SKELETAL SYSTEM

The Skeleton
1. Do babies have more bones than adult humans?

2. If yes what happen to these bones?

3. How many bones are in the human skeleton?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tYqL1ajCu6s

The skeletal system is your body's central framework. It consists of

bones and connective tissue, including cartilage, tendons, and ligaments.
It's also called the musculoskeletal system. Bone is a living tissue with
a blood supply. It is constantly being dissolved and formed, and it can
repair itself if a bone is broken.

Function of the Skeleton

4. Identify THREE functions of the skeletal system

The skeleton has FIVE main functions:

1. Support 2. Protection
3. Movement 4. Production
5. Storage
Major Structures of the Skeleton
 Bones: A bone is a rigid tissue that constitutes part of the
vertebrate skeleton in animals. Bones protect the various organs of
the body, produce red and white blood cells, store minerals,
provide structure and support for the body, and enable mobility.

 Cartilage: Cartilage is a flexible connective tissue that keeps joint

motion fluid by coating the surfaces of the bones in our joints and
by cushioning bones against impact. Elastic cartilage functions to
provide support and maintain the shape of flexible body parts like
our ears and larynx.
 Tendon: Tendon is a highly organized connective tissue joining
muscle to bone, capable of resisting high tensile forces while
transmitting forces from muscle to bone.

 Ligament: A ligament is a fibrous connective tissue which

attaches bone to bone, and usually serves to hold structures
together and keep them stable.

 Joints: A joint is the part of the body where two or more bones
meet to allow movement.
Major Categories of the Skeletal System
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ruDr0FyAgkg
Axial and Appendicular Skeleton
The bones of the human skeleton are divided into TWO groups:

 Axial Skeleton includes all the bones of the skull, vertebral

column and the sternum:
-The skull is made up of the cranium and upper jaw which is fused, and
then lower jaw which articulates with the upper jaw.
-The vertebral column is composed of 33 bones knows as vertebrae.
The spinal cord runs through the vertebral columns. The vertebral
column supports the body, provides attachment for girdles and many
muscles, and protects the spinal cord.

-The ribs are attached to the vertebral column dorsally and the sternum
ventrally. The rib cage protects the heart, lungs and the movement of the
ribs during breathing.
  Appendicular Skeleton includes the pectoral girdle, the arms and
the legs.
-The girdles connect the limbs the axial skeleton and have broad flat
surfaces for the attachment of muscles. The pelvic girdle is fused to the
bottom of the vertebral column to provide support.
-The limbs are composed of the long bones which have joints between
to allow for movement. Being long, the bones provide a large surface
area for attachment of muscles.
Bones
 Bones are living, active tissues that are constantly being
remodeled.

 Bones have many functions:

-They support the body structurally

-Protect our vital organs, and allow us to move.

-Provide an environment for bone marrow, where the blood cells

are created,

-They act as a storage area for minerals, particularly calcium.

*At birth, we have around 270 soft bones. As we grow, some of these
fuses. Once we reach adulthood, we have 206 bones.

 The largest bone in the human body is the thighbone or femur, and
the smallest is the stapes in the middle ear, which are just 3

 Bones are mostly made of the protein collagen, which forms a soft

framework. The mineral calcium phosphate hardens this
framework, giving it strength. More than 99 percent of our body’s
calcium is held in our bones and teeth.
Types of Bones

 Long Bones: These are mostly compacted bone with little marrow

and include most of the bones in the limbs. These bones tend to
support weight and help movement.

 Short Bones: Only a thin layer of compact bone, these include

bones of the wrist and ankle.

 Flat Bones: Usually bones that are thin and curved. They consist
of two outer layers of compact bone and an inner layer of spongy
bone. Flat bones include most of the bones of the skull and the
sternum or breastbone. They tend to have a protective role.

 Sesamoid Bones: These are embedded in tendons, such as the

patella or kneecap. They protect tendons from wear and stress.

 Irregular bones: As their name implies, these are bones that do

not fit into the first four categories and are an unusual shape. They
include the bones of the spine and pelvis. They are often protecting
organs or tissues.
The Structure of Bones

Bones are composed of TWO types of tissue:

1. Compact Bone: A hard outer layer that is dense, strong, and durable.
It makes up around 80 percent of adult bone mass.

2. Spongy Bone: This consists of a network of trabeculae or rod-like

structures. It is lighter, less dense, and more flexible than compact bone.
Parts of the Bone

 Shaft: long, hollow and cylindrical, which reduces the chances of

breakage across the bone.

 Articular cartilage is a thin layer of specialized connective tissue

with unique viscoelastic properties. Its principal function is to
provide a smooth, lubricated surface for low friction articulation.

 Spongy Bone: composed of structural network of bony processes

with red bone marrow between. It helps to withstand stress in all
directions.

 Compact Bone: compact bone forms the hard-external layer of

all bones and surrounds the medullary cavity, or bone marrow. It
provides protection and strength to bones. 

 Periosteum: is a very thin membrane that covers many of the

bones in your body. It serves as protection as well as a channel for
the blood supply and nutrients for bone tissue.

 Bone Marrow: is the soft, spongy tissue that is located in the

medullary cavities (centers) of certain large bones. Healthy bone
marrow is an essential part of the body, as it contains stem cells
that produce blood cells and the cells that make up the immune
system.
Tendons and Ligaments

Tendons and ligaments are thick bands of tissue comprising collagen.

They both help stabilize body structures and facilitate body movements.

Tendons Ligaments

Fibrous tissue that attaches Fibrous tissue that attaches bones to

muscles to bones. bones.

Inelastic or cause the bones to Slightly elastic.

move when contracts.

Ligaments are located at joints. Tendons provide connections

between the muscles and bones
allowing movement to different
parts of the body.

Injuries that Affect Ligamnets and Tendons

Tendon and ligament injuries are common. Several factors can increase
the risk of injury, including:

 Overuse, such as through playing sports

 Trauma from a fall or blow
 Twisting the tendon or ligament into an awkward position
Muscles and Movement

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qwnySVtllTA

Muscles and nerve fibers allow us to move our bodies. They enable our
internal organs to function. The human body has over 600 muscles,
which make up around 40 percent of our bodyweight.

Types of Muscle

Humans and other vertebrates have skeletal, smooth, and cardiac

muscles.

 Skeletal Muscle – the specialised tissue that is attached to bones

and allows movement.
 Smooth Muscle – located in various internal structures including
the digestive tract, uterus and blood vessels such as arteries.
 Cardiac Muscle – the muscle specific to the heart.
To relieve symptoms of a muscle injury, apply RICE:

 Rest: Take a break from physical activity

 Ice: Apply an ice pack for 20 minutes several times a day
 Compression: A compression bandage can reduce swelling
 Elevation: Raise the affected part to reduce swelling.

Movement of a Limb
5. Which muscle is utilized in the movement of a limb?

Skeletal muscle tissue is attached to the skeleton and brings about

movement. Its contraction is under conscious control and these muscles
work in pairs against each other (Antagonistic).
There are at least TWO types of skeletal muscles fibers:
1. Slow Twitch Fibers
-These mainly use fatty acids as their source of energy and fatigue
slowly. They develop more in distance running athletes.

2. Fast Twitch Fibers

-These mainly use glucose as their source of energy aNd because
they lack an energy store, they fatigue quickly. They develop more
in sprinting athletes.
Antagonistic Muscles

Muscles can only pull and cannot push. This would be a problem if a
joint were controlled by just one muscle. As soon as the muscle had
contracted and pulled on a bone, that would be it, with no way to move
the bone back again. This problem is solved by having muscles in pairs,
called antagonistic muscles.

 Point of Origin-the point of attachment of a muscle to the bone

that does NOT move when the muscle contracts.
 Point of Insertion-the point of attachment of a muscle to the bone
moves when the muscles contracts.
Biceps and Triceps
Properties Biceps Triceps
Location Lies above humerus Lies at the back of the
humerus
Point of Origin 2 points on the 3 pints (2 on the upper
scapula humerus and 1 on the
scapula)
Point of Insertion Radius Ulna

For example, your elbow joint has two muscles that move your forearm
up or down. These are the biceps on the front of the upper arm and the
triceps on the back of the upper arm:

 To raise the forearm, the biceps contracts and shortens and pulls
on the radius, while the scapula golds firm and the triceps
relaxes.
 To lower the forearm again, the triceps contracts and shortens,
ulna is drawn near to the scapula and the biceps relaxes.

Another example of a pair of antagonistic muscles is found in your legs.

Here your quadriceps and hamstrings work together.
Joints
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NF51ioK6U14
-Joints are the point at which TWO bones meet. Joints are classified
based on their range of movement.
Types of Joints
1. Fixed or Immovable Joints: no movement such as skull and pelvis
2. Slightly Movable Joints: allows small movement about a point such
as vertebral column
3. Freely Movable (Synovial) Joints: allows friction free movement
such as:
 Hinge Joint: movement in one plane such as in elbow and knee.
 Pivot Joint: rotation such as in the neck.
 Ball and Socket Joint: movement in any plane such as the
shoulders and hip.
 Gliding Joint: have flat articulate surfaces that slides over each
other wrist.

The Synovial Joint

If two bones just moved against each other, they would eventually wear
away. This can happen in people who have a condition called arthritis.
To stop this happening, the ends of the bones in a joint are covered with
a tough, smooth substance called cartilage. This is kept slippery by a
liquid called synovial fluid. Tough ligaments join the two bones in the
joint and stop the joint falling apart.

Functions:
 Hold the end of bones together
 Reduce friction between bones
 Absorb shock between bones

Effect of Exercise on the Skeletal System

-Improves muscle tone, which is the unconscious low-level contraction

of muscles while they are at rest. Good muscle tone is important as it
maintains balance and good upright posture and also keeps the muscles
in an active coordination.
-It increases production of synovial fluid in joints which keeps the,
healthy, reduces friction and increases flexibility.
-It improves strength and electricity of the ligaments, which increases
the range of movement at joint.
-It stimulates the growth of muscle tissue, which increase muscle size
and strength.
-It encourages bone to lay down more mineral matter to become denser
and this reducing fracture and osteoporosis.

Factors Affecting the Skeletal System

1. Diet
 Protein is needed for collagen fibers
 Calcium and phosphorus are needed to harden bone matric
 Vitamin D stimulates the uptake of calcium from the gut
 Deficiencies in calcium and vitamin D can lead to
osteoporosis
 People who consume more energy than required store fat that
adds weight to the body and increases strain on muscle

2. Posture
 Posture refers to the relative position of different parts of the
body. Good posture allows the muscles to use little energy to
maintain the position of the body. Poor posture puts strain on
the muscles, causing them to lose tone. More energy is
needed by the muscles to keep the body upright, leading to
fatigue and backache.
3. Obesity
 Excess body fat puts more strain on the skeleton, especially
the joints. People who are overweight and obese increase the
risk of developing arthritis.

4. Arthritis
 Painful conditions in which the cartilage becomes worn and
ligaments become distorted.

5. Osteoporosis
 Osteoporosis is a bone disease that occurs when the body
loses too much bone, makes too little bone, or both. As a
result, bones become weak and may break from a fall.

6. Foot Wear
 High heeled shoes cause bad posture by putting strain on the
leg muscles.
 Corns are caused when toes rub against the inside of the
shoes. An untreated can cause blisters, or arthritis etc.
 Bunions are caused by wearing narrow, pointed or high
heeled shoes that leads to joints at the base of the big toes to
become deformed.
 Hammer toe occurs when the big toe is pushed inwards and
crushes the adjacent toe causing it to bend and point
downwards.
Locomotion
Movement is the temporary or permanent displacement of a body or its
parts from its original position. Locomotion, on the other hand, is the
displacement of the entire body from one place to another.

Locomotion is important because it helps us to:

 Move away from impeding danger
 Find food
 Exercise
 Reproduce (finding mate)