PROBABILITY THEORY
AND
RANDOM PROCESSESS
(18B11MA314)
UNIT-1 BASIC PROBABILITY [CO-1]
Lecture-1
Contents:
• Introduction
• Random Experiments
• Three Basic Approaches to Probability
INTRODUCTION
• Probability deals with unpredictability and randomness, and
probability theory is the branch of mathematics that is
concerned with the study of random phenomena.
• A random phenomenon is one that, under repeated
observation, yields different outcomes that are not
deterministically predictable.
• Examples of these random phenomena include the number of
electronic mail (e-mail) messages received by all employees of
a company in one day, the number of phone calls arriving at
the university’s switchboard over a given period, the number
of components of a system that fail within a given interval,
and the number of A’s that a student can receive in one
academic year.
APPLICATIONS
• Probability provides mathematical models for
random phenomena and experiments, such
as: gambling, stock market, packet
transmission in networks, electron emission,
signal processing , communication ,
communication networks, reliability of
systems , noise in circuits, artificial
intelligence, statistical mechanics, etc.
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
• Probability has an amazing history. A practical gambling
problem faced by the French nobleman Chevalier de
Méré sparked the idea of probability in the mind of Blaise
Pascal (1623-1662), the famous French mathematician.
Pascal's correspondence with Pierre de Fermat (1601-1665),
another French Mathematician in the form of seven letters in
1654 is regarded as the genesis of probability.
• Early mathematicians like Jakob Bernoulli (1654-1705),
Abraham de Moivre (1667-1754), Thomas Bayes (1702-1761)
and Pierre Simon De Laplace (1749-1827) contributed to the
development of probability.
• Later mathematicians like Chebyshev (1821-1894), Markov
(1856-1922), Von Mises (1883-1953), Norbert Wiener (1894-
1964) and Kolmogorov (1903-1987) contributed to new
developments.
RANDOM EXPERIMENTS
• If phenomenon or process of observations
which can be repeated any number of times
under essentially the same conditions, is
called an experiment.
• The results of an observation are called the
outcomes of the experiment.
• Each performance of an experiment is called a
trial.
RANDOM EXPERIMENTS
• A deterministic experiment is an experiment whose
outcome or result is known with certainty or
predictable, i.e., result is unique.
e.g. Ohm’s law I = E/R determines the current uniquely
(with certainty).
• A probabilistic or non-deterministic or random
experiment is an experiment whose outcome or result
is not unique and therefore cannot be predicted with
certainty.
e.g. Tossing of a coin, head or tail may occur, Throwing
a die 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6 may appear, Life-time of a
computer system, etc.
RANDOM EXPERIMENTS: DEFINITION
• An experiment is a process of measurement
or observation, in a laboratory, in a factory, on
the street, in nature, or wherever; so
experiment” is used in a rather general sense.
Our interest is in experiments that involve
randomness, chance effects, so that we cannot
predict a result exactly.
• Def.: “If each trial has more than one possible
outcomes or results then experiment is called
random experiment”.
RANDOM EXPERIMENTS
• The set of all possible outcomes of a random
experiment is called the sample space or universal set.
It is denoted by S.
• An element in S is called a sample point.
Each outcome of a random experiment corresponds to
a sample point.
e.g. Tossing of coin is a random experiment, sample
space is, S = {H, T }, and sample points are H and T.
e.g. Throwing a die is a random experiment, sample
space is, S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and sample points are
1,2,3,4,5 and 6.
RANDOM EXPERIMENTS
• Event is a subset of a sample space.
e.g. In a random experiment of tossing a die,
some events are as follows;
E1 = {odd number} = {1, 3, 5}
E2 = {even number} = {2, 4, 6}
E3 = {prime number} = {2, 3, 5}
E4 = {number greater than 2} = {3, 4, 5, 6}
RANDOM EXPERIMENTS
• Mutually Exclusive Events : Two events A and B are said to be
mutually exclusive if A and B can not happen (occur) simultaneously,
i.e., A B i.e., A and B are disjoint.
e.g. Events of getting an even number and an odd number in rolling a
fair die are mutually exclusive events.
• Mutually Exhaustive Events : A list of events A1 , A2 ,....,An are said to
be collectively exhaustive if
n
Ai S , Ai Aj i j
i 1
e.g. Events of getting an even number and an odd number in rolling a
fair die are mutually exhaustive events.
• Universal Event: The entire sample space S is called a universal (or
certain or sure) event. e.g. getting a tail or head in tossing a fair coin.
• Impossible Event: The null set φ is called the null or impossible event.
e.g. getting 7 in rolling a fair die.
EXAMPLE: 1
• Consider a random experiment of tossing a
coin three times.
• Outcomes are Head (H) and Tail (T)
• Space as result of three successive tosses is
S= {HHH, HHT, HTH, HTT, THH, THT, TTH, TTT}
• The event “two heads and one tail” is
E= {HHT, HTH, THH}
• Event “at least one head” is
S= {HHH, HHT, HTH, HTT, THH, THT, TTH}
EXAMPLE:2
• Consider a random experiment of rolling a dice twice or rolling two dice
together
• Sample space is as follows:
S = { (1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (1,4), (1,5), (1,6), (2,1), (2,2), (2,3), (2,4), (2,5), (2,6),
(3,1), (3,2), (3,3), (3,4), (3,5), (3,6), (4,1), (4,2), (4,3), (4,4), (4,5), (4,6),
(5,1), (5,2), (5,3), (5,4), (5,5), (5,6), (6,1), (6,2), (6,3), (6,4), (6,5), (6,6) }
(1,1) (1,2) (1,3) (1,4) (1,5) (1,6)
(2,1) (2,2) (2,3) (2,4) (2,5) (2,6)
(3,1) (3,2) (3,3) (3,4) (3,5) (3,6)
S
(4,1) (4,2) (4,3) (4,4) (4,5) (4,6)
(5,1) (5,2) (5,3) (5,4) (5,5) (5,6)
(6,1) (6,2) (6,3) (6,4) (6,5) (6,6)
• Event “sum of two numbers is 9” is E = {(3,6), (4,5), (5,4), (6,3)}
EXAMPLE:3
• Life span of a component in an electronic
device.
– Sample space
S = {x | 0 ≤ x < ∞}
– Event : “Not more than 10 hours” is defined as
E= {x | 0 ≤ x < 10 (hours)}
THREE BASIC APPROACHES TO
PROBABILITY
• Different approaches:
– Objective : based on experimental data
– Subjective: based on experience
• Defined in three ways:
– Classical Definition
– Relative Frequency Definition
– Axiomatic definition
CLASSICAL DEFINITION
• Mathematical or classical or a priori probability : If an event E can
happen in m ways out of possible n mutually exclusive and
exhaustive and equally likely ways then probability of event E,
denoted by, P (E) is defined asm
P E p
n
• The probability of non-occurrence of event E (called its failure),
denoted by P (not E) or q and is defined as
P E q 1 p 1
m
n
• Thus, p + q = 1 and 0 ≤ p ≤ 1 and 0 ≤ q ≤ 1.
• Probability of a certain (sure) event is n /n = 1.
• Probability of an impossible (null) event is 0 /n = 0.
CLASSICAL DEFINITION:FAILURE CONDITIONS
• This definition fails when
(i) The outcomes are not equally likely i.e. we
can predict the outcome of a random
experiment in advanced.
(ii) Numbers of outcomes is infinite (not
exhaustive).
RELATIVE FREQUENCY DEFINITION
• Statistical or Empirical or Estimated (Von Mises)
Probability: Consider a random experiment is performed
n times. If an event A occurs nA times, then
Relative Frequency = n A , then P(A) lim nA
n n n
e.g. Let 512 heads appeared in 1000 tosses of an unbiased
coin in first experiment, then p 512 0.512
1
1000
Again in second experiment 499 heads appeared in 1000
tosses then p 512 499 1011 0.5055
1000 1000
2
2000
RELATIVE FREQUENCY
DEFINITION:FAILURE CONDITIONS
• This definition fails when
(i) limit does not exist or
(ii) limit is not unique.
AXIOMATIC DEFINITION OF PROBABILITY
• If a random experiment has a sample space S then
for each event A of S the probability of occurring of
A is a real number P(A) such that the following
conditions hold:
– Axiom 1: 0 ≤ P(A) ≤ 1
– Axiom 2: P(S) = 1
– Axiom 3: For any set of n mutually exclusive events A₁,
A₂, A₃, ..... , An of the same sample space
P(A₁UA₂UA₃U ....UAn)= P(A₁)+P(A₂)+P(A₃)+ .... +P(An)
• This definition was given by A.N.Kolmogorov in 1933,
who developed the axiomatic probability theory.
EXAMPLE
Two fair dice are tossed. Find the probability of each of following:
a) Sum of outcomes of two dice is 5
b) Sum of outcomes of two dice is 7 or 11
c) Outcome of second die is less than first die.
Solution: Sample space, N= 36
S = { (1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (1,4), (1,5), (1,6), (2,1), (2,2), (2,3), (2,4),
(2,5), (2,6), (3,1), (3,2), (3,3), (3,4), (3,5), (3,6), (4,1), (4,2), (4,3),
(4,4), (4,5), (4,6), (5,1), (5,2), (5,3), (5,4), (5,5), (5,6), (6,1), (6,2),
(6,3), (6,4), (6,5), (6,6) }
a) Event A "sum of outcomes of two dice is 5"
A = { (1,4), (2,3), (3,2), (4,1 } NA = 4 P(A) = 4/36 = 1/9
b) Event B "sum of outcomes of two dice is 7 or 11
B = { (1,6), (2,5), (3,4), (4,3), (5,2), (6,1), (5,6), (6,5) }
NB = 8 P(B)= 8/36 =2/9
c) Event C "Outcome of second die is less than first die"
C = { (2,1), (3,1), (3,2), (4,1), (4,2), (4,3), (5,1), (5,2), (5,3), (5,4), (6,1),
(6,2), (6,3), (6,4), (6,5)}
NC = 15 P(C) = 15/36 = 5/12
d) Event D "Outcomes of both dice are odd"
D = { (1,1), (1,3), (1,5), (3,1), (3,3), (3,5), (5,1), (5,3), (5,5) }
ND = 9 P(D) = 9/36 = ¼
This problem can also be solved by considering two dimensional
display of sample space.
