Geography

GCSE
Paper 2 Challenges in the Human Environment
Section A: Urban Issues and Challenges

Name………………………………
General Revision Activities

 Flash Cards which have the key term on one side and its meaning on the other, used for check and test
 Revision Quiz – As simple as a piece of A4 paper folded into a booklet with at least 10 questions on the outside and answers
on the inside. Use the revision checklist to ensure your quiz covers all key contents.
 Mind Map – Use a combination of key words, colours, symbols and pictures/sketches to summarise the key knowledge needed
for each case study based on the revision check list
 Revision Guide – Answer all the areas on a revision checklist, presenting it however you like
 Exam practice

Urban Issues and Challenges CHECKLIST Tick when

confident
The global pattern of urban change.
Urban trends in different parts of the world including HICs and LICs.
Factors affecting the rate of urbanisation – migration (push–pull theory), natural increase.
The emergence of megacities.

A case study of a major city in an LIC or NEE (Mumbai) to illustrate:

 the location and importance of the city, regionally, nationally and internationally
 causes of growth: natural increase and migration

How urban growth has created opportunities:

 social: access to services – health and education; access to resources – water supply, energy
 economic: how urban industrial areas can be a stimulus for economic development

How urban growth has created challenges:

 managing urban growth – slums, squatter settlements
 providing clean water, sanitation systems and energy
 providing access to services – health and education
 reducing unemployment and crime
 managing environmental issues – waste disposal, air and water pollution, traffic congestion.

An example of how urban planning is improving the quality of life for the urban poor in Mumbai

An overview of the distribution of population and the major cities in the UK.
A case study of a major city in the UK (London) to illustrate:

•the location and importance of the city in the UK and the wider world

•impacts of national and international migration on the growth and character of the city

How urban change has created opportunities:

 social and economic: cultural mix, recreation and entertainment, employment, integrated transport systems
 environmental: urban greening

How urban change has created challenges:

 social and economic: urban deprivation, inequalities in housing, education, health and employment
 environmental: dereliction, building on brownfield and greenfield sites, waste disposal
 the impact of urban sprawl on the rural–urban fringe, and the growth of commuter settlements.

An example of an urban regeneration project (London 2012) to show:

 reasons why the area needed regeneration
 the main features of the project.
Features of sustainable urban living:

 water and energy conservation

 waste recycling
 creating green space.

How urban transport strategies are used to reduce traffic congestion.

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 KEY WORD GLOSSARY

Brownfield site

Land that has been used, abandoned and now awaits some new use. Commonly found across urban areas, particularly
in the inner city.

Dereliction

Abandoned buildings and wasteland.

Economic opportunities

Chances for people to improve their standard of living through employment.

Greenfield site

A plot of land, often in a rural or on the edge of an urban area that has not yet been subject to any building development.

Inequalities

Differences between poverty and wealth, as well as in peoples' wellbeing and access to things like jobs, housing and
education. Inequalities may occur in housing provision, access to services, access to open land, safety and security.

Integrated transport systems

When different transport methods connect together, making journeys smoother and therefore public transport more
appealing. Better integration should result in more demand for public transport and should see people switching from
private car use to public modes of transport, which should be more sustainable. It may also lead to a fall in congestion
due to less road users.

Mega-cities

An urban area with a total population in excess of ten million people.

Migration

When people move from one area to another. In many LICS people move from rural to urban areas (rural-urban
migration).

Natural increase

The birth rate minus the death rate of a population.

Pollution

The presence of chemicals, noise, dirt or other substances which have harmful or poisonous effects on an environment.

Rural-urban fringe

A zone of transition between the built-up area and the countryside, where there is often competition for land use. It is a
zone of mixed land uses, from out of town shopping centres and golf courses to farmland and motorways.

Sanitation

Measures designed to protect public health, including the provision of clean water and the disposal of sewage and waste.

Social deprivation

The degree to which an individual or an area is deprived of services, decent housing, adequate income and local
employment.
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Social opportunities

Chances for people to improve their quality of life, for instance access to education and health care.

Squatter settlement

An area of poor-quality housing, lacking in amenities such as water supply, sewerage and electricity, which often
develops spontaneously and illegally in a city in an LIC.

Sustainable urban living

A sustainable city is one in which there is minimal damage to the environment, the economic base is sound with
resources allocated fairly and jobs secure, and there is a strong sense of community, with local people involved in
decisions made. Sustainable urban living includes several aims including the use of renewable resources, energy
efficiency, use of public transport, accessible resources and services.

Traffic congestion

Occurs when there is too great a volume of traffic for roads to cope with, so traffic jams form and traffic slows to a crawl.

Urban greening

The process of increasing and preserving open space such as public parks and gardens in urban areas.

Urbanisation

The process by which an increasing percentage of a country's population comes to live in towns and cities. Rapid
urbanisation is a feature of many LICs and NEEs.

Urban regeneration

The revival of old parts of the built‐up area by either installing modern facilities in old buildings (known as renewal) or
opting for redevelopment (ie demolishing existing buildings and starting afresh).

Urban sprawl

The unplanned growth of urban areas into the surrounding countryside.

Waste recycling

The process of extracting and reusing useful substances found in waste.

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What does the spec say? 3.2.1. Urban issues and challenges

Key Idea Specification Content

 The global pattern of urban change.
A growing percentage of the world’s  Urban trends in different parts of the world including
population lives in urban areas. HICs and LICs.
 Factors affecting the rate of urbanisation – migration
(push–pull theory), natural increase.
 The emergence of megacities.

A growing percentage of the world’s population lives in urban areas.

The global pattern of urban change:

• 1980 40% of the world’s population lived in urban areas

• 2017 the number of cities with a population of more than ½ million is estimated to be over 1000
• By 2030 the figure is expected to be over 60% of the world’s population living in urban areas

Urban trends in different parts of the world including HICs and LICs.

The highest rates of urbanisation are in poorer, Low-Income Countries (LICs) in Asia and Africa.

The rates of urbanisation in richer, Higher-Income Countries (HICs) are lower.

In Newly-Emerging Economies (NEEs), which are not yet rich HICs, the rate of urbanisation is starting to slow down.
Urbanisation happened earlier in these countries, e.g. Brazil, than in LICs e.g. in sub-Saharan Africa.

There are slower rates of urbanisation in Europe, North America and Oceania.

Factors affecting the rate of urbanisation – migration (push–pull theory), natural increase.

Push Factor (Negative causing the person to leave a rural Pull Factor (Perceived positive causing the person to
area) move to that region)
 More well paid jobs so a higher standard of living
 Farming is hard. Drought and other natural is possible
hazards can reduce crop yields  Some may have family/friends already living there
 Poor access to medical services (few doctors)  Better chance of getting an education
 Poor access to education (few schools/teachers)  5.A range of entertainment and leisure facilities
 Rural areas are often isolated due to poor available
transport  .Better/more numerous medical facilities
 .Idea of more secure housing

Natural increase: The birth rate minus the death rate of a population.
So if the population of a city is younger, the rate of natural increase is also high

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The emergence of megacities.

The number of megacities is increasing.

•The world’s largest cities, with populations over ten million, are known as megacities.

•In 1975 there were 4 megacities in the world: Tokyo, New York, Mexico City and Sao Paolo.

•By 2007 there were 19; with many of the new megacities in Asia – Mumbai, Delhi, Shanghai, Kolkata, Karachi and
Beijing.

•By 2025 there will be an estimated 26 megacities!

Key Idea Specification Content

Urban growth creates opportunities A case study of a major city in an LIC or NEE (Mumbai) to
and challenges for cities in LICs and illustrate:
NEEs.  the location and importance of the city, regionally,
nationally and internationally
 causes of growth: natural increase and migration

How urban growth has created opportunities:

 social: access to services – health and education; access
to resources – water supply, energy
 economic: how urban industrial areas can be a stimulus
for economic development

How urban growth has created challenges:

 managing urban growth – slums, squatter settlements
 providing clean water, sanitation systems and energy
 providing access to services – health and education
 reducing unemployment and crime
 managing environmental issues – waste disposal, air and
water pollution, traffic congestion.

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 An example of how urban planning is improving the quality of life
for the urban poor in Mumbai

A case study of a major city in an NEE (Mumbai)

 Mumbai is the largest city in India, located in the Maharashtra state on the Western coast of India, facing the
Arabian Sea.
 Mumbai has seen rapid growth over the last 50 years - 23 million people are estimated to live in Mumbai today!

The location and importance of the city, regionally, nationally and internationally:

Regional Importance National Importance Global Importance

3 million people commute from Mumbai is the commercial and financial In 2014 Mumbai was the most
surrounding areas for work capital of India. globalised city in S.E Asia
The Hi-tech industry is growing call Mumbai handles 60% of India’s sea Has the largest number of
centres, online banking and software trade. international companies in Asia
development.
City contributes 40% of total income to Nationally, Mumbai contributes 33% of Bank of America
the whole state of Maharashtra all income tax and 60% of all custom Volkswagen
duty from trade. Walt Disney
And many more have their
headquarters in Mumbai
Mumbai has the highest percentage of Receives the largest amount of foreign
internet access of any Indian city (12 investment of any other city in India
million people in 2013)
Mumbai’s tourism industry is booming Mumbai is seen as a hub of India for
with thousands flocking to the area smaller businesses such as jewellery
from all over the globe. and fashion.
The population of Mumbai is Home to the biggest cultural industry in
constantly growing, taking the young India – Bollywood
work force from neighbouring cities.
Mumbai is a transport hub with links to
all major industrial cities India.
Transport hub=connecting point for
transport links

Causes of growth: 1. Migration and 2. Natural Increase

Rapidly grown over the last 50 years. Population of 23 million. Growth driven by rural-urban migration. Migration rate of 1
person per minute! 70% of migrants are from the state of Maharashtra.

Migrants average age was 20-21 and 64% are male. Natural increase also contributes to urban growth.

• In 1947 Mumbai’s population was 4 million

• An increase of more than 8 million people have occurred due to internal migration - more than half of that increase
occurring between 1960-1970.

• The population density is estimated to be about 22,000 persons per square kilometre.

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 Push Factors Pull Factors
(pushing people away from rural India) (pulling people in to urban Mumbai)
. Mumbai has some good schools and universities as
well as decent hospitals and dentists.

In Mumbai your home is more likely to have services such

Education and health standards are much lower in as water, electricity and sewage.
rural areas.
Many migrants will already know people who have left the
countryside to go to the city. They hope that these
contacts will help them to find work and housing etc.

Farm jobs have become harder to find due to natural Improved Job prospects in Mumbai. The traditional
hazards such as drought, smaller plot sizes, The Green industries of textiles, shipping & freight and jobs brought
Revolution (a government programme to improve by TNCs. Mumbai is the financial capital of India and
agriculture using chemicals) and over population. many Indian companies have their headquarters there.
All these jobs promise to offer higher pay than farm work
Only large farms can afford the chemicals and machinery. but the reality is often that skills are required to take some
Many small farms cannot compete and people have sold positions that the majority do not have.
up
Investment by the Mumbai Metropolitan Authority, the
Young people see farming as hard work with long hours Indian government and international agencies e.g. the UN
and low pay in public works e.g. improving water supplies offers the
potential of employment in public services.

How urban growth has created Opportunities in Mumbai:

Social:

Healthcare and Education Water supply Energy

-A major centre of learning and The Mumbai Slum Sanitation The Mumbai Slum Electrification
education. Mumbai has a world Project: Project
renowned university and many The rapid growth of slum areas in Many slum areas do not have access to
other important education and Mumbai has put enormous pressure electricity and rely on bottled gas for
research institutions. on sewage systems throughout the cooking and heating. This is expensive
-The city runs more than 1,000 city. In some areas hundreds of and very dangerous. Also the fumes
primary and secondary people share a single toilet and it is created can cause health problems. The
schools, with free education up estimated that 1 in 20 people are Global Partnership on Output Based Aid
to certain ages forced to use the street as a toilet. (GPOBA) have recently completed a
-Literacy rates are high (89.7%). The slum sanitation project aims to project which is providing 10 000 slum
Even in the slums, the literacy improve sanitation facilities for up to dwellers with new or upgraded electricity
rate is estimated to be more than a million slum dwellers across the connections.
69%. city. So far over 300 community toilet
-Mumbai has more hospitals than blocks have been built, housing more
any other Indian city. -Hospitals than 5100 individual toilets, with
are affordable meaning that local separate facilities for men and
people can access them. women.

Economic: how urban industrial areas can be a stimulus for economic development

Mumbai is the commercial and financial capital of India. 60% of India’s sea trade is based here. Nationally Mumbai
contributes 33% of all income tax and 60% of all custom duty from trade. The largest number of TNC headquarters in
Asia including GSK, Walt Disney and Volkswagen. It is home to the Indian stock market, the busiest port and airports in
India.

It has most of India’s specialised technical industries, e.g. aerospace, optical engineering, medical research, computers
and electronic equipment, shipbuilding and salvaging and renewable energy.

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Mumbai has many job opportunities because it alone accounts for 6% of India's GDP and 40% of its foreign trade. It is
also a manufacturing hub which creates a lot of jobs, 25% of India’s industrial production is in Mumbai. The port area also
creates a lot of valuable jobs.

It also has the headquarters of a number of Indian financial institutions such as the Bombay Stock Exchange and the
Reserve Bank of India, and numerous Indian companies such as the Tata Group. Most of these offices are located in
downtown South Mumbai which is the nerve centre of the Indian economy.

How urban growth has created challenges in Mumbai:

Challenge 1- Managing urban growth – slums, squatter settlements

 Dharavi is India’s and Mumbai's biggest slum. There are a 1.2 million people crammed into one square
mile in Dharavi.
 People live in very small dwellings (e.g. 12X12ft), often with many members of their extended families.
 Dharavi is made up of 12 different neighbourhoods and there are no maps or road signs. The further you walk
into Dharavi from the edge the more permanent and solid the structures become.
 There are many different things to do there are informal shopping areas where it is possible to buy anything you
might need. There are also mosques, a pottery area, community centre.
 People live next to the open sewers are water pipes, which can crack and take in sewage. Children play
amongst sewage waste.
 Water is a big problem standpipes come on at 5:30am for 2 hours as water is rationed.
 The average wage is between $1-2USD per day
 Dharavi is the most productive slum in the world. It’s over a billion dollar industry
 There is an average of 1 toilet per 1,450 people
 60% of the families have lived in Dharavi for 60+ years
 The average life span is under 60 years old, due to disease and health concerns
 The slum is divided into communities by religion, with 60% Hindu, 33% Muslim and 6% Christian and 1% other
 Many businesses generate million dollar incomes (USD)
 Only men are allowed to work in the factories

Challenge 2: Providing clean water, sanitation systems and energy

 There is a lack of basic sanitation in Mumbai with only 1 toilet per 1,000 people on average in the unplanned
squatter settlements. Only better-off suburbs have private water supplies. 60% of Mumbai’s population uses
communal taps. In some slums, water only runs for 30 minutes’ day. Rapid urbanisation has also caused
uncontrolled water pollution. Factories use the Mithi River to dump untreated waste. 800 Million litres of
untreated sewage go into the river every day.
 80% of Mumbai’s waste is recycled. The recycling industry is worth US$1.5 a year and employed 10,000 people.
Children collect plastic, glass, cardboard, batteries, computer parts and soap.
 In workshops, small smelters recycle cans, and vats of waste soap from hotels are melted and remoulded into
bars.

Challenge 3: Providing access to services – health and education

 School Drop-out rates are high. Many youngsters, particularly in slum areas, are unable to pursue their education
as they must find a job to bring in some money to support their family.
 There are inadequate resources and declining standards in public institutions such as schools and hospitals.

Challenge 4: Reducing unemployment and crime

 Urbanisation is the main cause of unemployment. Economic growth has not been fast enough to create enough
jobs for the available workforce. Underemployment is common (people paid less than they should be for the task
that they do, with poor working standards).
 Mumbai has a large, unskilled and informal self-employed workforce. These are often unregulated workers,
e.g. street hawkers, street sellers, taxi drivers and mechanics. These workers do not pay any tax to the
government.
 Crime rates are high. Nearly one third of the population have been victims of crime. Corruption is rife and 22.9%
of citizens have been exposed to bribery.

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Challenge 5: Managing environmental issues – waste disposal, air and water pollution, traffic
congestion.

 Water pipes often run close to sewer lines. Leakages lead to contamination of water and the spread of water-
borne diseases. In Dharavi, children play amongst sewerage waste. Doctors deal with 4,000 cases a day of
typhoid and diphtheria.-Traffic congestion is legendary in India with not enough money being spent on roads.
 Mumbai has severe water shortages. Water is rationed. Standpipes often come on for two hours at 5.30 am and
are shared between many people.
 Many people often live far from their place of work and are dependent on public transport. Buses and trains
are always crammed. Roads are overcrowded with vehicles. The movement of traffic is very slow. Peak traffic
times can last several hours. Air pollution is high as old cars emit dirty and harmful fumes and there is little
regulation of emissions from factories. Sewerage waste is not always treated properly and drains into the sea.
Levels of PM10 (particulate matter which can cause asthma, bronchitis and cancer) are dangerously high (132
mg/m3; WHO’s recommendation is 20 mg/m3).
 There are too few suburban train and bus networks to meet demand. 3500 people die on Mumbai’s railway
each year. Most deaths are caused by passengers crossing tracks, sitting on train roofs and being electrocuted
by overhead cables, or hanging from doors and windows.
 Rubbish is frequently left in the streets. This attracts vermin, e.g. rats and flies. Poisonous liquids may leak and
contaminate ground water supplies.

An example of how urban planning is improving the quality of life for the urban poor.

Self Help Scheme Dharavi:

Within the shanty towns, the government has assisted people in improving their homes. Breeze blocks and other
materials (pipes for plumbing etc.) were given by the government as long as people updated their own homes. This is an
approach known as self-help housing. In other words, Councils provide materials for slum dwellers to improve their
houses, e.g. concrete for walls, roof tiles ,standpipes, toilets blocks, waste collection points health centres and schools
and the local people provide the labour.

Slum dwellers are also given legal ownership of land. This improves social and environmental conditions

It is cheaper and quicker than building every resident a proper house or rehousing them and keeps communities together
so they don't need to find new sites of land.

In some cases, the residents work with an architect to design their home or even plan a new house. This way the local
community is involved in the design and layout of the area and individual residents make decisions about their homes,
including the colour of outside walls. As one planner said, “this is a way of giving people what they want and keeping
communities together rather than knocking their houses down and splitting up the community by moving people to
different parts of the city.”

The work of NGO’s Mumbai

•The Indian NGO CORP (Community Outreach Programme) was set up in 1977

•CORP began with only one community centre and three staff members in Asia’s largest slum, Dharavi

•They now have 20 community centres in Mumbai and more than 70 staff members

•Their work focuses on education, health and nutrition, helping street children, vocational training and shelter.

•In 2012, they helped 29,000 people in Mumbai

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 Key Idea Specification Content

Urban change in Overview of the distribution of population and the major cities in the UK.
cities in the UK leads A case study of a major city in the UK (London) to illustrate:
to a variety of social,
economic and •the location and importance of the city in the UK and the wider world
environmental
opportunities •impacts of national and international migration on the growth and character of the city

How urban change has created opportunities:

 social and economic: cultural mix, recreation and entertainment, employment,
integrated transport systems
 environmental: urban greening

How urban change has created challenges:

 social and economic: urban deprivation, inequalities in housing, education, health and
employment
 environmental: dereliction, building on brownfield and greenfield sites, waste disposal
 the impact of urban sprawl on the rural–urban fringe, and the growth of commuter
settlements.

An example of an urban regeneration project (London 2012) to show:

 reasons why the area needed regeneration the main features of the project.

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Overview of the distribution of population and the major cities in the UK.

 The UK is one of the most urbanised countries in the world, with 82%
of the population living in our cities. This is typical of most HIC’s that
went through the process of urbanisation during the nineteenth and
twentieth centuries.
 When you look at a map of the UK’s population distribution you can
see that it is unevenly distributed.
 Some areas in the South East of England around London are densely
populated as are areas to the North West of England close to Liverpool
and Manchester.
 Other areas such as in the centre of Wales, the North of England near
the border with Scotland and in the North of Scotland are more
sparsely populated.
 Overall, the UK’s population density is 260 people per sq km, ranging
from about 5000 sq km in London to less than 10 sq km in northern
Scotland. This makes us one of the most densely populated countries
in Europe- more crowded than France, for example, but less crowded
than the Netherlands.
 The UKs cities are found in the most densely populated areas. They
tend to be located in flat low lying parts of the country, particularly on
the coast or near major rivers. Historically, this is where many cities
grew, supported by farming trades and industry.
 The fastest growing areas are in the South East and in particular the
biggest growth has been in London with over a million new people. On
the other hand, there has been a drop in population in North East
England in places such as Sunderland. This has been due to decline of
industry and therefore loss of jobs forcing people to move to find
work.

A case study of a major city in the UK – London

The location and importance of the city in the UK and the wider world:

Location: London is located in South East England on the River Thames. It is the site chosen by the Romans
when they conquered the South of England in 43AD. They built a walled settlement on the north bank
of the Thames to defend themselves against the defeated Britons. They called the settlement
Londinium and it became the capital of the Roman Colony in Britain.
Importance: National:
 Generates 22% of UK’s GDP
 The headquarters of many large international companies are located there: generates a huge
amount of money for the UK and a large number of job opportunities.
 London contains some of the top renowned universities and research centres such as the
London School of Economics and Imperial College London.
 Earnings and house prices in London have risen faster in London than anywhere else
widening the gap between London and the rest of the UK.
 392,400 people are employed in the City of London.
 841,000 private sector businesses were based in London at the start of 2013, more than in
any other region or country in the UK. 18 per cent are in the professional, scientific and
technical activities sector while 15 per cent are in the construction sector.

International:
 International transport links: this makes trade with other major economies much easier. It also
make it accessible for workers and tourists e.g. Heathrow, Gatwick and Stansted airports.
 London is one of the two most important financial centre in the world, with many large
international companies basing their headquarters there. Is known as a ‘World City’.
 London is a centre for tourism. In 2015 the city welcomed 17.4 million international visitors.

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  Once the largest port in the world, the Port of London is today the second-largest in the
United Kingdom, handling 48 million tonnes of cargo each year.
 529 foreign companies listed in London, representing 20% of the global foreign equity
listings.

The Impacts of national and international migration on the growth and character of the city

The population is higher than it has ever been. In 2015, London’s population reached 8.6 million

London’s population has been climbing again since 1991, it is likely to continue to grown and is predicted to reach 10
million by 2030 – which will make London one of the world’s megacities.

National Migration International Migration

For most of the past 200 years, the population has been Migrants from all around the world add to London’s
growing. In 1801, with just over a million people, it was population. The balance between people leaving and
already the largest city in the world. During the industrial people arriving is called net migration.
revolution, it grew as it attracted more migrants from other
parts of the UK. London is the most diverse city in the UK. Less than half
of London’s population are white British origin, while 37%
were born outside the UK.
London has a much younger population than the UK as
a whole which helps to explain why it is growing so Most immigrants into London are young, whilst most
rapidly.Younger people are likely to have children, which people leaving are older.
leads to a higher rate of natural increase.
Today, London’s population comes from every part of the
Young people in their 20s and 30s, especially university world. The largest numbers are from countries like India,
graduates, move to London, they are attracted by more Nigeria and Jamaica. Since 2007, more migrants have
job opportunities, higher pay and the expectation of an come from Eastern Europe, with the free movement of
exciting social life in London. people in the European Union.

How urban change has created opportunities

Social and Economic Opportunities:
Cultural mix Recreation and Employment Integrated transport
entertainment, systems
Shoreditch: Shoreditch: London Docklands: In an Integrated Transport
Shoreditch 30 years ago, attempt to tackle the problems Systems: basically means
Shoreditch was a that have arisen in East London making it easier and more
rundown inner city area (dereliction, poor housing, high convenient for people to
with many old factories unemployment, poverty), use different types of
national government has for public transport.
and warehouses. Most
over two decades directed
industries had closed
considerable investment into
down and people were
the area and published planning Congestion Charging:
moving out of the area. policy guidance to help co- Since 2003, drivers have
Shoreditch today is ordinate development activities. had to pay £8 a day to
almost unrecognisable The most significant public drive in the Central
from 30 years ago. Old investment has been directed
industrial buildings have through the LDDC, which has London Congestion
been converted into flats resulted in the major Zone. The money goes
and offices. Pubs and developments in and around towards improving public
bars have been brought Canary Wharf. transport.
back to life as
restaurants and art The number of jobs increased:
galleries. Jobs have In 1981= 27,000
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 Shoreditch today is been created in new In 2000= 90,000. Boris Bikes: Bike Hire –
almost unrecognisable creative industries like Unemployment fell from 14% the largest hire in a day is
from 30 years ago. Old web design, film making to 7.4 with a doubling in 75,000.
industrial buildings have and art. employment and numbers of
been converted into flats One focus of businesses;
-many new firms and financial Crossrail
and offices. Pubs and employment is around
institutions e.g. Stock Exchange, London is currently
bars have been brought the old street
ITV Studios, newspaper offices. undertaking one of the
back into life as roundabout. So many hi-
-many high-rise office blocks, biggest engineering
restaurants and art tech companies have esp. at Canary Wharf. projects in Europe by
galleries. Jobs have been appeared that it is building a railway from
created in new creative dubbed “Silicon east to west London
industries, such as wed Roundabout” under the city. This
design, film making and Many older residents and railway, called Crossrail,
art. Bangladeshi families are will decrease travel times
moving away as rent and cut congestion as
prices go up. In their more people use public
place, young transport.
professional workers,
many in the finance and
creative industries, are
moving in.
Notting hill Carnival: The process of rising
The Notting Hill Carnival is property prices and
an annual event that has changing population is
taken place in London since known as gentrification.
1966 on the streets of With new, younger
Notting Hill, in the Royal people there are now
Borough of Kensington and new forms of recreation
Chelsea, each August over and entertainment.
two days (the August bank
holiday Monday and the
preceding Sunday).It is led
by members of the British
West Indian community,
and attracts around one
million people annually,
making it one of the world's
largest street festivals, and
a significant event in Black
British culture

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Environmental Opportunities: Urban greening
 London is one of the world’s greenest cities! 47% of the city is green space, including parks, woodlands,
cemeteries and gardens.
 Central London Parks: London has more big parks than many cities e.g. Hyde
Park.
 Local Parks: these are run by the council.
 Many new homes are built on farmland, providing millions of new homes with
gardens (suburban growth)
Trees produce oxygen. There are 8.1 million trees in London – almost 1 per person and
green space reduces the risk of flooding.
They are a great habitat for wildlife. There are 13,000 wildlife species in London.
People enjoy open spaces and they keep us healthy as they are used for walked,
running, cycling and for sport.
Growing food: there are 30,000 allotments in London.

How urban change has created Social and economic challenges

Urban deprivation Inequalities in housing Education Employment

Despite years of economic London’s population is Children across London
success, inequalities still growing by about do not get equal exam 16% of Londoners are in the
exist. Differences in life 100,000 homes per grades, but some of the poorest tenth nationally, whilst
expectancy still exist. Low year, yet only 20,000 school’s in London’s 17% are in the richest tenth of
life expectancy in the most new homes are being poorest boroughs are people in the country
deprived parts of the city is built. The result is that amongst the fastest The richest 10% of people in
closely linked to poor diet, house prices are rising improving schools in the London have 60% of all assets
housing and education as faster in London than country. Generally, the whilst the poorest 80% of the
well as a lack of anywhere else in the schools in the poorest population share just 20% of all
employment. UK. areas score the lowest asset wealth in London
Despite the large wealth One possible solution is number of GCSE The top tenth of employees in
found in parts of London to build on greenfield points per pupil. London earn around four and a
many areas suffer from sites – usually farmland half times as much as the bottom
both Urban Decline and on the rural-urban tenth.
the people suffer from fringe. However,
deprivation. It is building on these sites
particularly hard for the can lead to urban sprawl
Health
poorest people to have a and is not very popular These huge differences in
decent standard of living with people. wealth result in big differences in
Similar inequalities exist
because the prices of many The alternative is to people’s access to and success
in terms of health. Life
things are more expensive, build on brownfield with in housing, education, health
expectancy rates are
especially rents which sites. There are many and employment
much higher in the
account for a huge areas like this that were Despite the huge wealth found in
wealthy London
proportion of peoples previously used for London unemployment remains a
boroughs e.g. Chelsea
incomes. It is clear that industry that has now major issue. London’s
compare to Newham
unemployment levels are declined. employment rate was just 67.5
and Tower Hamlets.
not evenly distributed or per cent in the period October to
spread out. Areas like December 2011, below the
Newham, Barking and average of 70.3 per cent for the
Dagenham and Tower UK. The unemployment rate was
Hamlets have the highest 10.0 per cent compared with 8.4
unemployment rates in the per cent for the UK
capital.

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Environmental Challenges in London:

Dereliction Building on brownfield and Waste disposal

greenfield sites*
There is a sizeable supply of London suffers from air pollution,
brownfield land in London, London’s population is growing by about mainly due to the sheer size of the
which to date remains 100,000 people very year, yet only about city, a dense road network and high
untapped. 20,000 new homes a year are being built. buildings. This means that central
This has led to a severe housing shortages London tends to be one of the most
Figures published by the in London. The result is that house prices polluted places in the UK.
Government recently are rising faster in London than anywhere
highlighted that there were else in the UK. Almost a quarter of London’s
some 250 hectares of waste still goes to landfill sites
brownfield sites, equivalent Up to 50,000 new London homes are to outside London. In the past this was
to an area just short of the size be built on 20 brownfield sites, in a £400m acceptable because the waste was
of Hyde Park that are not in scheme announced in 2014 by the out of sight, out of mind. Now, we
line for development of any Government. This includes an 85 hectare realise that landfill waste contributes
sort. former industrial site in Enfield Meridian to wider environmental problems,
Water in Enfield, north London, where 5,000 such as production of methane that
The Olympic Park for the homes, a new school and community adds to greenhouse gases in the
2012 Olympics is a good facilities are to be built. atmosphere.
example of how derelict land
can be brought back into use. More of London’s waste is now
recycled or incinerated.

*The impact of urban sprawl on the rural–urban fringe

The edges of cities are known as the rural urban fringe. There has been increasing building in these areas because of
housing pressure, despite Greenbelt legislation (laws) that are supposed to prevent building there. The growth outwards
of our cities into these regions is known as URBAN SPRAWL and can have many impacts on these areas;

• Extra cost to the tax payer – the public help to pay for infrastructure such as roads and water works to allow building
developments to go ahead.

• Increased Traffic – extra people in these areas means that cars are used more often, which means that there is more
traffic on the roads, and there is also more air pollution and more accidents

• Health Issues – people in these areas often have to commute to work which means that they often travel by car. This
can have negative impacts on people’s health such as high blood pressure.

• Environmental Issues -sprawling cities consume land, and this displaces animals from their habitat

• Impact on Social Lives – people in sprawling communities can often live further from their neighbours, this can cause
isolation.

The Growth of commuter settlements - St Ives Cambridgeshire, 100km north of London

•The town St. Ives is around 100km north of London,it lies on the A1123 , 8 km east of Huntingdon and just 25km
northwest of Cambridgeshire.

•The town is close to both the A1 trunk road and the main east coast railway line, making regular access to London easy.

•It has affordable housing and with the good transport links makes it the perfect location for commuters to London, these
people generally move into the town centre for easy access to services and transport links to their works.

•Commuting to London increased during the 1990's and now 25% of St.Ives population commute to work in London daily.

•The railway line was electrified and journey times were reduced.

•The station at Huntington, just outside St.Ives is a 50 minute journey away from Kings Cross in London which makes
travelling to work easy.
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•An annual rail ticket costs £3,920 but because housing in London is so expensive the costs for this are saved with the
housing in St.Ives.

An example of an urban regeneration – London 2012 Olympic Legacy project to show:

Reasons why the area needed regeneration The main features of the project.
Social
Part of the aims of the Olympics was to completely The athletes’ village has been relaunched as a housing
transform an area of East London that is lagging behind estate called the East Village, the rooms have had
the rest, East London. kitchens added and walls knocked through. Almost half
of these 2,818 new homes (40%) will be affordable.
Many of the Docks had closed down so unemployment Eventually the whole Olympic Parkland will become five
was high. The idea was to leave a lasting legacy or impact new neighbourhoods housing 8,000 people.
not just for sport but for the urban area in the East of
London. Economic
The Olympics brought more than £9bn of investment to
The areas hosting the Olympics like Stratford and nearby east London, much of which went into transport. Lloyds
Tower Hamlets were in dire need of regeneration as they TSB estimated that the Olympics will generate £10 billion
had; in extra income for the UK economy
ALL of the Olympic venues have been sold. The final
• a lot of abandoned old industrial sites, building to be sold off was the £300m media centre, which
• low achievement at school in terms of GCSE points will now primarily house Infinity – a data company who
score want to store information for large corporations.
• industrial wastelands,
• higher than average unemployment than the rest of Environmental
London and Many of the grounds in the Olympic Park have been kept
• higher deprivation and poverty for the people that as parkland and are open to the public for use as a
lived there picnicking and play area. New green spaces and wildlife
habitats were created, including ponds, woodlands, and
artificial otter holes.
The stadiums were made of at least 25% recycled
materials
The River Lea that runs through the Olympic Park was
improved as has the quality of its water. Green areas
were placed along the banks of the river.

Obstacles to be overcome for London 2012:

- The land had to be brought together under one new owner, the Olympic
Delivery Authority (ODA), set up by the government.
- Existing landowners and users had to leave the site by 2007. Some of them
protested.
- Land that was previously polluted by industry had to be decontaminated first.
- pylons has to be removed and overhead cables buried below ground to
improve the appearance.
- Waterways and railways crisscrossed the site, so bridges were built to link the area together.

Key Idea Specification Content

Urban sustainability requires the Features of sustainable living:

management of resources and  Water and energy conservation
transport.  Waste recycling
 Creating green space

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 How urban transport strategies are used to reduce traffic
congestion.

Features of sustainable urban living:

Many people are working towards trying to make cities more sustainable.

A sustainable city offers a good quality of life to current residents but doesn't reduce the opportunities for future
residents to enjoy. It is environmentally friendly.

Key features of a sustainable city

 Resources and services in the city are accessible to all.

 Public transport is seen as a viable alternative to cars.
 Public transport is safe and reliable.
 Walking and cycling is safe.
 Areas of open space are safe, accessible and enjoyable.
 Wherever possible, renewable resources are used instead of non-renewable resources.
 Waste is seen as a resource and is recycled wherever possible.
 New homes are energy efficient.
 There is access to affordable housing.
 Community links are strong and communities work together to deal with issues such as crime and security.
 Cultural and social amenities are accessible to all.
 Inward investment is made to the CBD.

Eco Communities – BedZED

The Beddington Zero Energy Development (BedZED) near Croyden, Greater London, is the largest eco-community in the
UK.They are aiming to be a carbon zero community.

Ways in which the houses are sustainable:

Water and energy conservation Waste recycling Creating green space.

Energy efficient—The houses face Waste recycling —Refuse-collection Even though BedZED is, by suburban
south to take advantage of solar gain, facilities are designed to support standards, a high density
are triple glazed, and have high recycling by separating out the development, most homes have
thermal insulation. rubbish. Compost is used in the private outdoor space and many have
allotments. small gardens. The whole
Water efficient —Most rain water development shares a square and a
falling on the site is collected and large playing field.
reused. Appliances are chosen to be
water-efficient and use recycled water
when possible. Low-impact
materials—Building materials were
selected from renewable or recycled
sources within 35 miles of the site, to
minimize the energy required for
transportation.

Renewable energy is used with solar

panels on the roof.

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 How urban transport strategies are used to reduce traffic congestion.
London Congestion Charge

Drivers are charged for driving in the congestion charge zone in central London. The aim is to discourage drivers from
using the zone during peak hours and use public transport instead, thereby reducing congestion, the time spent in
queues, the pollution generated and the cost to the economy. The money generated is used to improve public transport,
eg older London buses which generate more pollution have been removed from service.

The results:

 Traffic congestion, accidents, and pollution levels have all been reduced.
 There has been increased investment in public transport.
 Bus services are more reliable.
 Retail sales inside the congestion charging zone have increased.

London Crossrail

Crossrail is delivering a new railway that will maintain London’s place as a world-class city. It will bring an additional 1.5
million people within 45 minutes commuting distance of London's key business districts.

Twenty-six miles of new tunnels now weave through London’s complex underground network. Ten new stations along
with all the infrastructure and systems will be ready for passengers in 2018.

The Impacts of Cross Rail (Evaluation):

 Reduced journey times – journey time from Heathrow to Liverpool St will fall from over an hour to 35 minutes.
 Increase the number of rail passenger journeys in London by 10% (or an extra 200 million journeys a year).
 Bring an extra 1.5 million people within a 45 minute journey of central London, increasing the number of people who
can commute to work in London.
 Improve the integrated transport system in London by providing more interchanges within the underground network.
 Raise property values by about 25%.

 It is estimated cost between £27 and £34 million!

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