In
these locations consider using other than presplit blasting techniques, using irregular drill hole
patterns following the natural joints and strata along natural rock fractures.

Consider designing rock cuts to produce a staggered bench effect to emulate the natural terrain
and accent natural fracture lines in the rock. When presplitting is necessary to create stable
rock slopes, consider design of staggered benches, at varying elevations in the cut slope, to
break up the appearance of uniform and closely spaced vertical drill holes.

When soil or highly weathered rock overlays the solid rock, consider designing overburden
benches at the top of the solid rock. The overburden slope should range from 1V:1.3H to
1V:2H, depending on the type and depth of overburden and the steepness of the topography.
When the rock surface is known, developing the design of compound slopes is recommended.

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9.5.2.5.2 Rockfall Considerations

As applicable for design of rock excavation or rockfall mitigation, provide design details that
describe techniques for slope scaling of existing rock cut slopes using machine scaling and
hand scaling techniques, and scaling of excavated rock slopes after blasting. Coordinate
closely with the geotechnical discipline to develop techniques for rock bolting, netting, etc., and
how to present these in the PS&E.

Refer to Chapter 6 for guidance for designing rock cuts and fallout ditches. Rely on the
recommendations in the Geotechnical Report. Typical sections for rock cuts should be shown
on the plans.

Rock slopes higher than 30 ft [10 m] from shoulder grade may require wider fallout ditches and
the geotechnical staff should be consulted. Cuts less than 20 ft [6 m] in height generally do not
require a fallout ditch.

Special rock protection features may be applicable on higher volume highways experiencing
falling rock. The Geotechnical Unit should recommend or approve these features before
inclusion into a project.

9.5.2.6 Slides and Slope Stabilization

When the Geotechnical Report identifies potential areas for slides, the earthwork excavation
quantities may require adjustment to cover potential slide removal. Provide for the removal and
disposal of excess slide material, if necessary.

Coordinate closely with the Geotechnical Unit to develop techniques for rock buttresses,
drainage layers and similar techniques for stabilizing cut and fill slopes and how to present
these in the PS&E. Refer to Chapter 6 for additional guidance.

9.5.2.7 Slope Protection

Coordinate closely with the Hydraulics Unit to develop techniques for embankment slope
protection for erosion, stream impingements, etc., and how to present these in the PS&E. Refer
to Section 7.4.4 for additional guidance on such details.

9.5.3 EARTH RETAINING STRUCTURES

Information on retaining wall design may be found in Section 10.4.12 and Section 6.4.4.

9.5.3.1 Determination of Need

The determination that a retaining wall may be needed should be made early in the conceptual
studies and preliminary design phase. Refer to Section 4.8.4.

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9.5.3.2 Alternative Wall Systems

When it is determined that a retaining wall is needed, identify and determine the retaining wall
system alternatives that are technically suitable to the site, and aesthetically acceptable to the
highway facility owner and the land-owning agency.

Determine which alternative wall system(s) will be designed and included in the PS&E, and
which wall systems will be designated as alternative contractor designs. Determine the
alternatives permitted for design by the contractor that are technically suitable, cost-effective
and aesthetically acceptable to the highway facility owner and the land-owning agency.

Avoid designating only one retaining wall system, if the system is proprietary. Contracts
specifying a proprietary wall system must have at least one other reasonably competitive
proprietary or non-proprietary wall system permitted as an alternative.

9.5.3.3 Selection of a Retaining Wall System

Unless alternative wall systems are applicable, determine the retaining wall system or type that
will be designated. Coordinate this decision with the project manager, geotechnical, highway
design, structural design, environmental specialists, highway facility owner and land-owning
agency. Evaluation factors to consider in the selection include:
● Terrain,
● Soil conditions,
● Constructability,
● Demonstrated performance and durability,
● Estimated cost,
● Aesthetics,
● Environmental compatibility,
● Geotechnical considerations, and
● Maintenance.

Document the selection process. The designated wall system or type should be based upon an
analysis of the specific constraints and conditions. The analysis must consider the suitability or
compatibility of various wall systems to the site.

9.5.3.4 Retaining Wall Systems

When applicable, the roadway design should include the general layout of the retaining wall
systems including the geometry, location, offset from the roadway, length, batter or slope,
foundation embedment, excavation and backfill requirements, and the coordination with other
roadway design elements. Incorporate the design considerations of the wall type into the
general layout of the retaining wall system and coordinate the layout with the overall highway
design. Refer to Chapter 6 and Chapter 10 for design guidelines applicable to the specific
retaining wall systems.

Consider the following in the layout, overall design and construction of a retaining wall system:

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● Highway geometry,
● Topography,
● Subsurface conditions and soil parameters,
● Loading conditions,
● Length and height of wall required,
● Material to be retained,
● Presence of ground water,
● Scour protection if adjacent to surface waters,
● Future planned improvements that may affect design of the wall, and
● Appearance and aesthetics of the completed structure.

Walls installed near the roadway can also serve as traffic barriers if they have an approved
traffic barrier design incorporated into the wall details.

Whenever practical, design the retaining walls to allow usage of native soil conserved from the
roadway or wall excavation for the backfill, if it meets the requirements for the particular wall
system. Coordinate the estimated volume of wall excavation and backfill with the roadway
earthwork design.

All retaining walls require a geotechnical investigation and report of the underlying foundation
soils. Refer to Section 6.3 for guidance on the investigation of foundation soils and native soils
that may be used for backfill.

Design retaining walls, as applicable, with an aesthetically pleasing appearance compatible with
other structures in the area and with the surrounding terrain. Although economics generally
dictate wall selection, an aesthetic wall facing treatment could be an overriding selection factor.
Consistent architectural treatment and economy of scale will frequently result in the same wall
type being used throughout any given project. Aesthetic requirements may include the wall’s
material, top profile, terminal transitions and the surface finish for texture, color and pattern.
Short sections of walls should be avoided if possible.

9.5.3.5 Geometric Information for Design of Retaining Wall Systems

The following lists the minimum geometric information to be developed and included for the
design of retaining wall systems:
● Beginning and ending wall stations;
● Horizontal alignment;
● Offset from the roadway to the face of the wall;
● Profile elevation of top of wall;
● Typical cross-sections of the wall geometry and required elements;
● Representative existing ground topography, or cross sections, or both, in relation to the
wall geometry;
● Estimated foundation elevations;
● Estimated wall face area;
● Wall base width;
● Layout of appurtenances in the area (e.g., culverts, guardrail);

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● Proposed construction limits;

● Right-of-way limits;
● Locations designated for removal of unsuitable foundation materials; and
● Construction sequence or staging for traffic control needs.

9.5.4 LANDSCAPING AND RESTORATION OF VEGETATION

As applicable, retain, restore, or include landscaping and vegetation to provide the following
operational, environmental, and visual benefits:
● Prevent soil erosion,
● Enhance water quality,
● Provide runoff storage,
● Provide slope stabilization,
● Preserve and provide wildlife habitat,
● Preserve scenic views, and
● Serve as a buffer and glare screen.

Whenever practical, incorporate the following landscaping and vegetation treatments to restore,
enhance and emphasize the natural beauty of the roadside. Consult with a professional
landscape architect (e.g., the Federal land management agency landscape architect) or include
a landscape architect in the project design team to identify opportunities and provide specific
recommendations regarding enhancements or modifications of the slope design and grading, for
design of landscaping treatments, and for restoration of vegetation.

For additional guidance refer to A Guide for Highway Landscape and Environmental Design,
AASHTO, 1990.

9.5.4.1 Enhanced Clearing Techniques

When applicable, incorporate enhancements to the clearing techniques described in

Section 9.5.1.1.

9.5.4.2 Enhanced Grading Techniques

When applicable, incorporate enhancements to the grading techniques described in

Section 9.5.2 and as described in the following sections.

9.5.4.2.1 Cut Slope End Treatment

As applicable, transition cut slopes from the cut into the fill section with varying slope ratios.
Flare the ends of cuts and blend the ends of fills into the cut slopes. Refer to Exhibit 9.5-B.
Using a special ditch grade or widening the ditch can accomplish this objective.

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Exhibit 9.5-B ENHANCED CUT SLOPE END TREATMENT

9.5.4.2.2 Serrated Slopes

As applicable, consider design of serrated (stepped) slopes, which are a series of small steps,
in soft rippable rock cuts having slope ratios between 1.3V:1H and 1V:2H. Exhibit 9.5-C shows
a typical section of a serrated slope.

If used, include a drawing in the plans showing step tread and rise dimensions. Generally, the
step rise varies from 1.7 ft [0.5 m] for easily ripped rock to 5.0 ft [1.5 m] for harder rippable rock.
If the slope contains nonrippable rock outcrops, design the steps to blend into the rock. The
step tread width is equal to the rise multiplied by the cut slope ratio.

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Exhibit 9.5-C SERRATED SLOPES

At the ends of the cut slopes blend the steps smoothly into the natural ground.

Where the series of steps in the slope is a concern from a visual or aesthetic standpoint,
serrated slopes may not be appropriate.

9.5.4.3 Enhanced Rock Work

Incorporate enhancements to the rock slope techniques described in Section 9.5.2.5. Where
practical, design planting pockets or benches in the slopes for the introduction of plant material.
It is desirable to spread topsoil on all rock benches to encourage grass growth and minimize the
visual scar through restoration of vegetation. Consider planting seedlings of trees and shrubs.

9.5.4.4 Topsoil Placement

Where practical, design the project to conserve topsoil from within the project limits and replace
it on the finished slopes, within the same growing season. The topsoil provides needed
chemical and organic materials for the vegetation, and it contains an abundance of native
seeds. Native forbs and grasses present in conserved and topsoil usually grow quickly, dense
and blend with the existing undisturbed vegetation, which most effectively restores the
indigenous vegetation onto the new slopes.

Coordinate closely with the Geotechnical Unit to determine the locations, depth, quality and
other information about factors that may influence special contract requirements, such as for the
potential need for special equipment or construction methods to salvage, stockpile and place
the topsoil.

Where existing topsoil from the project is limited, consider designing the slopes for placement of
furnished topsoil, or topsoil manufactured on the project site from a well-blended mixture of the
limited existing topsoil combined with finely chipped clearing slash, conserved fine-grained soil
excavation and furnished compost.

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9.5.4.5 Restoration of Vegetation

Include treatments for restoration of roadside vegetation using appropriate planting to pro-
actively improve the quality of the highway and its surrounding ecosystem. Refer to Roadside
Revegetation, FHWA-WFL/TD-07-005.

Coordinate with botanists or specialists in restoration of vegetation to select species and

application rates of grasses and other plant seed that is native to or compatible with the area.
The Federal land management agency will typically have expertise and local knowledge of
native and compatible vegetation species. The seed mixture should be diverse to establish
growth in the differing soils, slopes, moistures, elevations, aspects and solar exposures present
along the project, and different seed mixtures may be needed on a relatively long project. Use
soil mulches and mulch blankets as appropriate to protect the disturbed soil and stabilize soil
moisture until vegetation becomes established.

When appropriate, include planting containerized native plants, shrubs and trees, or seedlings,
to restore the disturbed roadside slopes and blend them with the adjacent undisturbed
landscape. If plant materials are limited, prioritize the location and density of plant groupings in
those areas most visible to the user, and most beneficial to mitigate visual or environmental
impacts.

As applicable, include design specifications for monitoring and control of noxious weeds prior to,
during, and for a period subsequent to construction operations.

To assure successful growth, the design specifications should provide for a period of monitoring
the viability of the restored vegetation and establishment of new vegetation.

9.5.4.6 Landscape Planting

Landscape and planting treatments should blend and transition with existing features, to
simulate natural forms and landscapes.

In a rural environment, design treatments to emulate the existing landscape elements. Consider
that a motorist traveling at higher speeds (i.e., at 50 mph [80 km/h]) is less able to recognize
detailed landscape patterns. In areas of slower travel speeds (e.g., parking areas, overlooks,
vistas), a more detailed landscape planting approach is appropriate to present landscape
plantings to the highway user.

Vary the intensity of landscape treatment to be consistent with to the extent of landscape
changes and visibility. The most visible and noticeable areas should receive the greatest
attention. Recommended treatments for the highest priority locations are plantings, site-specific
slope molding, rock cut sculpturing, etc., where less visible locations may receive typical grading
techniques and more general vegetation restoration methods.

To blend the new construction with the existing landscape, emphasize landscaping efforts near
the base of fill slopes and along the top of cut slopes. Locate larger diameter tree plantings
near the top of cut slopes or near the toe of fills. Locate tree species that mature to 4 in

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[100 mm] or larger trunk diameter beyond the clear zone and, when applicable, beyond the
snow storage area in snow plowing areas.

On higher speed rural roadways, consider individual groupings of one or two native tree species
may provide an effective treatment. Greater species diversity together with an appropriate mix
of groundcover and shrubbery is recommended in urban situations.

9.5.4.7 Slope Enhancements

As applicable, consider design of embedding boulders, stumps and old logs on cut and fill
slopes, outside of the clear zone, to represent natural conditions that exist beyond the clearing
limits, using materials that are generally available on the project. Logs and stumps should be
randomly located and established to approximate the natural scattering of such material on
adjacent undisturbed slopes. Boulders may be embedded individually or in naturally appearing
clusters. Boulders should be buried from 1/3 to 2/3 of the diameter into ground to appear as
natural rock outcroppings.

9.5.4.8 Ornamental Landscapes

An ornamental landscape is one that is intended to showcase the various plant species and
which is typically irrigated, mulched, routinely weeded, organized with shrub or flowerbeds and
with delineated grass areas that are routinely mowed. Coordinate with a landscape architect or
other landscaping specialists in this field for the design of such areas, as applicable.

9.5.5 DRAINAGE DESIGN

Refer to Section 7.3 for standards, references and guidance for designing roadway drainage
facilities. Also refer to Green Book Section 4.8.2.

Existing culverts should be inspected and evaluated to determine their performance and
remaining service life, both in hydraulic capacity and durability of materials.

Incorporate the design of drainage facilities, and provide design data and coordinate any
needed information and reports with the Hydraulic, Structural Design, and the Geotechnical
Units regarding drainage features. Design minor drainage structures and appurtenances (e.g.,
small culverts 48 in [1200 mm] and smaller, end sections, catch basins, inlets) as well as minor
drainage channels and ditches using standard methodology as described in Section 7.3.

Large (over 4 ft [1.2 m] diameter) culverts and channels are normally sized by the hydraulic
engineer or may be sized by the designer using methodology and oversight provided by the
hydraulic engineer. For large culverts and channels, the hydraulic engineer may develop a
conceptual or preliminary design with the final design and detailing performed by the roadway
designer.

Coordinate the roadway design with the bridge and hydraulic design features and elements.

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Coordinate the roadway design and adjust the alignment, grades and slopes to accommodate
the natural flow lines of streams and channels, to provide adequate cover for culverts and other
drainage considerations, as well as to accommodate drainage facility designs performed by
others.

Early in the design process, consult with the hydraulic, structural design and geotechnical
disciplines when special drainage design needs are anticipated. Also, discuss the need for
various Federal, State and local water quality permits and approvals with the hydraulic discipline
early in the design process.

Review and incorporate commitments from the environmental documents and correspondence
with fish and wildlife agencies, and review all permit requirements to ensure that all drainage
requirements and water quality considerations are incorporated in the roadway design and in
the PS&E.

The hydraulic or the structural design discipline specialists provide the technical
recommendations or the designs for the larger and more complicated drainage facilities.
Coordinate the roadway design and supply adequate information so others can design these
facilities. Obtain the existing vertical clearance dimensions of overpass structures to adjust the
highway grade, and consider alternative drainage designs that may affect the alignment and
grade of the highway.

For every new or existing drainage facility, determine the quantity of flow that the facility must
pass. Various methods are described in Section 7.2 to accomplish this.

Consult with the Hydraulics Unit for guidance on the design of ditch relief cross-drains and
downdrains that are proposed near retaining walls. Verify the ditch capacity and do not rely on
a set interval for cross drains where structures are potentially at risk from water escaping the
ditch and flowing across the roadway.

9.5.5.1 Safety Considerations

Design drainage features, including channels, inlets, grates, etc., to provide a safe environment
for all users including drivers, pedestrians, bicyclists and other users. Refer to Section 8.1.4 for
general roadside safety design guidelines as applicable to drainage features. Also see the
AASHTO Roadside Design Guide for information on roadside safety in the design of drainage
structures.

9.5.5.2 Roadway Ditches and Channels

Design roadway ditches and channels to:

● Intercept and drain surface runoff and small streams away from the roadway into
culverts and cross drains, and
● Drain and lower the ground water level below the subgrade.

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See Section 7.3.2 for applicable hydraulic standards and guidance.

9.5.5.2.1 Shape and Depth

Design ditch cross sections to accommodate drainage of the roadway and the drainage that
flows directly into the roadway ditch from uphill areas. Design the depth of the ditch to meet
hydraulic needs and groundwater control needs. Design roadway cut ditches to meet AASHTO,
State or county minimum standards for depth and foreslope shape. The minimum depth should
be 6 in [150 mm], and preferably 1 ft [300 mm] below the subgrade shoulder for drainage and
maintenance purposes.

Ditches should preferably have a smooth and rounded cross section for safety (see the
AASHTO Roadside Design Guide) and ease of maintenance. Wide ditch bottoms are used in
rock fallout areas as well as in projects designed with side borrow.

When hydraulic needs dictate ditches of greater capacity, a flat bottom ditch should be used
versus deepening the v-ditch. For additional groundwater control purposes, a deeper “V” shape
ditch is preferred.

Drainage channels may require a design by the hydraulic engineer when the accumulated
discharge is greater than the capacity of the normal roadway ditch. When applicable, furnish
the alignment, grades, cross sections and pertinent information about the existing site
conditions to hydraulic discipline for the channel design. As applicable, include provisions for
fish habitat and aesthetics in the channel design. Fish habitat includes pools, riffles, boulders,
logs and gravels in the streambed and brush and shade on the stream banks. For design of
channel changes, obtain guidance and direction regarding specific habitat features to include. If
used, include the design of drainage channels and channel changes in the roadway design, and
provide typical sections and detailed drawings in the design plans. See Section 7.3.2 for
guidance on hydraulic design of open channels.

9.5.5.2.2 Lining Materials

In soils subject to erosion, consider lining the ditches with rock or some other suitable material
especially on grades steeper than the natural channels. Refer to HEC 15, Design of Roadside
Channels with Flexible Linings for additional guidance. Consultant the hydraulics engineer
when ditch erosion is a concern and the suitable ditch lining cannot be identified (See
Section 7.3.2.5).

9.5.5.2.3 Ditch Grades and Transitions

Design ditch gradients at a minimum of 0.5 percent, with 1 percent being the desired minimum
ditch grade where practical. Transition the depth and gradient of ditches at transitions from cuts
to fills. Where applicable, design special ditch gradients to provide a gradual depth transition
and a uniform gradient from the normal ditch flow line to the inlet of culverts, to convey drainage
from cut slope waterways into culvert inlets, in areas of flat roadway or ditch grades and at other
locations as needed.

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Also consider the need for special gradients for ditches on long crest and sag vertical curves
and in superelevation transition areas where ditch grades may be flat for substantial lengths.
Evaluate the roadway ditch profile to identify any sags in the ditch line or in shallow fills, and
identify and locations where culverts or special ditch grades should be provided to ensure
drainage.

9.5.5.3 Culverts

Design culverts to carry the flow of ditches, natural drainages, streams and surface runoffs.
Design culverts with consideration for minimum size requirements, minimum and maximum
gradients, sediment and debris transport, materials and other factors as described in the
following sections. See Section 7.3.2 for hydraulic standards and guidance.

When applicable, include provisions for fish habitat or special aesthetic considerations in the
design. Fish habitat features may include baffles, energy dissipation structures within the
culvert or at the inlet or outlet, inlet or outlet pools, riffles, boulders, logs and gravels within the
culvert and the adjacent streambed, and restoration of vegetation, brush and trees for cover and
shade on the adjacent slopes and stream banks.

9.5.5.3.1 Locations

Locate the culverts on the detail topographic map or plan sheets based on the location of
natural drainages, streams, swales, low points in the terrain, ditch relief or other drainage
considerations. Consider the location of cut and fill slopes, natural drainage flow lines and
design cross sections to determine the length of culvert invert, inlet and outlet elevations and
available depth for headwater.

Evaluate the ditch profile, transitions from cut to fill, low areas of fill slopes and other aspects of
the cross sections and roadway plans and profiles. Streams crossing the alignment, draws and
low spots in fills and ditch lines are the obvious sites for culverts. In long cut sections between
the obvious culvert locations, space the cross drains such that water does not build up in the
ditch line and infiltrates the subgrade or cause erosion problems. There is no set rule for
minimum spacing between cross drains because of various soil types encountered and the wide
differences in rainfall in different geographical areas. Consult with the hydraulic engineer on a
project-by-project basis for recommended minimum and maximum culvert spacing.

9.5.5.3.2 Cover and Roadway Grade

After locating the culverts on plotted cross sections, verify that the roadway grade is sufficient to
accommodate the design headwater and minimum cover requirements. Determine the culvert
slope, maximum cover and prepare a drainage summary sheet for the plans. See Section 7.3.1
and Section 7.3.6 for more information on culverts.

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9.5.5.3.3 Inlet Considerations

Design grated drop inlets, as applicable, to intercept all ditch flow or as a safety measure in
roadway ditch lines. In this case, maintain the normal ditch depth at a culvert inlet and provide a
traversable grate at the top of the catch basin or inlet.

Design inlets to intercept all runoff and ditch flow to prevent bypass flow from running across the
roadway or onto an embankment slope, retaining wall, bridge deck or other structure.

9.5.5.3.4 Outlet Considerations

Locate culvert outlets to closely match natural drainage channels and to minimize erosion at the
outlet. Design outlet channels, as applicable, for culvert outlets that are located in cut sections.
Design outlet ditches at a gradient sufficient to ensure drainage and sediment conveyance and
with configurations that facilitate future maintenance, safety, aesthetics, water quality and
restoration of vegetation. When applicable, design outlet sediment detention structures and
energy dissipation devices in consideration of the culvert outlet velocity and discharge volume.
See Section 9.5.5.9. Include the volume of excavation for outlet ditches in the earthwork
design.

9.5.5.4 Pavement Drainage

Design pavement drainage, as applicable, for curb and gutter sections, storm drains,
embankment protection curbs, paved ditches, depressed medians and bridge ends. Evaluate
pavement drainage using the hydrology and hydraulic standards, references, and guidance
described in Section 7.3.3.

In curb and gutter or embankment curb sections, space the catch basins and inlets close
enough together so water spread on the traveled way is within the allowable criteria. Spacing
will depend on the gutter grade, cross slope and width of the road or gutter. Consult with the
hydraulic engineer on spacing design requirements.

At the lower ends of bridges, design catch basins or inlets to prevent runoff from the bridge
gutters eroding the fill slopes at the corners of a bridge.

At culvert inlets, determine the need for catch basins and the type of inlet and grates on an
individual basis. Consider the amount of runoff to be collected, the capacity of the inlet under
various slope and gradient conditions, and the amount and type of anticipated debris; slide
material and sedimentation that may plug them. Determine the need for culvert inlets at the
upstream approach end of bridges, and where there are curbs or guard walls. In all cases,
drainage grates and drop inlets should be designed so that they do not encroach into the
traveled way. Drainage grates adjacent the roadway should always be designed bicycle-safe.
Where shoulder width, or a bike lane, adjacent to a curb is less than 5 feet [1.5 m], recessed
drainage inlets or curb inlets should be used.

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9.5.5.5 Downdrains and Pipe Anchors

Downdrains or chutes are generally used to convey the discharge water from the inlets to the
embankment toe. Buried pipe downdrains are preferable because the flow is confined, erosion
along the embankment slope is minimized, interference with maintenance functions is reduced
and they are aesthetically pleasing. Downdrains may be used to convey drainage down high or
steep embankments. Downdrain culverts may be used to reduce excessive excavation required
to install a new culvert at the bottom of an existing fill. Also, consider downdrains where the
culvert outlets on erodible soils. Do not use downdrains for culverts larger than 48 in [1.2 m].

Design the outlets of downdrains to control or minimize scour and erosion.

Pipe anchors should be specified for all above ground downdrain installations. Buried
downdrains may require an anchoring system depending on specific site and slope conditions.

9.5.5.6 Storm Drains

Storm drain systems and urban drainage systems require design by or in consultation with the
hydraulic engineer. Furnish layouts, lines and grades and topographic mapping and land
features for each drainage area. Include detailed storm drain system drawings in the plans.

For further information, see Section 7.3.4.

9.5.5.7 Underdrains and Horizontal Drains

Coordinate with the Geotechnical Unit for design recommendations or conceptual designs for
underdrain systems and horizontal drains based on field observations and exploration of
subsurface conditions. Incorporate the recommendations in the detailed roadway design and
provide detailed drawings as part of the PS&E.

9.5.5.8 Riprap Slope Protection

Obtain recommendations from the hydraulic discipline for the class, thickness and cross section
of riprap for slope protection along streams and lakes, and for ditch and channel lining.
Incorporate these recommendations and data in the roadway design and PS&E preparation.
The location, quantity, surface dimensions, class, thickness and typical section of riprap slope
protection should be shown in the plans and specifications. Refer to FLH standard drawings for
typical outlet protection details. See Section 7.3.2 for more information on channel stabilization.

Place riprap around culvert inlets and outlets, as necessary, to prevent erosion and
undercutting.

9.5.5.9 Energy Dissipators and Outlet Detention Basins

In areas of erodible soils, consider energy dissipators at the outlet of downdrains and culverts
with high outlet velocities and in channels at points where the grade flattens. Energy dissipators

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may be in the form of riprap outlet basins, stilling wells, weirs or concrete structures. These
features may be needed for temporary or permanent stormwater management. For more
information, see Section 7.3.5.

9.5.6 SOIL EROSION AND SEDIMENT CONTROL

Erosion and sediment control are important considerations in the development of the design of a
highway facility. It is the policy of FLH that highways be designed and constructed to
standards that will minimize erosion and sediment damage to the highway and adjacent
properties. See Green Book Section 3.6.1.

It is FLH standard practice to determine the need for various types of soil erosion and sediment
control features, develop their proposed design, and include the appropriate items of work in the
contract. Refer to 23 CFR 650 Subpart B. Also refer to Section 7.5.4 for stormwater
management guidance. Roadway construction projects with soil disturbance exceeding 1 acre
[0.4 hectare] requires filing a Notice of Intent (NOI) with the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) and preparation of a Storm Water Pollution Prevention Plan (SWPPP) including
erosion and sediment controls. The type and extent of erosion and sediment control measures
will depend on the soils, proximity of adjacent streams or lakes, cut and fill slope magnitudes,
topography, hydrology and other factors. Coordinate the design of soil erosion and sediment
control features and incorporate input from hydrology and hydraulics, geotechnical, construction
and environmental discipline specialists. The techniques for addressing temporary soil erosion
and sediment control are commonly described as Best Management Practices (BMP’s).
Sources of BMPs are:
● Best Management Practices for Erosion and Sediment Control, FHWA (Report No.
FHWA-FLP-94-005), 1995.
● US Environmental Protection Agency, National Menu of Stormwater BMPs, Construction
Site Stormwater Runoff Control,
● AASHTO Center for Environmental Excellence (CEE), Construction Practices for
Environmental Stewardship, Erosion and Sedimentation Control, and
● NCHRP Synthesis 430, Cost-Effective and Sustainable Road Slope Stabilization and
Erosion Control, TRB, 2012.
● NCHRP Synthesis Report 70, Design of Sedimentation Basins, TRB, 1980.

Additional references are State regulatory agencies BMPs and State DOT stormwater and
erosion and sediment control manuals; refer to the CEE reference above for links to a number
of such manuals.

9.5.6.1 Developing Erosion and Sediment Control Plans

The erosion control plans describe the location and type of controls to be implemented
temporarily during construction and at the completion of earthwork and drainage construction.
The controls should address erosion from the initial clearing stage to the final site stabilization.
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The plans should reference FLH Standard Drawings and Division Details detailing the
construction and installation of the particular control. Special resources (e.g., wetlands, surface
waters) must be clearly identified on the plan along with protection measures. Any known
problems including highly erodible soils, unstable slopes, etc., should also be identified while
developing the plans. In addition, the plans should typically include basic drainage information
(e.g., drainage patterns, drainage areas) and the size and location of drainage structures.

As appropriate, include a narrative in the PS&E or supporting documents to assist in plan

implementation. The narrative should address issues that may not be clearly conveyed with a
drawing. This may relate to construction sequences, maintenance on the controls, stabilization
timing or other critical factors. The narrative may consist of brief notes and comments while an
in-depth discussion may be provided in the Storm Water Pollution Prevention Plan (SWPPP).

9.5.6.2 Erosion and Sediment Control Phases

Erosion control plans should address the different stages of construction:

● Initial clearing and grubbing,
● Intermediate grading and drainage, and
● Final stabilization of the site.

The initial phase should address the perimeter controls required during the initial clearing and
grubbing stage to prevent sediment from leaving the site. The intermediate grading and
drainage phase should reflect the controls required during earthwork construction. This
includes the point from grubbing operations until final grade is reached. The third phase of
erosion control is the final stabilization of the site and installation of the permanent controls.

Consider the need for initial perimeter controls such as:

● Filter barriers,
● Diversion structures, and
● Settling structures.

Consider the need for intermediate controls such as:

● Temporary slope drains,
● Temporary channel linings,
● Mulching,
● Temporary and permanent turf establishment,
● Check dams,
● Settling and detention structures, and
● Inlet and outlet protection.

Consider that turf establishment or stabilization may be performed in incremental stages on cut
and fill slopes, and may need additional quantity for multiple applications.

The last phase of erosion control consists of final site stabilization. This includes final
stabilization of the slopes and waterways, stabilization of outfalls and other disturbed areas.
Consider the need for final controls such as:

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● Permanent turf establishment,

● Channel linings,
● Temporary slope drains,
● Check dams, and
● Outlet and inlet protection.

Both temporary and permanent erosion control measures must be considered during the design
and all necessary features incorporated into the contract plans and specifications.

Temporary control measures are those features temporarily installed for use during construction
activities. Upon project completion they are generally removed and disposed. The design for
temporary control measures (e.g., silt fences, brush barriers, diversion channels, sediment
traps, check dams, slope drains, berms) are contained in the Best Management Practices for
Erosion and Sediment Control Manual, FHWA-FLP-94-005.

Division Standard Details detailing the more common temporary control devices are available
and should be included in every project plans set containing construction activities that could
possibly affect soil degradation or water quality.

Permanent control measures are those features installed as part of the highway to minimize
scour, sedimentation, erosion, etc., during the facility life. Refer to the roadway drainage
features described elsewhere in this chapter.

See HEC 22 for details and information relative to permanent inlets, downdrains, grates, curbs,
gutters and other similar roadway drainage designs useful in controlling erosion. Chapter 7 lists
additional information sources applicable to the design of debris control structures, riprap or
slope protection installations, energy dissipator systems, ditch, channel linings, and similar
structures.

9.5.7 PARKING AND REST AREAS

On FLH projects, parking and rest areas are typically constructed for the scenic, recreational
and cultural enhancement of the highway facility. Coordinate the parking area design with the
partner agency and if appropriate with local officials and business owners to identify acceptable
locations for parking and to determine the geometry, capacity, design vehicle type and other
related requirements. Information on rest area design is provided in the Guide for Development
of Rest Areas on Major Arterials and Freeways, AASHTO, 2001.

Design parking and rest areas to accommodate persons with disabilities. Refer to the
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) Accessibility Guidelines for Buildings and Facilities
(ADAAG) for the applicable standards. The Green Book contains information on sidewalk curb
ramps in Section 4.17.3. Refer to Section 9.3.16.3 for accessibility requirements applicable to
the design of parking areas and passenger loading zones.

Refer to Section 9.3.9.3 for design of parking lanes, and Section 9.3.9.9 for parking pullouts.

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Determine the appropriate design vehicle and design parking areas to accommodate all
circulation and parking maneuvers. Design intersections within the parking area to provide safe
traffic movement. See Section 9.3.19 for parking lot layout considerations.

9.5.8 ROADWAY APPURTENANCES

Refer to Section 8.5 for design of traffic barriers and end treatments, and to Section 8.7 for
design of signs, traffic signal installations and traffic control devices.

9.5.8.1 Highway Lighting Systems

As applicable, consider providing illumination to facilitate traffic operations and to improve traffic
safety during nighttime hours. Where used, design highway lighting to enable the driver or
pedestrian to better recognize important details in the roadway or parking area quickly,
accurately and confidently. Coordinate the selection of lighting hardware and components with
the maintaining agency to ensure compatibility. An engineer with expertise in this specialty
should design highway lighting systems.

Refer to Section 8.7.3 for warrants and design of highway lighting systems. Also, refer to the
Roadway Lighting Design Guide, AASHTO, 2005.

9.5.8.2 Fencing

Design fencing to separate highway users from livestock encroachment, and to separate
pedestrian activity from vehicular travel where applicable. Coordinate the needs for wildlife
passage or restriction in the fencing design. Generally, fencing is designed to replace an
existing fence and is usually constructed on the right-of-way line through private lands. Some
States have laws requiring fence for all State highway right of way. Check the applicable State
or local regulations during the design process. Coordinate with the Right of Way unit to address
fencing in the right-of-way negotiations and documents. Fencing type and location must agree
with the right-of-way documents, or otherwise be agreed by the property owner as a right-of-way
consideration for the project.

When the right-of-way line has many abrupt irregularities over short distances, fencing runs
should have continuous alignment, but should never encroach upon private land. Minimize the
number of different fence types on a particular project.

Fence type selection depends on the character and density of adjacent development and cost of
installation and maintenance. In general, chain link fence should be installed in urban and
suburban areas, and woven wire or high-tensile fence in rural areas. Consider chain-link fence
where the following situations exist adjacent the highway:
● Along steep embankments or drop-offs such as a box culvert headwall, that are adjacent
to a pedestrian facility or sidewalk or bicycle path,

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● Industrial areas,
● Residential developments or where development is expected to occur,
● Military reservations,
● Schools and colleges,
● Recreational and athletic areas, playgrounds, and
● Other locations where a high level of protection to prevent encroachment on the right-of-
way is necessary, or is requested by the maintaining agency.

Chain link fence should not be located where it restricts sight distance, particularly on curves.
Also consider that chain link fence may increase snow drifting in some areas, and may collect
waste paper and trash.

Generally, provide a 6 ft [1.8 m] high chain link fence if needed to prevent encroachments in
urban or suburban areas, and to discourage climbing over the fence. A 4 ft [1.2 m] height may
be used if conditions are less critical or if a lower height is needed to allow sight distance, or to
meet right-of-way agreement considerations. In some locations it may be appropriate to
consider improving the aesthetics of chain link fence by adding a colored epoxy coating or
privacy slat inserts.

Wire fencing types apply in all rural areas and in some suburban and urban areas where
developments along the right of way are infrequent and future development is not anticipated.
The fencing may consist of barbed wire, woven wire and other metal fabric types. Woven wire
and high tensile wire fence may not be adequate to retain livestock, and such applications
should be specifically designed and coordinated with the property owner and addressed during
right-of-way negotiations.

Determine the fence height and wire spacing, which may vary depending on the primary
purpose of the fence (e.g., controlling cattle, sheep, or wildlife). Wire fencing may need to be as
much as 10 ft [3.0 m] high if necessary to control elk and deer. In some western States, the
special design of the wire spacing and height is important to minimize potential hazard for deer,
elk or antelope crossings.

Metal right-of-way fencing can interfere with airport traffic control radar. When fencing in the
vicinity of an airport, review the FAA permit to determine if the fencing will create radar
interference. An alternate type of fencing may be appropriate in this case.

Provide gates, where required, and at the locations stated in the right-of-way agreements or as
agreed to during the development of the project. Also provide gates, and locks if required,
where needed for access by maintenance personnel. Designate the type, size and location of
gates on the plans.

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9.5.8.3 Cattle Guards

The design of cattle guard substructures must be concrete, timber or steel. The width and type
may need to be documented in a right-of-way agreement or be agreed to during the project
plan-in-hand review.

At a minimum, cattle guard widths should be shoulder-to-shoulder, or traveled way widths plus
8 ft [2.4 m] whichever is greater.

Cattle guard wing guards are usually not crashworthy and should be placed outside the clear
zone, or treated as an exception to the roadside design.

9.5.9 RIGHT-OF-WAY AND UTILITY CONSIDERATIONS

Refer to Chapter 12 for Right-of-Way and Utility guidance. Also see Green Book Section 3.6.4.

The existing right-of-way should be considered and evaluated as a design constraint and should
act as a design control similarly to all other environmental, social, economic, aesthetic and cost
control factors. There may be certain projects where property values or the land’s intrinsic
values are so high or that its acquisition is so contentious that designing within either the
existing right of way or a specified right of way limit may be necessary.

Right-of-way limits may be established following the completion of the highway design and
determination of construction limits, including all earthwork, drainage, approach roads, walls,
structures, and all other features affecting physical disturbances are determined.

The minimum right-of-way width is the horizontal distance from the centerline to the edge of
construction limits for clearing. It is always desirable to provide some additional area to
accommodate minor changes during construction and to provide space for normal construction
and maintenance operations.

Refer to Chapter 12 for the standard minimum widths and the desirable distance from the
clearing limit to the right-of-way line.

The clear zone recovery area should receive consideration when establishing new right-of-way
limits. Good engineering judgment is essential in this area to determine when taking a prudent
right of way equals the need for a portion of the theoretical recovery area.

The right-of-way should provide for maintenance, control of access, utilities, and future
widening, control of adjacent drainage and vegetation for ensuring sight distance and
aesthetics. The same land is often desirable for dwellings, farming, commercial or recreational
purposes. Hence, right-of-way is seldom ideal but is usually a compromise.

It is not mandatory to provide right-of-way for new utilities. However, it is the usual practice to
accommodate them when they do not conflict with the primary function of the roadway.
Construction often causes the relocation of utilities located with the existing right-of-way. It is a
requirement that the new right-of-way must provide areas for their relocation or the development
of easements specifically to accommodate the utility.

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Poles or other surface utility relocations should be beyond the clear zone area or behind
guardrail. Design underground utilities such they are placed outside of the roadway, either in
the foreslope, ditch, backslope, between the construction limits and right-of-way, or preferably
outside the right-of-way line within a utility easement. Easements for pole lines usually require a
minimum of 16 ft [5 m] of width to accommodate the cross arm and anchor systems and to
provide for control of vegetation under the wires.

Right-of-way limits should be outside drainage control structures, channel changes, riprap,
stilling pools, etc., constructed above or below the roadway allowing space to maintain or repair
them. The right-of-way should extend at least 10 ft [3.0 m] beyond these facilities. It is
preferable to obtain right-of-way (fee title) to cover these installations but in some cases a
permanent maintenance easement may suffice. A permanent maintenance agreement will
often cost nearly the same to acquire and administer as to acquire the right-of-way outright, but
may be advantageous to the acquiring and highway-owning agency if the right-of-way
acquisition is very contentious.

States, counties and other cooperating agencies generally have established standard widths for
highway right-of-way. Contact the highway-operating agency to determine the standard
minimum widths and any other applicable criteria.

9.5.10 ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AND ENHANCEMENTS

Coordinate with the environmental discipline for the design of environmental protection and
enhancements that are included in commitments made as part of the environmental document.
Such enhancements may also be requested and appropriately added as part of the final design
process, in addition to commitments included in the environmental document. Enhancements
may include special features and details for wildlife connectivity, fish passage and
accommodations for wildlife crossings, adjustment of horizontal and vertical alignment to avoid
sensitive areas, to fit topographical features, and to protect scenic and visual quality.
Enhancements to the roadway cross section may include:
● Adjustment of the typical slope ratio to enhance new slopes or protect existing ones;
● Use of curb and closed drainage systems to minimize the width of roadside ditches;
● Use of retaining walls;
● Riparian enhancements and wetland or wetland buffer restoration or creation;
● Slope design for viewshed and scenic enhancement and vegetation management;
● Selection of aesthetic traffic barriers and to allow visibility of the roadside;
● Preservation of significant roadside features such as rock outcrops and vegetation;
● Use of landscaping for screening or earth berm buffers;
● Preservation and retrofitting of historical features such as culverts, walls, curbs;
● Incorporation of historical features at interpretive facilities, rest areas, overlooks; and

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● Use of architectural landscape design details.

Refer to the FHWA “Critter Crossings” and the Forest Service “Wildlife Crossings Toolkit” for
wildlife crossings guidance and design references. Refer to the FWS “FishXing” for fish
passage through culverts guidance and design references. Also refer to Management and
Techniques for Riparian Restorations: Roads Field Guide. Vol. I and II, FS, 2002.

9.5.11 CONSTRUCTION CONSIDERATIONS

Construction considerations include work sequencing and constructability. If a route is to be

constructed in phases due to programming of funds or other considerations, coordinate closely
with the Planning and Programming Unit to develop the highway design and PS&E for
implementing the most effective strategy and sequence of projects to deliver the overall route.

9.5.11.1 Construction Sequencing

Consider construction sequencing in the design of features that may need to be constructed in a
specific order to enable traffic management through the work zone, utility accommodation,
environmental restrictions, earthwork, drainage, structural considerations or other factors. At a
minimum, the design must reflect an orderly sequence of construction such that all design and
environmental commitments can be efficiently accomplished. Preferably, the design should
demonstrate a comprehensive analysis and design details for a fully optimized construction
sequence that appropriately balances the overall cost, time, resources, quality, stakeholder and
public concerns and environmental protection.

As applicable, provide construction sequencing details, or applicable special contract

requirements, or both, in the design and PS&E documents that depict the intended construction
sequencing.

9.5.11.2 Constructability

Constructability refers to the practicality of the design to be bid, built and administered during
construction. In order to receive fair and competitive bids the prospective bidders must clearly
understand the design and the construction requirements. Avoid using unclear design
requirements or nebulous notes, descriptions and requirements than cannot be readily
quantified for basis of bidding and contract administration purposes.

Constructability also includes the consideration in the design for earthwork balance, availability
of the materials and equipment needed to perform the work, construction access, ability to
comply with any restrictions while performing the work, etc. Coordinate closely with the
Construction Unit throughout the design process to include input for developing the design and
contract provisions and to facilitate a thorough review of the design and PS&E.

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9.6 PLANS SPECIFICATIONS AND ESTIMATE (PS&E)

DEVELOPMENT
This section prescribes procedures and policies for the preparation of the plans, specifications
and cost estimate (PS&E) and supporting design documentation for performing the work to
construct a highway facility. The following addresses the PS&E format and decisions made for
PS&E preparation, within the constraints imposed by earlier environmental and engineering
studies and decisions.

Coordinate with other technical disciplines and cooperating agencies as applicable to obtain
specific information, input, design data and other contributing portions of the design documents
for inclusion in the completed PS&E.

Also, refer to the FHWA FAPG 23 CFR 630B, Guidelines for Preparation of Plans,
Specifications and Estimates.
Refer to [EFLHD – CFLHD – WFLHD] Division Supplements for more information.

9.6.1 PS&E PACKAGE

Provide the following items for a standard PS&E assembly:

● Plans,
● Specifications including the Standard Specifications (FP-XX) and the Special Contract
Requirements (SCRs),
● An engineer’s estimate and unit cost analysis to perform the construction,
● An estimated construction schedule and contract time analysis,
● Design data that is made available to the bidders (e.g., GEOPAK output reports,
hydraulic data, geotechnical data, cross sections), and
● Supporting information for the geometric design and PS&E, construction stakeout and
control, and engineering data for construction management.
Refer to [EFLHD – CFLHD – WFLHD] Division Supplements for more information.

9.6.2 ALTERNATIVE PS&E DEVELOPMENT AND CONTRACTING OPTIONS

When applicable, provide the following design and PS&E development options:
1. Design-build. Design-build is a project delivery method that combines the final design
and construction together under the same contract. Normally, the decision to select a
project for design-build will be made during the planning and programming phase. For
design-build, typically develop the highway design and PS&E to no more than a
preliminary (30 percent) level for contracting. Refer to Chapter 4 for guidance on
requirements for development of the preliminary design package. Coordinate closely
with the Acquisitions Unit for special guidance on the development of the design and
PS&E documentation for design-build projects. For additional information on design-

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build refer the AASHTO Guide for Design-Build Procurement, 2008 and “Public-Private
Partnerships” from FHWA.
2. Alternative Bid Schedule Packages. Alternative bid schedules provide several
increments of the design and PS&E package within the same solicitation documents.
Include all necessary details, quantities, specifications and cost estimates for the entire
project package as well as for one or more lesser increment packages, such that any
one of the alternative bid packages may be awarded depending on the funding available
and the amount of the bids received. The design of the lesser packages must be fully
compatible and able to be constructed within their lesser scope, such that the alignment,
earthwork balance, roadway geometry including connections with the existing roadways,
environmental commitments and other design requirements are fully provided for within
each of the alternative bid schedules. Provide alternative bid schedules for design
package increments that are estimated to cost:
a. Approximately 10 to 15 percent below the program amount,
b. At the program amount, and
c. Approximately 10 to 15 percent above the program amount.
3. Options. When applicable, provide a base design and PS&E package, with provision
for additional work to be included in the project either at the time of award, or possibly at
some later time, depending on the funding available at these respective times and the
amount of the bids received. Options may be developed for increasingly additive work,
or for one or more additional project features that are independent of each other, within
the contract. The PS&E must be very clear regarding what is included within each
option, to avoid potential contract administration conflicts if a particular option is
exercised or not.

9.6.3 PS&E DEVELOPMENT AT VARIOUS STAGES OF DESIGN

Develop the PS&E to an increasing level of detail during each stage in a project’s iterative
design process. The following are the PS&E development requirements for each major point in
the design process.
Refer to [EFLHD – CFLHD – WFLHD] Division Supplements for more information.

9.6.3.1 Conceptual Studies and Preliminary Design

Refer to Chapter 4 for the design development activities at the conceptual and preliminary
design phase. The plans and cost estimate are typically developed to the 30 percent level for
preliminary design.

9.6.3.2 Intermediate Design

During the intermediate design phase, the PS&E package should be developed to the 50
percent level. The intermediate design PS&E package should include cross-sections, major pay

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items with their associated quantities, major design details (e.g., intersections, turnouts, large
culverts, guardrail, walls), and any items affecting permits and right-of-way (ROW) acquisition
(e.g., erosion control plan). The completed intermediate design, with review comments
incorporated and revisions, should enable the development of final right-of-way plans and
descriptions, final structural designs, final retaining wall designs, final hydraulic and
geotechnical designs and for all major elements that other technical disciplines will develop or
finalize as applicable for later inclusion in the PS&E.

Consider the following information to develop the intermediate design PS&E package:
● Summary of comments provided at the preliminary design (30 percent) review,
● Preliminary Engineering Study Report, and
● Preliminary design plan and estimate.

Activities required to develop the intermediate design PS&E package include:

● Document the resolutions to the preliminary field review comments and revise the PS&E
package accordingly.
● Update the design exception portion of the Highway Design Standards Form (see
Section 9.1.3).
● Incorporate interdisciplinary, cross-functional team (CFT) (e.g., hydraulic, geotechnical)
and cooperating agency recommendations into the plans.
● Develop design drawings and quantities required for environmental permitting.
● As needed, provide design information to the Right-of-Way Specialist for the
development of the draft right-of-way plans and easement plats.
● As applicable, for projects exceeding $5 million in construction costs, perform a Value
Engineering (VE) study. Incorporate any approved VE recommendations into the
PS&E package.
● Refine the preliminary cost estimate (from the preliminary design) to reflect all
intermediate design changes.
● Prepare a draft set of special contract requirements, as needed. This is recommended,
but not required, at this point.

Following completion of the intermediate design PS&E package, perform an intermediate design
(i.e., 50 percent) review as described in Section 9.6.4.2.

9.6.3.3 Intermediate Design Revisions

During this phase, revise the PS&E package to sufficient detail to apply for applicable permits,
to allow for preliminary roadway staking and to prepare final right-of-way and utility plans, as
applicable.

Consider the following information to perform the intermediate design revisions:

● NEPA document,

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● The summary of comments provided at the intermediate (i.e., 50 percent) design

external review, and
● The intermediate design PS&E package.

Activities required for the intermediate design revisions include:

● Document the resolutions to the intermediate external review comments and revise the
PS&E package accordingly,
● Incorporate any environmental commitments from the NEPA document,
● Update the Highway Design Standards Form and document any design exceptions (see
Section 9.1.3.4), if not completed previously.
● Finalize construction limits,
● Prepare draft environmental permit applications as needed. Develop the plans to
sufficient detail to enable preparation of applications for permits,
● Provide revised cross-sections and staking data (e.g., slope stakes, centerline) to the
survey discipline, if staking for Plan-in-Hand (PIH) review will be required, and
● Provide the revised intermediate PS&E package to the right-of-way specialist, as
applicable, for development of final right-of-way and utility plans. See Chapter 12, Right-
of-Way and Utilities.

9.6.3.4 Plan-in-Hand (PIH) PS&E

During this phase, develop the PS&E package to the 70 percent level. The Plan-In-Hand (PIH)
PS&E should include semi-final plans representing a draft of each plan sheet, except certain
special plan sheets (e.g., structural design details) to be included in the final plans. Develop all
major design elements (e.g., grading, detail sheets of parking areas and road intersections,
drainage, structures, erosion control, traffic control, cross-sections) a draft set of special
contract requirements and a complete construction estimate including all pay items that are
shown on the plans with their associated quantities. Verify that the proposed right-of-way and
utility plans provide for all the final design and construction requirements so that acquisition of
the right-of-way and utility adjustments, as applicable, may be expediently accomplished.

Information used to develop the PIH PS&E includes the revised intermediate PS&E package
(revised in accordance with Section 9.6.3.3).

Activities required to develop the PIH PS&E package include:

● Develop a proposed set of special contract requirements,
● Determine all pay items to be used in the contract and calculate the associated
quantities,
● Provide quantity tables and a summary of quantities in the PS&E package,
● Further develop the plan sheets to adequately support the work items called out in the
plans,

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● Compile a complete engineer’s estimate for all work items called out in the plans, and
● Update the Highway Design Standards Form and document any design exceptions (see
Section 9.1.3.4), if not completed previously.

Following development of the PIH PS&E package, perform a PIH (i.e., 70 percent) design
review according to Section 9.6.4.3.

9.6.3.5 Final Design

During this phase, revise the PIH PS&E package according to the PIH field review comments
and develop the PS&E package to the 95 percent level.

Consider the following information to develop the final (i.e., 95 percent) PS&E package:
● The summary of comments provided at the PIH field review.
● The Plan-in-Hand (PIH) PS&E package.

Activities required for development of the PS&E package include:

● Document the resolutions to the PIH field review comments and revise the PS&E
package accordingly.
● Provide documented comments resolutions to the attendees of the PIH field review.
● Incorporate all final design details into the plan sheets.
● Finalize the special contract requirements.
● Finalize the proposed construction schedule to determine the contract time or
anticipated construction completion date.

Following completion of the final (i.e., 95 percent) design PS&E package, perform a final PS&E
review according to Section 9.6.4.4. Following that review, advance the package to 100 percent
and prepare all documentation to submit to the Acquisitions Unit as described in Section 9.6.4.5.

9.6.4 REVIEWS

Perform office reviews or on-site field reviews at milestone phases applicable to the specific
project to ensure that the design and PS&E reflect and are consistent with contextual values
and with Federal, State and local stakeholder’s goals, objectives and standards. As
appropriate, conduct multi-disciplinary and multi-agency inspections, as well as specialized
meetings with a single discipline to resolve a specific problem. Include all cooperating agencies
and appropriate FLH Division staff, and other appropriate stakeholders in each milestone
review.

Before reviews, perform a check of the highway design and PS&E, using the applicable quality
control process and design file documentation. Check the overall technical soundness of the
work and appropriate application of design and PS&E standards. When applicable, after
revisions from the initial check are completed a senior highway designer or Highway Design
Manager (HDM) should perform a secondary review using the applicable quality control process

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and design file documentation. After revisions from the quality control checks are completed,
the interdisciplinary project team and partner agency reviews the PS&E with the intent to:
● Evaluate how all work products of each function fit within the design and PS&E as a
whole,
● Ensure that the design and PS&E conforms to the overall project scope, and
● Ensure that the design and PS&E incorporates commitments made to partners and
regulatory agencies.

Prior to conducting field reviews, provide the participants with the appropriate information (e.g.,
plans, specifications, cost estimate, exhibits, visualizations) sufficiently in advance for them to
schedule their time to perform a comprehensive review of the information and to formulate their
input or questions, prior to the onsite meeting. To expedite the field review, arrange in advance
to provide an appropriate level of stakeout (e.g., marking or flagging the centerline, proposed
slope stakes, structural foundations), as applicable.

During reviews communicate the proposed design to the cooperating agencies and other
stakeholders, and solicit comments from all participants to ensure that the design is being
developed with regard to its context, and in compliance with the intended scope and social and
environmental commitments. Provide an opportunity for free and open discussion that
encourages early and amicable resolution of controversial issues that may arise during the
development of the design and PS&E package, among the interdisciplinary project team,
cooperating agencies, and other stakeholders.

During field reviews verify data and check the design as developed in the office against field
conditions to identify any discrepancies and minimize conflicts and changes during construction.

In all cases, document the conclusions reached at the field reviews and distribute to the
interested parties.

The following sections describe reviews for various phases of the design development.
Refer to [EFLHD – CFLHD – WFLHD] Division Supplements for more information.

9.6.4.1 Preliminary Design (15 or 30 Percent) Review

The preliminary design review covers the preliminary design and results in evaluation and
resolution of the major design features for a project (e.g., horizontal and vertical alignments,
typical section, and access control). It typically represents a level of design detail sufficient to
support the environmental analysis, documentation and decisions, which is typically some level
within the 15 to 30 percent range of development. The preliminary design review typically
includes both an internal review and an external (i.e., partner agencies and stakeholders)
review, and will typically include an on-site field review. These may be held separately or
concurrently.

The purpose of the review is to evaluate and resolve the roadway geometry, safety
considerations, and environmental impact mitigation and cost effectiveness of the proposed

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improvement, to support completion of the environmental document and decision-making

process. The review should also identify the revisions needed to bring the roadway design,
plans and estimate to a full 30 percent stage. The field review should also include verifying the
mapped features and spot-checking the topography, particularly in areas of narrow roadbed
bench width or constrained right of way.

The level of detail for the preliminary design review depends on the scale of proposed
improvements and may be different for RRR projects than for reconstruction or new construction
projects. The information available for the review (deliverables) includes detail maps or plans
and profiles showing preliminary alignments and plotted cross sections of the mainline and
major intersecting roadways for all alternatives being considered and preliminary construction
cost estimate. Provide exhibits and visualizations of the project alternatives, if available. The
plans and cost estimate are typically developed to the 15 percent level for an initial line and
grade review, if applicable, and to 30 percent level for preliminary design.

As part of the review, it is essential to identify and document any exceptions to standards, along
with any associated hazards or risks so that all parties are aware of the potential consequences
of the decisions. See Section 9.1.3.

9.6.4.2 Intermediate Design (50 Percent) Review

The result of the intermediate design review is the determination of the design features affecting
the limits of disturbance for a project (e.g., horizontal and vertical alignments, cross sections,
major approach roads, intersections, parking areas, earthwork, and type, size location of
structures and retaining walls). On some projects, an intermediate design review may not be
necessary to complete the design.

The information provided for the review includes:

● The 50 percent plans containing detail plans and profiles showing alignments, grades,
construction limits,
● The plotted cross sections,
● Draft Special Contract Requirements, and
● The engineer’s cost estimate.

The level of detail of the review depends on the scale of construction proposed (e.g., RRR to
new construction).

The purpose of the review is to resolve all aspects of the roadway geometry and design features
that affect the physical disturbances, safety considerations, environmental impact mitigation and
cost of the proposed improvement, to ensure that the design and PS&E:
● Is context sensitive,
● Minimizes or avoids resource impacts,
● Mitigates environmental impacts (wetlands, etc.),
● Addresses safety,
● Has correct roadway geometrics,

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● Is cost-effective and constructible,

● Integrates into the design the environmental mitigation and stipulations, and
● The PS&E package is being developed with appropriate design and drafting standards.

The extent of all proposed construction limits for the roadway footprint is typically a key issue for
most Federal land management agencies that requires resolution at this stage.

For the review, identify and document any exceptions to standards and the associated safety
risks so that all parties are aware of the ramifications of the decisions.

The review may consist of an office review, or a field review at the project site, or both. The
external review should preferably occur after an internal review is performed, and preferably
after the PS&E package has been revised as necessary based on comments from the internal
review. Provide copies of the plans, cross-sections and Special Contract Requirements to the
external agencies sufficiently prior to performing the external review. For Forest Highway
projects, the external review will typically include interdisciplinary project team members and
cooperating agency representatives. For Park Roads projects, the attendees will typically
include interdisciplinary project team members, Park representatives and Denver Service
Center representatives, as requested. Prepare additional presentation materials and
visualizations as necessary to convey design information at the external review. Following
completion of the external review, prepare a report summarizing accomplishments and
decisions made during the review.

9.6.4.3 Plan-In-Hand Design (70 Percent) Review

The PIH design review consists of a review of the 70 percent (semi-final) plans and
specifications for the proposed project. The primary purpose of this review is to resolve all the
design elements and other special conditions for finalization and inclusion in the PS&E package.
The information required for the review is:
● Semi-final plans (all anticipated plan sheets, completed to 70 percent stage)
● Plotted proposed cross sections,
● The draft Special Contract Requirements, and
● The current engineer’s cost estimate.

Since the line and grade, construction limits, drainage features and other roadway design
geometry has been reviewed and presumably resolved at earlier stages, this review is primarily
focused on final design and specification details, finalization of minor roadway appurtenances
and construction sequencing details.

At this stage, the design should conform with all of the governing criteria, including input from
geotechnical and hydraulic reports, environmental documents, safety requirements and other
matters pertinent to the project. Resolve those items affecting the plans or Special Contract
Requirements, or make arrangements for obtaining the necessary data and decisions for their
resolution.

For the review, identify and document any exceptions to the standards, and the associated
safety risks, so that all parties are aware of the ramifications of the decisions.
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The review normally consists of a field review at the project site. The external review should
preferably occur after an internal review is performed, and preferably after the PS&E package
has been revised as necessary based on comments from the internal review. Provide copies of
the plans, cross-sections and Special Contract Requirements to the external agencies
sufficiently prior to the external review. Typically, the review includes similar participants as the
Intermediate Design (i.e., 50 percent). Review described in Section 9.6.4.2. Prepare additional
presentation materials and visualizations as necessary to convey design information at the
external review. Following completion of the external review, prepare a report summarizing
accomplishments and decisions made during the review.

After the review has been completed, revise the PS&E package to resolve the comments of the
participants. Document resolutions and provide to the attendees of the field review. If
necessary, update the Highway Design Standards Form and document the approval of any
design exceptions.

Following the review, the designer should have all input necessary to prepare the final plans,
Special Contract Requirements and complete the engineer’s estimate for the project.

9.6.4.4 Final PS&E (95 Percent) Review

This consists of the final PS&E review phase, both internally and externally. In some cases, the
internal and external reviews described below are combined and done simultaneously. After
revising the plans and Special Contract Requirements to show changes from the previous
reviews, the PS&E package is typically distributed internally for a final review by Division staff
specialists to ensure consistency with programming, environmental, geotechnical, hydraulics,
bridge or other project requirements. A 95 percent PS&E Review comment resolution meeting
should be held, if comments need to be discussed and reconciled. After the PS&E is reviewed
internally and the comments addressed, or concurrently if necessary, the PS&E package should
be distributed externally to the highway facility owner and Federal land management agency for
review and concurrence, and may also be distributed to other stakeholders and interested
agencies for their review and comment. Depending on the thoroughness of the previous
reviews, an on-site inspection may or may not be required. In either case, resolve all comments
received concerning the proposal so that the project may proceed to solicitation for construction.

Incorporate the recommendations from any final geotechnical reports and permit requirements,
and stipulations from right-of-way and utility agreements. Ensure that all necessary permits,
agreements and other requirements for advertisement of the project are completed and are
addressed in the PS&E. Provide the title sheet of the plans to the agency and individuals listed
in the signature block for signature, or obtain a letter of approval for the signature.

9.6.4.5 PS&E Approval and Authorization (100 Percent)

This consists of final approval, sign-off of the PS&E and authorization for solicitation of the
contract package. The purpose of this activity is to advance the PS&E package to the 100
percent level so that the PS&E is ready for advertisement, and to deliver the PS&E and
associated documents and necessary data to the Acquisitions Unit. During this activity the

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plans are signed and all specifications, estimates, certifications and other documentation are
approved. The funding authorization and obligation documents are also approved. The
completion of this activity allows the solicitation of the contract package.

Information needed to perform the PS&E approval and authorization (100 percent) includes:
● The summary of comments provided from the final PS&E (i.e., 95 percent) review.
● The final design PS&E package.

Activities required for the PS&E approval and authorization include:

● Document the resolutions to final (i.e., 95 percent) PS&E review comments and revise
the PS&E package accordingly.
● Finalize any remaining details necessary to complete the PS&E package and compile
supporting documentation for approval.
● Perform a final QC/QA review. This review typically evaluates the completeness of the
documentation, forms and PS&E package before submittal to Acquisitions. Revise the
documentation, forms and PS&E package as necessary.
● Obtain all required signatures and approvals of the PS&E, funding authorization and
obligation documents. Minor design revisions may be necessary to resolve any final
comments or conditions from the approving officials.
● Deliver the final PS&E package and supporting documentation to the Acquisitions Unit.

9.6.4.6 Value Engineering

FHWA Order 1311.1B, Value Engineering, describes policy relating to value engineering in
design and construction and the review of designs and standards. It is FLH policy to employ
VE when there is a reasonable potential for a significant ratio of savings to the cost of
the VE analysis. A VE study should be considered on all projects where there is a reasonable
potential for a ratio over 5:1 of implemented savings to VE cost, or with an estimated
construction cost over $10 million, or are complex, or include major structures.

As applicable, perform a VE study and apply recognized value engineering techniques by a

multi-disciplined team to:
● Identify the functions of the designed products or services,
● Establish a worth for those functions,
● Generate alternatives through the use of creative thinking, and
● Provide the needed functions to accomplish the original purpose of the project, reliably
and at the lowest life-cycle cost without sacrificing safety, quality and environmental
attributes of the project.

VE is typically applied at the intermediate stage of design; however, studies are applicable as
early in the design process as feasible.

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Prepare a report of the study findings and recommendations. Document the VE results and
probable cost savings, if any, from implementation of the VE study recommendations into the
highway design.

For guidance on VE practices refer to Value Engineering from FHWA. Also, refer to AASHTO
Guidelines for Value Engineering, 2nd Edition, 2001.

For Park Roads and Parkways projects a value analysis may be required. Refer to the NPS
Value Analysis Report Template for performing these analyses.

9.6.5 PLANS

Provide plans consisting of an organized series of drawings containing the necessary

engineering data about the location, character and dimensions of the work, including layouts,
roadway geometry, cross sections, structures and related details. The plans should not
encompass material that is more appropriately included in the specifications. The plans,
together with the specifications, should contain all of the data required for the contractor to
submit a bid, stake and construct the project.

Project plans should be prepared using the guidance provided in the following sections and the
Division Supplements.
Refer to [EFLHD – CFLHD – WFLHD] Division Supplements for more information.

9.6.5.1 Format

It is FLH standard practice to prepare all plan sheets using an approved CADD system.
MicroStation from Bentley Systems, Inc. is the current FLH standard CADD system. Rare
exceptions (e.g., conceptual drawing, architectural renditions, emergency projects) may be
necessary to accommodate special needs of internal sections or cooperating agencies. When
manual drafting becomes necessary, it should be accomplished in a manner that duplicates the
appearance of CADD drafting to the extent possible.

The standard size of plan sheets should be approximately 11 in by 17 in [279 mm by 432 mm].
The standard size plan sheets should provide approximately a 1.4 in [35 mm] margin for the
binding on the left edge, a 0.3 in [7 mm] margin on the right edge and a 0.3 in [7 mm] margin on
the top and the bottom. This accommodates an effective sheet size of approximately 10.4 in by
15.3 in [265 mm by 390 mm]. For plotting purposes, the useable sheet dimensions may be
slightly reduced (e.g., 10.7 in by 16.7 in [271 mm by 423 mm] with 1.1 in [27 mm] left margin
and 0.2 in [5 mm] margins on the right, top and bottom). Margins may be reversed for double-
sided (duplex) printing.

When applicable, provide abbreviated “book size” plan sheets, which may be as small as 8.5 in
by 11 in [216 mm by 279 mm], and may be used provided they give sufficient information to
describe and construct the project. Consider abbreviated plans for very low complexity projects
such as minor emergency relief, safety improvements, and RRR.

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Refer to Division Supplements for CADD plan sheets format and for the organization of plans.
Consider the complexity of the work and provide the format accordingly.

9.6.5.2 Drafting Standards

Refer to Division Supplements for drafting standards applicable to each Division.

The following primary drafting requirements apply:

● Adhere to the applicable drafting standards for uniformity and quality,
● Use care in laying out details and locating text on plans to clearly relate the text to the
applicable details,
● Provide sufficient notes on plan drawings to clarify the drawing and provide necessary
information for a complete understanding of the work,
● Notes must be clear, concise, descriptive and as brief as possible to convey the
message,
● Do not duplicate instructions or requirements covered in the Specifications on the plans,
● Use the correct text font, style and size, with proper spacing between figures, symbols
and words, and
● Use the correct line level, line style, color, and weight and in the correct relationship to
other lines on the plans.

The following general drafting guidelines apply to all plans:

● Do not use “Station” or “Sta” as a prefix to station numbers. Any numbering including a
plus sign (e.g., 92+95) is understood to be a station number;
● Use a Note for general information that is relevant to the entire sheet. Do not use the
term “General Notes.” When possible, place Notes on the right hand side of the sheet;
● When placing text on plan sheets, do not crowd other information. Carefully choose a
place for the notes that is as close as possible to the point of application;
● Use standard cross-section indicators;
● Do not use the letters “I,” “O,” “N” or “Z” as cross-section indicators. “I” and “O”
resemble symbols shown on drawings and “N” and “Z” are the same shape, but oriented
90 degrees. When at the end of the alphabet, use AA, BB, etc.;
● Write numbers with commas separating millions or thousands (i.e. 99,999 rather than
99999 or 99 999);
● Do not draw hidden contours under a structure with long dashes. Make dashes 0.12 in
[3 mm] long with 0.06 in [1.5 mm] spaces between. Show hidden lines of structures with
the same symbol;
● Avoid running hatching, lines or patterning through words or figures. Do not use the
border lines of the sheets as a basis for establishing angle of parallel hatching lines. It is

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desired to gradually change the direction of hatching at angle points in the section to
maintain a 45-degree angle with the neat line of the structure;
● Use abbreviations on plan and profile sheets only where there is not enough space to
spell out the word. In instances where the meaning of abbreviation appears doubtful,
the word should be spelled out;
● Do not capitalize abbreviations unless the word or words represented are ordinarily
capitalized, or unless the abbreviation itself has become established as a capital letter,
such as N for north; and
● Use a period following each part of an abbreviation that represents a single word. This
aids in quick interpretation of an abbreviation (e.g., “a.m.”, not “am”). The exception to a
period following an abbreviation is with units of measure where periods are not used.

Minor deviations from the guidelines for the plans may be acceptable provided the primary
requirements above are followed.

9.6.5.3 Organization of Plans

The Guidelines for Preparation of Plans, Specifications and Estimates, FAPG 23 CFR 630B,
provides guidelines in the preparation of plans, specifications and estimates. The guidelines are
presented in a non-regulatory supplement attachment to FAPG, Subchapter G, Part 630,
Subpart B.

As applicable, follow the guidelines in the FAPG for the following subject areas in the
organization of plan sheets:
1. Title Sheet,
2. Typical Sections,
3. Summary of Quantities,
4. Tabulation of Quantities,
5. Plan and Profile,
6. Bridges,
7. Drainage Facilities,
8. Traffic Control Plan,
9. Standard Drawings, Division Standard Details, and Special Details,
10. Environmental mitigation,
11. Cross Sections,
12. Contiguous projects, and
13. Right-of-Way Plans (if not provided separately).

The FAPG guidelines permit latitude in the arrangement of plan sheets provided the intent of the
plans is clear. Determine an arrangement that best fits the needs within the FAPG.

Refer to the Division Supplements for arrangement and organization of plan sheets and for
example sample plan sheets. The following sections provide guidelines for the plans.

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9.6.5.3.1 Title Sheet

The Title Sheet serves to identify the location and limits of the project so bidders can find it in
the field. Descriptive terms appearing on the Title Sheet should be readily identifiable by the
topography or culture or by using State highway maps.

Details that help to clarify the limits of the work or provide data needed to conveniently bid the
work are encouraged. Additional details that may help the bidders include:
● Locations of material sources described in Section 105;
● Locations of disposal areas, staging areas, stockpile sites; and
● Off-project mitigation work.

The Guidelines for Preparation of Plans, Specifications and Estimates, FAPG 23 CFR 630B,
recommends that the scales used on the plans show on the Title Sheet. Considering the
number of scale variations found in a typical project, a scale legend could be confusing and
difficult to cross-check. Therefore, the Title Sheet exhibits show a bar scale only for the map
appearing on that sheet.

A completed Title Sheet should contain the following data:

● Proper title and project designation.
● Statement of the project length.
● The State, county, city or town (and, where applicable, the National Forest, National
Park, etc.).
● Key map of the State with designator showing project location.
● The location or route map showing project location with beginning and ending stations or
termini, and the corresponding mileposts consistent with program’s road inventory data
for the route.
● Index of sheets comprising the plans.
● Design classifications (e.g., the current average daily traffic (ADT), design year ADT,
design hourly volume (DHV), directional distribution (D), percent of trucks (T), design
speed (V) and maximum superelevation rate (e)).
● Distance from the project to nearest city, town, etc.
● Provisions for dates and signatures of the approving officials.
● Standard Specifications applicable to the project.
● Units of measurement applicable to the project (i.e. US Survey Foot, International Foot,
or meter; see Section 5.3.2.5)

The location or route map should be prepared using a scale ratio of 1:100 000 or larger and
show the project area, the nearest towns appearing on a State highway map, other roads,
railroads, major streams, etc. In instances where sufficient information cannot be placed on the
route map to adequately identify the project work, additional vicinity maps should be prepared
on separate sheets and placed following the Title Sheet.

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The large number of symbols and abbreviations used within FLH precludes placing the
information on the Title Sheet. Therefore, a separate Plan Symbols and Abbreviations Sheet
should be used and typically follows the Title Sheet in a set of plans.

When a special symbol is required that is not included, show it in a legend on either the first
plan sheet where the symbol appears or on the left side of the first Plan and Profile Sheet.
Abbreviations not shown may be placed on the plans similar to the way symbols are placed, or
may be added to the contract as a Special Contract Requirement under Subsection 101.03 of
the Specifications.

The symbols and abbreviations should not be changed on a project-to-project basis, but if
necessary may be supplemented with additional project-specific items. When a change is
required for a Division’s needs, change the master file so all future projects will have the same
symbols and abbreviations. This prevents the need to check all the symbology on the sheet for
every project.

For complex projects consider providing a supplemental sheet showing the overall total project
site plan, including contractor staging areas, material stockpile or storage areas, construction
access, water or material sources, disposal sites, and other locations of interest to the
contractor.

9.6.5.3.2 Typical Sections

The Typical Section Sheet shows the shape of the finished surface and shoulders, and
represents the appearance of the completed project. It must be specific enough to describe the
proposed work, its location and the material needed. Ensure that all references to materials, bid
item names and numbers are consistent with the summary of quantities and bid schedule.

For combined roadway and bridge projects, the typical section for the bridge may be shown with
other bridge design information. All plans should show typical sections for the project including
those for bridges only and those where abbreviated plans are used. On projects requiring more
than one Typical Section, the limiting stations for each section should show. This may require
additional plan sheets for clarification of the work.

Identify all functional elements of the typical section to a relative scale. Show widths in feet
[meters] and show thickness or depth in inches [millimeters]. Show the thickness of each
element in the pavement structure in inches [millimeters].

Use notes or tables on the Typical Section Sheet to describe varying pavement structure
thicknesses. These may occur due to differing soil conditions, traffic volumes or other roadway
characteristics.

For stage construction projects, identify the ultimate typical section. Clearly distinguish the work
to be performed under the contract and the future stage construction work.

Include tables or notes to illustrate curve widening, relationship of slope ratios to cut and fill
heights, slope rounding and other special treatments.

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Identify the profile grade on the Typical Section Sheet at the point where it is carried relative to
superelevation.

Use supplemental typical sections to show variations in special ditches, clearing widths, rock
cuts, etc. Also use supplemental typical sections to detail curbs, median treatments, slope
protection, channel changes, etc. Place these supplemental typical sections on the Typical
Section Sheet or on a following sheet. List the stations where the typical sections apply. Place
a note on the Plan and Profile Sheet describing the site-specific work and referencing the
appropriate typical section. On abbreviated plans, supplemental typical sections may be placed
on the plan sheet at the locations where the work is proposed.

9.6.5.3.3 Summary of Quantities

The Summary of Quantities tabulates, combines, and summarizes quantities of the various
construction items. This summary informs prospective bidders where to locate work within the
plan sheets, the basis of plan and bid schedule quantities, and expands on contract bid
schedule information. It also serves as a checklist to the designer to ensure that all elements of
the design receive consideration.

This is generally one of the last plan sheets prepared in final form. All the pay items are listed in
numerical order and identified by appropriate descriptions using the engineer’s estimate
program. The bid schedule quantities duplicate those in the contract. Items of work paid for
under the contract quantity provision of Section 109 should be identified when preparing the
engineer’s estimate.

In the preparation of the Summary of Quantities Sheet or the Tabulation of Quantities Sheets,
always spell out the pay unit the way it is shown in the FLH master pay item list. Symbols for
pay units are expressed without periods (e.g., ft [m], sqft [m2], cuyd [m3], lb [kg], etc). Conform
with the information shown on the Plan Symbols and Abbreviations Sheet for consistency of
plans.

9.6.5.3.4 Tabulation of Quantities

A Tabulation of Quantities Sheet consists of a detailed summary of an item of work or several

items of work usually presented in a tabular or table format. It provides bidders with more
detailed information on the location and extent of the work required than can be shown on the
Summary of Quantities Sheet. Ensure that all references to quantities, bid item names and
numbers are consistent with the summary of quantities and bid schedule. The following
provides a description of typical Tabulation of Quantities Sheets:
1. Drainage Tabulation. The Tabulation of Drainage Quantities Sheet lists all culvert and
related drainage data. Show the location of the drainage installation under the station
heading. Show related data in the row across the sheet under an appropriate column
heading. Total the figures in the various columns to obtain the quantities shown on the
Summary of Quantities Sheet for the appropriate culvert item.

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The Tabulation of Drainage Quantities Sheet may be developed using a spreadsheet

format. The designer may modify the sheet layout to address specific project
requirements.

Where maximum cover is the controlling factor in acceptable culvert pipe selection,
provide this information on the plans. Where environmental factors control acceptable
culvert pipe selection, provide this information. The primary purpose of the Summary of
Drainage Quantities Sheet is to present all available options for potential bidders to
evaluate in preparing their estimate for the project.

Where maximum cover is the controlling factor on acceptable culvert pipe, the designer
has the option of specifying the thickness, class or type of culvert on the summary or
simply tabulating the controlling information and having the contractor or supplier
determine the thickness, class or type.
2. Other Tabulations. A Tabulation of Quantities Sheet should be referenced to the
location or description of the work in the plans. Use a separate plan sheet for the tables
or place the tables on the same sheet as the details for the work. Separate sheets are
required when the tabulation is supported by work detailed on FLH standards or Division
standard details.

Consider placing a tabulation of pavement structure quantities table referenced to the

Typical Section Sheet in groups of the required work that is easy to comprehend and
check.

Tabulation of quantity tables referenced to the Plan and Profile Sheets for items of work
(e.g., removal of individual trees, roadway obliteration, roadway excavation, turf
establishment) aids the bidders in precisely locating the work areas and determining the
effort required to perform the work. Tabulations for items of work (e.g., guardrail,
fences) may be referenced to the Plan and Profile Sheets or the Special and Standard
Drawings detailing the installation of those work items.

A sheet tabulating all the items required, that can be referenced to the detail sheets for a
major parking area, a roadside development area, a scenic overlook or other special
work may assist bidders as well as internal checking. This also applies to traffic control
plans, signing plans, landscaping plans and other work.

9.6.5.3.5 Plan and Profile

Prepare plan and profile sheets at a scale that is adequate to show the necessary details as
governed by the topography and the complexity of the work. Profiles have the same horizontal
scale as the plan, but the vertical scale should have an exaggeration of 5 or 10 times the
horizontal scale.

Plans should have a horizontal scale of 1:600, 1:1200 or 1:2400 [1:500, 1:1000 or 1:2000] when
prepared on the standard sheet size. Larger or smaller scales can be used depending on the
amount of detail to be shown.

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When laying out Plan and Profile Sheets, avoid dividing major structures, highway intersections,
interchanges or grade separations between sheets. Increasing stationing should run from left to
right. Typically roadway stationing increases from south to north and from west to east. If the
direction of mileposts or road inventory data conflict with this, use the milepost or road inventory
direction.

Leave about 10 in [250 mm] or more of blank space before the beginning of the project on the
first Plan and Profile Sheet and a similar blank space after the end of project on the final Plan
and Profile Sheet. Except for the first and last sheet, attempt to place a consistent station range
on each sheet and always break sheets at even station numbers.

Show a prominent North arrow for orientation on each sheet.

Show all boundary lines, State, county, city, township and section lines. Show ties to section
corners that fall off the sheet by breaking the line and showing the corner with the tie distance.
Describe found corners and show their coordinates. At the bottom of the plan portion of the
sheet, show township, range and meridian. Streams, lakes, swamps, estuaries, etc., must also
be shown.

Show the station and coordinates of the beginning of the project and the end of the project on
the first and final Plan and Profile Sheets, as appropriate. Identify them as State grid or other
system.

On the plans, show the elevation datum used for the project.

Show the designed centerline prominently and comply with the following, as applicable:
● If the designed line (L line) is not staked, and a preliminary control line (P line) is staked,
show as a light line. Label the P line as “P Line as staked” and the L line as “Line to be
constructed.” Where the preliminary control line consists of a series of survey control
points to be used by the contractor during the construction staking operation, label the
control points by number and show the coordinates and elevation either on the plans or
on a separate tabulation sheet.
● If the L line is staked, do not show a P line on the Plan and Profile Sheets. Where
control points are provided for the contractor’s staking operation, label the control points
by number and list the coordinates and elevations either on the plans or on a separate
tabulation sheet.
● If an L line is visibly staked at the time of bidding, but another line is designated in the
plans for construction, make the staked line dashed and label it as “Line as staked” and
make the other line solid and label it as “Line to be constructed.”

On all sheets, show the cut and fill slope limits, construction limits (when applicable), access
control lines, easements and right-of-way lines. Within the right-of-way, show all cultural
features affecting construction or requiring relocation (e.g., utilities, fences). Identify all
ownerships for right-of-way purposes. Show all existing and proposed drainage structures.
Show any cultural features adjacent to the right-of-way that may be affected by the project.

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Curve data consisting of delta angle, radius of curve, tangent length, length of curve and
superelevation should be shown. Curve widening may also be shown at this location. For spiral
transitions, the spiral angle and length of spiral should be shown. Identify every 100 ft [100 m]
station along the centerline. Bearings or azimuths of all tangents should be shown.

Show the location of borings, test pits or other sites where subsurface investigations have been
made on the plan portion of the Plan and Profile Sheet, or on special plan detail sheets, as
applicable. Do not show actual boring log or test results on the plan-profile. Use separate plan
sheets for this data, if applicable, or reference the materials investigation reports.

On the profile portion of the Plan and Profile Sheets show the profile grade and existing ground
lines. Show gradients on the profile to at least three, preferably four decimal places, grade
elevations to three decimal places and natural ground points to two decimal places.

Show vertical and horizontal clearances for railroads, highways and streambeds under
proposed and existing structures.

Identify and show type and clearance, if known, under and over utility lines within the right-of-
way.

In addition to profile data, the quantity and limits of the following items may be shown by arrow
diagram at the bottom of the Plan and Profile Sheet.
● Turf establishment;
● Clearing and grubbing;
● Embankment, where it occurs;
● Roadway excavation, where it occurs; and
● Earthwork balance points.

At the top of the profile portion of the sheet, the designer may show information (e.g., curbs,
fences, guardrail) at the proper stations and identify them appropriately. These items may show
instead on separate sheets using tables, tabulations or other appropriate formats.

Show profiles of connecting roads, waterlines, road approaches, etc., on the Plan and Profile
Sheet. Offset their location on the plan if they obscure the main profile or show them on a
separate plan sheet.

Show bridges and major structures to be constructed on the Plan and Profile Sheet in outline
only, with a note to see the appropriate drawings.

Show irrigation facilities requiring minimum service interruptions during construction of the
project.

Show all culverts on the Plan and Profile Sheets.

Abbreviated plans are acceptable on rehabilitation type work, emergency relief work or other
types of work where Plan and Profile Sheets would not clarify the required construction.

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The work areas can be identified along the route by stations, mile [km] posts, and etc., with a
written description of the work to be performed at each site.

The description is used to identify work details, specify quantities, and reference applicable
Special Details, Standard Drawings, or Division Standard Details elsewhere in the plans. The
information may be placed in a tabular format or may be included as descriptive text at the
specific work locations as shown on a straight-line diagram or graph. Any plan format that is
clear, concise and adequately details the work is generally acceptable.

9.6.5.3.6 Bridge Plans

The Structural Design Unit designs most bridges and other large structures. The designer will
usually receive a complete set of bridge plans and accompanying draft Special Contract
Requirements for insertion into the PS&E assembly. The bridge plans and roadway plan-profile
sheets, and other plan sheets, must be crosschecked for compatibility and to ensure that
stationing, gradients, elevations and other geometric details are identical. The notes on the
bridge plans and the draft Special Contract Requirements must be reviewed and checked to
eliminate any potential conflict with other provisions of the contract. Transfer quantities on the
bridge plans to the summary sheet and assign item numbers as appropriate. Resolve any
differences found during the review and number the bridge plans for insertion into the final
package.

9.6.5.3.7 Cross Section Plans

When cross section plans are included in the contract plan assembly, show sufficient
information on each of the sections to accurately determine the extent of the proposed work.
Use a scale that is appropriate for the work.

9.6.5.3.8 Temporary Traffic Control Plans

A Temporary Traffic Control Plan is required for all projects. Also refer to Section 9.6.6.2.4 for
development of a Transportation Management Plan.

The plan sheets for the Temporary Traffic Control Plan are applicable FLH Standard Drawings,
or Division Standard Details, or project-specific Special Details, or combination thereof, that
graphically portray all temporary traffic controls required to assure safe travel through the
project construction zone. Such temporary traffic controls include provisions for pedestrians
(including those with disabilities), bicyclists, and motor vehicles. All pay items related to
temporary traffic control may be tabulated on this Sheet or have a separate tabulation sheet.

Temporary Traffic Control Plans may range from simple line diagrams for low-volume rural
roads to complex plan sheets detailing every stage of the project work on high-volume urban
highways. Guidance on Temporary Traffic Control Plans is provided in the MUTCD. Also refer
to Green Book Section 3.6.6.

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9.6.5.3.9 Permanent Signing and Marking Plans

When applicable, show permanent signing, pavement markings, delineation and other
permanent traffic control devices on separate plan sheet details for clarity and ease of use.
Refer to Section 8.7.1 for additional guidance on preparation of signing and marking plans.
Adhere to guidance on permanent signing and marking that is provided in the MUTCD.

9.6.5.3.10 Erosion and Sediment Control Plans

The plan sheets for the erosion and sediment control plan may include Special Drawings, or
Division Details, or both, that detail the measures required to protect resources and to comply
with permit stipulations. The plan sheet details should reflect Best Management Practices
(BMP); comply with Erosion and Sediment Control on Highway Construction Projects, 23 CFR
650 Subpart B; and be in agreement with the stipulations in the National Pollutant Discharge
Elimination System (NPDES) permit.

9.6.5.3.11 Landscaping and Revegetation Plans

When applicable, show permanent landscaping features on separate plan sheet details for
clarity and ease of use. As applicable, include the following details:
● Removal or salvage of plan materials,
● Site plan and layout of landscaping and vegetative items, plant list with quantities and
symbology,
● Grading plan showing existing and proposed contours, applicable spot elevations,
● Special grading details and typical slope treatments, and
● Planting details showing typical plant installation details, irrigation details, etc.

9.6.5.3.12 Environmental Mitigation

Commitments for environmental mitigation features that are contained in the environmental
documentation should be detailed as necessary and included in the project plans as Special
Details, or Division Details, or both.

Plan sheets for wetland replacement or mitigation are Special Drawings that detail all work
required to ensure successful mitigation. These may range from simple sketches to elaborate
contour grading and planting plans to conform to the commitments in the environmental
document. Pay items may be tabulated on these sheets or on separate sheets.

9.6.5.3.13 Major Drainage Facilities Plans

Plan sheets under this subject area would include details of large culvert installations
conforming to the requirements listed in Section 7.3.1. Headwalls, inlet and outlet treatments,
fish passage requirements, energy dissipators, catch basins, manholes and other drainage

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installation can also be detailed under this subject area. The drainage plan sheets should be
numbered and placed in the plans in logical order as appropriate.

9.6.5.3.14 Material Source Reclamation Plans

FLH standard practice is that government designated material sources require rehabilitation
under an approved reclamation plan, and applicable environmental documentation as described
in Section 3.5.

The reclamation plan must set forth measures to return the land to the most appropriate function
following use of the source. The site may be reclaimed in a series of stage reclamation efforts
when several projects designate the same source. Side borrow sites within the right-of-way do
not require a reclamation plan.

The reclamation plan provides that reclamation measures, particularly those relating to control
of erosion, be conducted simultaneously with surface mining. When this is not possible, initiate
reclamation measures at the earliest possible time after completion or abandonment of mining
on any segment of the site area.

As applicable, the reclamation plan should include the following:

● A vicinity map describing site boundaries as shown on the right-of-way or sundry site
boundaries and enough information to locate the site on quadrangle or county maps.
● Existing water forms and ground contours. Existing contours are optional unless the
design or permit process requires them.
● Proposed finished ground contours and cross sections needed to show finished slopes.
● Statement of the proposed subsequent use of the land. Include any local zoning and
planning requirements, any indications of whether the site is intended for use by other
contractors or maintenance forces in the future and whether or not stage reclamation
applies. For stage plans, provide interim reclamation measures that ensure an orderly
depletion and restoration of the site. Scheduled staged use to reclaim the largest
possible surface area under the final reclamation plan.
● Manner and type of revegetation and other surface treatment of disturbed areas.
● Preservation or establishment of visual screening and vegetative cover to screen the
view of the operation from public highways, public parks and residential areas.
● Proposed practices to protect adjacent surface resources. This includes prevention of
slumping or landslides on adjacent lands.
● Slopes that are blended with adjacent terrain to meet future use requirements. In all
cases, provide for adequate safety.
● Method of preventing or eliminating conditions that create a public nuisance, endanger
public safety, damage property or are hazardous to vegetative, animal, fish or human life
in or adjacent to the area.
● Method of controlling contaminants and disposing of surface mining refuse.

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● Method of diverting surface waters around the disturbed areas.

● Method of restoring stream channels and stream banks to a condition minimizing
erosion, siltation and other pollution.
● Planned lakes, ponds or other bodies of water that would be beneficial for residential,
recreational, game or wildlife purposes.
● Restoration of any borrow, quarry or pit site. Sites resulting in a lake or wetland involve
careful planning and must take into consideration all factors impacting the fauna and
flora.
● Proposed stockpiles of 11,000 tons [10,000 metric tons] or more.
● Permanent buildings and any protective stipulations required.
● Photographs whenever possible.

The FLH Division will cooperate with other governmental and private agencies to provide land
reclamation of the sites used for the described purposes.

Reclamation plans for sources located on Federal Lands require coordination with and approval
by the agency responsible for administration of the land in accordance with the appropriate
Memorandum of Understanding.

Reclamation plans for sources on private lands usually require coordination and approval by a
State agency, or local agency if applicable, with responsibility for issuing and administering
material removal operating permits.

9.6.5.3.15 Right-of-Way and Utility Plans

On occasion, right-of-way plans or utility plans may be too complicated to incorporate on the
Plan and Profile Sheets, and may be prepared as a separate plans set with only the pertinent
information (e.g., ownerships, existing and proposed right-of-way lines) shown on the roadway
plans. Refer to Chapter 12 for guidance on preparation of right-of-way plans.

9.6.5.3.16 Contiguous Projects

A general plan or layout of contiguous construction projects may be beneficial to potential

bidders in determining the cost of work on FLH projects. This is particularly true where another
agency is constructing a project that will affect FLH contractors. It is essential that the
relationship between the projects be well detailed on the plans.

There are instances where as-built plans should be included in the contract plan package. If a
bridge or other structure is scheduled for salvage, a set of the as-built plans will greatly assist a
contractor in determining the most effective method to disassemble the structure.

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9.6.5.4 FLH Standard Drawings, Division Standard Details and Special Details

Arrange the FLH Standard Drawings, Division Details and project-specific Special Details in an
order that best clarifies the work to be accomplished.

9.6.5.4.1 FLH Standard Drawings

The Office of Federal Lands Highway (FLHO) issues Standard Drawings for use in the Federal
Lands Highway programs. Standard Drawings, together with the Specifications, contain all
appropriate information that is necessary to describe the details of the proposed work. The
FLHO maintains the Standard Drawings and supersedes or withdraws those drawings that
become obsolete or ineffective.

FLH Standard Drawings cover various design elements that have been approved by FLHO for
use on a nationwide basis. FLH Standard Drawings have a fixed format and each drawing has
its own unique identification number. FLH Standard Drawings are usually incorporated into the
contract plan assembly and not issued as a separate booklet.

The Functional Discipline Teams periodically review FLH Standard Drawings and Division
Standard Details for consistency with FLH Standard Specifications and with FLH policies, and
industry best practices.

A FLH Functional Discipline Team or FLHO may propose new FLH Standard Drawings or
revisions to existing FLH Standard Drawings at any time. Functional Discipline Teams submit
their proposals for consideration as summarized below. When it is determined that FLH
Standard Drawings should be developed, adopted or revised, the FLHO or Functional Discipline
Teams will agree upon a responsible Functional Discipline Team to perform the preparatory
work.

The responsible Functional Discipline Team will develop or modify FLH Standard Drawings on
the CADD system. The responsible Functional Discipline Team will then submit proposed new
or revised FLH Standard Drawings to the FLHO. Any Special Contract Requirements for the
FLH Standard Drawings should accompany the distribution. Normally, the submission to the
FLHO should be in electronic format. The responsible Functional Discipline Team will
coordinate the review and comment of proposed FLH Standard Drawings with the other
Functional Discipline Teams and the FLH Divisions.

The following process shall be used for approval of proposed new FLH Standard Drawings and
revisions to approved FLH Standard Drawings:
● On behalf of the FLHO the responsible Functional Discipline Team will make distribution
of the proposed new or revised FLH Standard Drawings to the Headquarters and
Division offices and others as appropriate, with a request for comments.
● The responsible Functional Discipline Team will consolidate and review the comments
received and make the appropriate revisions, with coordination of the other Functional
Discipline Teams and the FLH Divisions.

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Upon disposition of comments, the responsible Functional Discipline Team will resubmit the
Standard Drawings to the FLHO. The submissions should include a summary of the disposition
of comments. If needed, additional distributions will be made by the FLHO in accordance with
these procedures. If additional distributions are not required, approval will be given to the
responsible Functional Discipline Team to finalize and date the title block of the FLH Standard
Drawings. The approval date or revision date to be included on FLH Standard Drawings will be
provided with FLHO approval.

The responsible Functional Discipline Team will distribute electronic versions of the CADD files
to each Division. The files will also be posted in a centralized location for use by all offices and
industry.

The FHLO will distribute a complete list of the FLH Standard Drawings with the latest approval
or revision dates with the approval memorandum noted above. Each Division shall ensure that
links to the latest approved FLH Standard Drawings are provided in their CADD files.

In FLH Standard Drawings, the lettering will be sentence-case italicized True Type Verdana
excluding titles and subtitles that will be vertical. Standard letter size will be 0.08 in [2 mm].
Minimum letter size will be 0.05 in [1.25 mm]. Use minimum letter size sparingly to ensure clear
and readable plans at the scales proposed for standard size plans and letter sized abbreviated
plans. Additional information is available in Division Supplements.

9.6.5.4.2 Division Standard Details

These drawings are used on a repetitive basis within each Division. They should be placed in
the plans as applicable to clarify the work required.

Each Division will provide links to their current Standard Details in their CADD files.

9.6.5.4.3 Special Details

Special Details are project specific details necessary to properly describe the work. Special
Details include plan sheets detailing grade crossings, turnouts, retaining walls, dikes and ponds,
waste or borrow areas, stage construction plans, permanent striping and signing plans, road
approaches, material source locations and other work.

When a Division office must modify Standard Drawings or Division Standard Details for specific
projects, they become special details and they no longer have typical standard drawing title
blocks. To prevent confusion, title blocks for special details must be clearly distinguishable from
the Standard Drawing title blocks.

Standard plans prepared by a State DOT or other outside agencies that are incorporated into
the contract should be treated as Special Details for insertion into the plans package.

A FLH Special Details Database is maintained, which may be helpful for development and
sharing of project-specific special plan details and the associated specifications and unit costs.

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9.6.6 SUPPORTING INFORMATION

Supporting information includes all information that documents the development of the
geometric design, the preparation of the PS&E, and design information needed for layout and
control of the construction work, and to support the construction management.
Refer to [EFLHD – CFLHD – WFLHD] Division Supplements for more information.

9.6.6.1 Computation of Quantities

Determine the contract items and appropriate pay units needed for the work. All computations
for estimating quantities are a part of the supporting data. Keep the computations in support of
a contract item together and the items listed in numerical sequence.

Clearly distinguish and define any estimated quantities that are computed and shown for
information only, to be included in other items of work and not measured or paid for separately.

Some work may not be paid for directly, e.g., small quantities that would be difficult or
uneconomical to measure. Limit the no-payment work to types of work that can be clearly
differentiated from pay items, or that can be clearly described and are not ambiguous for
inclusion under the contract as incidental to the bid items, and clearly define it on the plans and
in the Special Contract Requirements (SCRs) so that bidders can adequately include it in their
cost estimates under other contract items.

A lump-sum item can is used where the work required consists of a number of inter-related,
small quantity items to obtain a specified end result or the work can be described in complete
detail in the SCRs. Identify the breakdown of the work required when a number of items are
included in the lump-sum item.

When several methods may be used to measure the work, coordinate early with the
Construction Unit to verify the most appropriate method to estimate, measure and pay for the
work.

Follow the requirements of the Standard Specifications, FP-XX, as amended by the project
SCRs, for the method of measurement and basis of payment used in the computation of design
quantities. Coordinate with the Materials Unit and the Construction Unit for guidance in
selecting the appropriate pay items, application rates, unit weights, and other design
assumptions for quantity computations.

9.6.6.2 Design Documentation

In addition to the PS&E preparation, provide all required additional information supporting the
development of the geometric design and PS&E. The following sections provide applicable
guidance for the design documentation.

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9.6.6.2.1 Design Files

As applicable, provide the following general information that should be contained in the project
design files, which may not be described specifically in the other sections below:
● Pertinent correspondence, reports, memoranda, project agreement, emails, etc., relating
to the development of the design and related design considerations;
● Design technical information regarding design criteria and design decisions;
● Highway Design Standards Form (Section 9.1.3);
● Environmental document and commitments pertaining to the highway design;
● Pertinent right-of-way documentation, agreements, certification;
● Utility agreements;
● Pertinent technical reports and recommendations from other disciplines;
● CADD files and summary documentation for archival and retrieval;
● Calculations for design quantities, properly organized and checked; and
● Review comments and documentation regarding their disposition.

9.6.6.2.2 Design Exhibits

As applicable, develop exhibits for use at design reviews, stakeholder meetings, public
meetings, etc. Such exhibits should be designed and formatted for presentation to a non-
technical audience, and should enable clear understanding of the design concepts and features
and should foster interactive communication and constructive feedback from those viewing the
exhibits.

For additional guidance on developing and utilizing design exhibits refer to the FHWA report:
Public Involvement Techniques for Transportation Decision-Making.

9.6.6.2.3 Visualization and 3D Modeling

As applicable, the latest visualization technology should be used to facilitate communication and
understanding of project design goals and solutions with stakeholders and the general public.
Computer three-dimensional (3D) modeling and imaging should be used to depict and evaluate
the design aspects in addition to the traditional orthogonal views of plan, profile and cross-
sections. Visualization and electronic media and graphics presentations should be used to
assist designers, as well as the interdisciplinary project team, stakeholders and the public to
better comprehend, evaluate and communicate complex roadway design features than by using
traditional two-dimensional (2D) roadway drawings.

In addition to using modeling and imaging presentations that depict how the proposed facility
will appear within the existing conditions, consider using dynamic, real-time techniques to
simulate and analyze the operational characteristics of the facility.

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The FHWA Visualization in Planning site and TRB Visualization in Transportation Site provides
information on visualization techniques and their applications for highway projects. Also refer to
the FLH Visualization Guide.

9.6.6.2.4 Transportation Management Plan

The Work Zone Safety and Mobility Rule requires consideration of the safety and mobility
impacts of work zones during project development, and the implementation of a Transportation
Management Plan (TMP) to manage these impacts during project delivery. The TMP includes
development of a plan for Temporary Traffic Control (TTC) measures and devices, applicable
public information and outreach, and operational strategies. The scope, content, and level of
detail of the TMP varies based on the anticipated work zone impacts of the project. Refer to
Section 9.6.5.3.8 for preparation of TTC plans.

As applicable, prepare transportation management plans and reports that are required and the
responsibility of the FLH or the client agency. The transportation management plans and
reports may precede or may be in addition to the PS&E, and may be required for submittal to
State DOTs or local governments, community relations, public information efforts, etc.

9.6.6.3 Permits

As applicable, include all permit requirements into the design and PS&E documents. The
specific permits and their requirements may be included within the special contract
requirements for direct incorporation within the contract documents, as applicable. Refer to
Section 3.3.3 for guidance on commonly required permits.

9.6.6.4 Design Data for Construction Engineering

Document and provide all necessary design and related information that will be made available
to the prospective bidders during the advertisement period, and to the contractor after award.
Such information may include materials reports, geotechnical reports, earthwork reports,
permits, specifications that are referenced but not directly shown within the solicitation
documents, and traffic management plans.

For projects with retaining wall systems that require engineering by the construction contractor,
the information that may be needed by prospective bidders or the construction contractor
includes the subsurface investigation, structural requirements and geotechnical design data.
The data should include:
● Shear strength and consolidation properties of foundations materials,
● Shear strength and unit weight of backfill,
● Design life (minimum service life) – typically 75 years,
● Safety factors for overturning, sliding and stability of temporary slopes,
● Allowable foundation bearing pressure and minimum embedment depths,
● Maximum tolerable differential settlement,
● MSE internal design requirements,
● External loads,
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● Drainage requirements,
● Backfill requirements, and
● Facing requirements.

9.6.6.5 Stakeout Data and Construction Controls

As applicable, provide information necessary for survey, stakeout and field control of
construction work. This may include supplemental engineering data not provided on the plans
such as survey data, coordinate geometry data, structural data, slope stake and grade finishing
notes, clearing and seeding reports, superelevation reports, design cross section data, and
other design information. Provide sufficient copies for the design file, the construction project
management engineer, and the construction contractor both in hard copy and electronic format,
as applicable.

When converting cross-section based roadway designs to 3D design surface models for
construction control, provide the intended level of precision. The model precision is affected by
the length of chords (breaklines) connecting like points between cross sections, and the
resultant offset from the chords to curved design elements. Deviations to the chord offsets
should be well within the staking tolerances for construction survey listed in Table 152-1 of the
FP, such that any deformations in the 3D surface model are negligible and have no discernable
effect on the intended roadway geometry. For construction control, the 3D design surface
model should use sections (pattern lines) spaced at 10 ft [2.5 m] maximum intervals, and at
superelevation transitions, roadway widening, special ditch transitions, and inlet catch basins
where culverts are designed in cuts. In sharp horizontal or vertical curves, closer spaced
sections should be used. A 3D design surface model should be prepared for major public road
approaches similar as for the mainline. Minor road approaches and other minor features built
with standard drawings or typical details need not be modeled. All limitations in the 3D design
model data should be described in the special contract requirements.

9.6.6.6 Information for the Construction Branch

As applicable, provide pertinent design information to the construction project engineer,

including the following:
● Design special considerations narrative;
● PE package and hold file;
● Quantity support calculations and related drawings;
● Environmental commitments, including those that are not performed by or the
responsibility of the contractor;
● Agreements;
● Permits;
● Pertinent correspondence and reports;
● Pertinent meeting minutes and design field trip reports;

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● Technical discipline reports applicable to construction; and

● Survey and stakeout information.

9.6.7 CONSTRUCTION SCHEDULE AND CONTRACT TIME

Determine the anticipated construction schedule including reasonable times for completion of
construction activities and total contract time. Factors that determine contract time include
materials, equipment, manpower, costs and constraints (i.e., weather, regulations, traffic,
utilities, user convenience).
Refer to [EFLHD – CFLHD – WFLHD] Division Supplements for more information.

9.6.8 ENGINEER’S ESTIMATE

Prepare an engineer’s estimate of cost for each project as part of the PS&E development
associated with each stage of the project’s design process. The estimate should become more
detailed and complete at each subsequent stage. For each estimate type, document the
estimate basis, assumptions, calculations, and uncertainties, as described in the following
sections. In addition to the estimated unit costs and total cost for construction, the engineer’s
estimate includes, as separate line items, the estimated costs for preliminary engineering,
construction engineering, right-of-way acquisition, utility relocation and other anticipated
contingencies.
Refer to [EFLHD – CFLHD – WFLHD] Division Supplements for more information.

9.6.8.1 Preliminary Engineering Cost Estimate

Design engineering costs can be based on a percentage of the construction cost estimate, for
various types of projects and design activities. More detailed cost estimates are based on the
estimated labor hours and direct costs to perform each activity of the preliminary engineering
work, or may be based roughly on the estimated number of plan sheets.

9.6.8.2 Construction Engineering Cost Estimate

Construction engineering (inspection and construction management) costs can be based on a

percentage of the construction cost estimate, for various types of projects and construction
activities. More detailed cost estimates are based on estimated equipment (office trailer,
laboratory trailer, vehicles, inspection equipment, etc.) and labor hours and direct costs to
perform the construction engineering work.

9.6.8.3 Right-of-way Acquisition and Utility Relocation Cost Estimate

Estimated costs can be based on consideration of the number of parcels, acreages, appraisal
costs, right-of-way considerations, and the type and extent of individual utility adjustments.
Refer to Chapter 12 for guidance and detail on estimating these costs.

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9.6.8.4 Construction Cost Estimates

For each type of construction cost estimate, document the supporting calculations thoroughly
and appropriately, as described in the following sections.

9.6.8.4.1 Class C Construction Cost Estimate

A Class C construction cost estimate is based on cost per mile of similar scope construction
work, and adjusted for estimated rate of inflation and local conditions. It is normally developed
for planning, programming, and conceptual studies.

9.6.8.4.2 Class B Construction Cost Estimate

A Class B construction estimate is based on the estimated quantities and unit costs for the
major high cost categories of work, and either cost per mile or percentage of total construction
costs for minor categories of work. It should be developed in the preliminary design (15 and 30
percent) phase and updated at the intermediate design (50 percent) phase of design detail.
Consider the following major items for development of estimated quantities and unit costs:
● Clearing and grubbing per acre [hectare],
● Roadway excavation per cubic yard [cubic meter],
● Minor drainage per mile [kilometer],
● Aggregate base, subbase or surfacing per ton [metric ton],
● Asphalt or concrete paving items (type) per ton [metric ton],
● Major structures, including any bridges and retaining walls, per square yard [square
meter], and
● Large culverts per each.

Miscellaneous minor items may be grouped into categories as a lump sum or percentage of the
total construction (include mobilization, construction survey and staking, temporary traffic
control, guardrail, signing, striping, erosion and sediment control, fences, revegetation,
landscaping, etc.) based on historical data of similar projects.

9.6.8.4.3 Class A Construction Cost Estimate

The Class A construction cost estimate (Engineer’s Estimate) is a listing of all items of work in
the contract, showing quantity, unit of measurement, unit cost and total cost of each. The total
amount of all items of work, including appropriate incentive payments, makes up the
construction estimate. Contingencies, construction engineering, project agreement costs and
other costs added to the construction estimate makes up the program amount. A Class A
construction cost estimate should be provided for the plan-in-hand (70 percent) design phase,
and the unit prices verified and updated for the final (95 percent) design phase.

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When a contract is financed by multiple funds, and expenditure of a fund is limited to a particular
section, a separate estimate, summary sheet and bid schedule are necessary for each section.
When a contract is financed by more than one type of fund, but expenditures are not limited to a
particular section, only one bid schedule is necessary, supported by a combined estimate and
summary sheet.

For the plan-in-hand (70 percent) phase of development, typically a 5 percent contingency
should be added to the overall construction cost estimate. For final (95 percent) phase of
development all pay items, quantities, and any pay items incentives should be known and
specified, and no separate contingency amount is included for the final estimate. An allowance
may be included within the tabulations of individual bid item quantities listed on the plans to
address approximated quantities potentially needed to fit the project site conditions.

Retain confidentiality of the unit price analysis and construction cost estimate at all times to
maintain the integrity of the bidding and procurement process.

9.6.8.5 Development and Update of Prices

FLH standard practice for developing and updating estimated prices for construction includes
the following:
● Develop unit prices that consider the location, timing and characteristics of the work to
be performed.
● Estimated unit prices may be based on historical data (i.e., bid prices for previous
contracts), or on actual costs, or both.
● For major items of work identify and analyze the primary factors and risks affecting the
cost of the work (e.g., local labor rates, equipment rates, unusually small or large
quantities, transportation distances, interest rates, time allowance, competition levels,
material shortages).
● Document the methods and assumptions used to establish each unit price, including the
primary unknowns and risks that are taken into consideration.
● Perform periodic reviews of the unit prices and construction cost estimate during the
design process, at each major project development phase, to confirm it is accurate and
fully reflects the project scope and current market conditions.
● Before communicating unit prices or a construction cost estimate to program partners,
confirm that the unit price analysis is current, and update if necessary.

Unit prices for the engineer’s estimate should reflect the actual cost to the contractor of doing
business, including a reasonable profit. Consider the two common methods to determine this
cost; historical costs (bid-based estimating) and actual costs (cost-based estimating). With
either method, the designer should strive to predict the expected overall low bid, and develop
unit prices that will at least equal, or slightly exceed this amount. Develop unit prices for each
defined pay item using either historic bid data that is factored for the project conditions, or cost-
based pricing (using costs for equipment, labor, material, and production rates applicable for the
project conditions), or use both methods for comparison, as appropriate for each pay item.

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1. Bid-Based Estimating. Use historical bid data as a basis for estimating current costs.
Consider the bids received for like items on recent (within the past two to five years),
representative projects built under similar conditions that fairly represent the contractor’s
cost plus a reasonable profit. Consider the average of the low bids received on previous
projects in similar locations, factored for project conditions and cost indices, as a basis
for the anticipated minimum overall cost for current projects. However, do not use solely
the lowest bids for analysis of historic unit prices, due to the variability in bids and costs
for the individual bid items.

Consider that the lowest bid for a project may not represent a consistent distribution of
costs among the bid items, and that the low-bidder’s prices on each individual item may
not represent the lowest or most reasonable cost for every item. Therefore, it is
recommended to use the average of the unit prices from the lowest three bidders to
verify that the low-bid unit price is reasonable and consistent. Use the lowest three
bidder’s prices from representative past projects, and modify them to fit the conditions on
the project, and adjust for increases in the overall cost of construction over time using an
inflation index. Consider factors that may have a direct bearing on the historical bid
prices in relation to the current project, including the following:
● Availability of construction material,
● Proximity of access roads and railroads,
● Distance from towns and travel speed,
● Timing of construction,
● Inflation indices, and
● Amounts of quantities.

The historical bid price approach, tempered with engineering judgment, is recommended
for estimating the minor items of work on a project. For major items of work, it is
recommended to also consider the cost-based estimating approach, in addition to the
bid-based estimating approach, to verify the unit price analysis is reasonable.
2. Cost-Based Estimating. Consider the cost-based approach for some items of work,
especially major items such as roadway excavation, base and plant mix material, bridge
material, etc. The actual costs to construct these items should be analyzed to ensure
that all factors that bear on the cost of the item receive consideration. Use current labor,
equipment and materials costs, production rates, as well as overhead and profit to
develop cost-based unit prices.

When updating costs used in the engineer’s estimates, consider the effects of inflation on pay
items, wage rates, equipment rates and material costs. Use current inflation trends in highway
construction prices. Several cost inflation indexes are available to track short and long-term
construction pricing trends, including:
● FHWA Price Trends in Federal-Aid Highway Construction Projects
● American Road and Transportation Builders Association (ARTBA) Price Index
● State DOT Price Indices

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When updating historic bid prices or other cost data, use an inflation time period that begins at
the year and month the historic bid or cost data originates from, and ends in the year and month
of the proposed project’s anticipated construction completion.

9.6.8.6 Assessment of Cost Estimate Uncertainties and Risks

For each estimate type, identify and assess the potential price uncertainties and risk factors
associated with the estimate. Use an interdisciplinary approach to identify project cost risks and
uncertainties early, and evaluate these identified risks to establish cost ranges and appropriate
contingencies. Anticipate potential external cost influences and incorporate them into the
overall assessment.

After the proposed quantities, unit prices and estimated costs are determined; determine a
project cost range and probability. Evaluate the potential risks for deviations in the construction
quantities, as well as their unit costs. Consider cost impacts of potential project risks such as:
● Limited number of available or qualified contractors to perform the type of work,
● Changes in construction market conditions or competing work opportunities,
● Changes in labor or materials availability,
● Uncertainties in costs for construction materials supplied to the project,
● Uncertainties in site conditions, in-situ materials, utilities, weather, stream flows,
● Changes in traffic conditions and traffic maintenance requirements,
● Changes in construction time restrictions, access, or hauling limitations,
● Delays in construction permitting,
● Delays in funding availability,
● Delays in right-of-way acquisition, PS&E completion, or contract award.

Describe the type of estimate, its key assumptions, and its uncertainties, whenever a cost
estimate is communicated. When communicating prices or a construction cost estimate for
programming purposes, also convey the extent of cost unknowns, risks and variability that
should be considered with the estimate amount.

9.6.9 SPECIFICATIONS

Prepare all necessary Special Contract Requirements relating to an individual project to

describe the work with clarity and precision in a clear logical format. FLH standard practice is to
follow the format and guidelines described in the FLH Specification Writer’s Guide.

The FLH Specifications Procedures provides information primarily for FLH internal use in
developing new specifications and coordinating them with the plans and estimate; and FLH
procedures for specification review and evaluation.
Refer to [EFLHD – CFLHD – WFLHD] Division Supplements for more information.

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9.6.10 CONTRACT ASSEMBLY

A standard contract assembly or solicitation package consists of several main parts:

1. Solicitation, Offer and Award (SF 1442). This contract form, after being signed by the
contractor and contracting officer, consummates the contract and makes it legal and
binding on all parties.
2. Solicitation Provisions. The Federal Acquisition Regulations (FAR) define the scope
of the contract and sets forth bidding requirements.
3. Bid Schedule. A list of all pay items in the contract to be completed by bidders with
their offered bid prices for the work. The bid schedule is prepared from data obtained
from the engineer’s estimate.
4. Contract Construction Clauses. FAR clauses regulating and controlling contractor
construction activities.
5. Labor Standard Clauses. All laborers and mechanics working on the project are
covered by Federal regulations (i.e., Davis-Bacon Act), that includes a minimum wage
schedule.
6. Special Contract Requirements. The amendments and supplements to the Standard
Specifications necessary for the construction of the project.
7. Plans and Drawings. The plans and drawings necessary to detail and identify the
work. These also include FLH Standard Drawings, Division Standard Details, and
Special Details that may be applicable.

The Federal Lands Highway offices use these seven subdivisions in their contract solicitations
(advertised or negotiated). The solicitation generally contains all the necessary forms and
contract documents that a bidder needs to make the Government an offer for the construction of
the highway facility.
Refer to [EFLHD – CFLHD – WFLHD] Division Supplements for more information.

9.6.11 QUALITY CONTROL AND QUALITY ASSURANCE

Ensure that all design work is performed in accordance with an approved quality control and
quality assurance (QA/QC) plan, and provide documentation of the completed QA/QC activities
related to design. Refer to Division Supplements for specific FLH Division requirements. The
established QA/QC process may be supplemented by a project-specific quality plan described
in Section 9.6.11.1, as applicable. For design work performed by A/E consultant, the A/E firm
should have an established process for the formulation, implementation, and administration of
their firm’s QA/QC program, but which may need to be supplemented to meet the FLH quality
requirements of the project.

The design QA/QC plan should include the following general components:
● A project-specific quality plan that designates individual responsibilities;
● Comprehensive quality control (QC) during the design and PS&E production;
● Independent quality assurance (QA) monitoring; and
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● Evaluation and feedback of the QA/QC procedures.

Refer to [EFLHD – CFLHD – WFLHD] Division Supplements for more information.

9.6.11.1 Project-specific Quality Plan

As may be applicable for each project, provide a project-specific QA/QC plan to supplement the
standard, established QA/QC process. The project-specific quality plan should identify any
special QA/QC activities, and individual roles and responsibilities for preparation, performance,
and maintenance of applicable quality activities. The project-specific quality plan together with
the established QA/QC process should address all quality expectations and applicable quality
requirements for design of the particular project. The plan should:
● Reference standard, established QA/QC procedures applicable to design of the project,
including applicable quality requirements;
● Reference special technical aspects and level of effort vital to the quality of the project,
● Identify a schedule of milestones for significant quality control (QC) activities, including;
◊ QC activities, description and when in the design process they occur;
◊ Checks, back checks, and any anticipated QC audits, if applicable
◊ Approximate duration and anticipated level of effort for each QC activity;
● Identification of the responsible individual(s);
● Identify those individuals responsible for performance of the quality assurance (QA)
activities sufficient to verify and ensure adherence with applicable QC requirements;
● Analyze the level of risk associated with above efforts, and assess the potential impacts
for each activity identified as having a high level of risk, obtain applicable approval or
endorsement of risks, and incorporate applicable measures to mitigate the risks; and
● Provide for periodic review and updating, if necessary, of the design QA/QC activities
and those responsible during the life of the project.

9.6.11.2 Quality Control

Quality control (QC) applies to internal design work as well as externally outsourced A/E
consultant or sub-consultant work. Perform quality control using an established QC plan during
the design and production of:
● Highway geometric design,
● Manual and computer-generated design calculations,
● Engineering drawings,
● Specifications,
● Quantities calculations,
● Construction cost estimate and unit price analysis,
● Technical documents, studies and reports,
● Incorporation of environmental commitments and technical discipline recommendations,
● Permit applications, permitting requirements and their incorporation, and
● Construction stakeout data and reports.
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The established QC plan should include the following essential elements:

● Guidelines are provided for using a standard checking and back-checking markup
system, review checklists, and other QC control tools and documents;
● All design work is checked by the originator before completion of a task to provide
continuous QC during the design and PS&E production work;
● All documents and supporting calculations developed for each stage of design
development and review are fully checked by a qualified individual other than the
originator before being issued. The QC checker should ensure each document meets
an established level of quality, typically identified through using a checklist;
● QC checks identify, incorporate, track and verify the markups and review comments;
● Back checking of review markups to assure that the completed design reflects input
received during checks and various iterative reviews used to control the work and
evolution of the design, and reflects the intent of the review recommendations;
● QC checks involve subject matter experts for the specific technical discipline;
● QC checks involve the project manager in overall quality control overlapping multiple
disciplines;
● QC checks ensure that the design and PS&E products conform to applicable policies
and design standards, FLH standard practices, and are accurate and of high quality;
● The QC checks made and their date and responsible person(s) performing the check are
recorded; and
● Documentation of the quality control checks made by the originator, reviewer(s), project
manager, and others, as applicable is maintained during the life of the project. Refer to
Section 9.6.11.4.

9.6.11.3 Quality Assurance

Perform independent quality assurance (QA) checks of the design and PS&E as necessary to:
● Verify that the established quality control (QC) checks have been performed;
● Assure that the completed work conforms with the established QC procedures;
● Ensure that the design and PS&E conform to applicable policies, standards, FLH
standard practices, and are accurate and of high quality;
● Verify that design solutions and products meet the overall expectations of FLH, and the
FLH Division, and the needs of the partner agency and project stakeholders;
● Comply with legal, regulatory and contractual requirements;
● Assure technical features are consistent with the project scope and intent, and each
individual feature is properly integrated into the overall project; and
● Appropriately balance risk between various project constraints, using professional
engineering judgment and endorsement of FLH management and partner agency as
applicable.

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9.6.11.4 Documentation of QA/QC Activities

Throughout the highway design and PS&E development, maintain evidence that applicable
QA/QC procedures have been performed. Documentation of QA/QC activities should include
notes from reviews, checked plans, specifications, and estimates showing review markup,
checked computations showing review markup, and updated CAD files and design notes
demonstrating conformance with the applicable QA/QC procedures.

The design QA/QC documentation should address:

● The documents, tracking, file management and retention of QA/QC checks and records;
● Designation of the line of design engineering responsibility;
● Certification of QC checking performed in accordance with an established plan;
● For A/E consultants, sealing and signing of A/E consultant-prepared documents such as:
◊ Engineering drawings,
◊ Specifications,
◊ Construction cost estimate,
◊ Engineering reports and formal technical memorandums,
◊ Construction staking data and reports, and
◊ Other formal technical recommendations or deliverables.

9.6.11.5 Evaluation of QA/QC Procedures

At the conclusion of each project, conduct an evaluation of the QA/QC procedures that were
used, to identify and document any significant design problems encountered, areas for process
improvement, lessons learned, outstanding quality issues, and to identify any deficiencies in the
established QA/QC plan that was used. Refer to Chapter 13 for design feedback processes.

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