PRESSURE
The absolute pressure - Pabs - is measured relative to the absolute zero
pressure - the pressure that would occur at absolute vacuum. All calculation
involving the gas laws requires pressure (and temperature) to be in absolute
units.
Gauge Pressure
A gauge is often used to measure the pressure difference between a system
and the surrounding atmosphere. This pressure is often called the gauge
pressure and can be expressed as
pgauge = psystem - patm
Atmospheric Pressure
Atmospheric pressure is pressure close to the surface of the earth.
Atmospheric pressure varies with temperature and altitude above mean sea
level (msl). The Standard Atmospheric Pressure is defined at sea-level at 273K
(0°C) and is 1.01325 bar or 101325 Pa (absolute).
1 atm = 1.01325 bar
= 101.3 kPa = 1.013 x 105Pa
= 14.696 psi (lbf/in2)
= 760 mmHg
HEAT
Heat when absorbed by any physical matter causes an increase in its Internal
Energy (measure of disorded at the molecular/atomic levels) and raises its
Temperature (degree of Hotness/Coldness).
In the Briitish system (Imperial), the unit of heat is Calorie which is defined as
the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of water by
1oC.
The SI unit of heat is Joule which is the amount of heat energy that is required
to raise the temperature of a unit weight (1 kg) of water by 1oC.
1 kcal = 4186.8 J (Thermal Units) = 427 kg-m (Work Units)
= 3.9683 Btu
= 1000 cal
Specific Heat or Heat Capacity is a characteristic of a substance. It is the
amount of heat required to change its temperature of a unit mass of the
substance (1 kg) by one degree.
The SI unit specific heat is J/kg K (joule per kilogram per kelvin). In the English
system, the units are British thermal units per pound per degree Fahrenheit
(Btu/lb °F). Its also expressed as Kcal/kg °C
The amount of heat needed to heat a substance from one temperature level to
another (without any transition in its physical state) may be expressed as:
Q = m c dT where
Q = amount of heat (kJ)
c = specific heat (kJ/kg.K)
m = mass (kg)
dT = temperature difference (K)
Specific Heat of Water in Pre SI units & SI Units are:
(Kcal/ kg°C) (KJ/kg K)
C (ice) 0.59 2.108
C (water) 1 4.186
C (steam) 0.5 2.0
Latent Heat (h): The Latent heat of a unit mass of any substance is the amount
of heat that must be absorbed or given away by the substance for effecting a
change in its physical state without any rise or fall in its temperature.
Expressed in Kcal/kg or KJ/kg
Latent heat of Fusion hfusion: Ice to Water or Water to Ice
Latent heat of Vapourisation hvap: Water to Steam & vice versa
The values of hf and hvap of Water are as follows:
hf 80 Kcal/kg 334 KJ/kg
hvap 537 2260
PROPERTIES OF WATER (T-H Diagram)
Critical point: The critical point occurs at 374.15°C and 221.2 Bar. It is the
highest temperature at which water exists in the liquid phase. Above it lie
states that cannot really be described as liquid or vapour.
Saturation region: The saturation region is the region in which water and
steam co-exist. This is because of an incomplete evaporation of water to
steam.
This liquid & vapour mixture is also known as wet steam. As we move from the
left towards the right in this zone, the Dryness Fraction of Wet Steam gradually
increases till it is 1 on the Dry saturated line.
Liquid saturation line and vapour saturation line: These lines border the
saturation region, and meet at the critical point. To the left of the Liquid sat
line, water exists in the liquid phase & to the right of the Vapour sat line, it
exists as Dry Steam.
Numericals
(On specific & Latent Heat)
A pressure gauge mounted on an aircon reads 0.3 Bar. If the Atm pr is assumed
as 101.3 KPa, determine the Absolute pressure.
Tip: (1 atm = 1.013 x 105 Pa), (Abs pr = Atm pr + Gauge pr)
An Ice plant produces 20 kgs of ice per hourat -4oC from water at 25oC.
Calculate the heat removed & power rating of the compressor.
Given: Temp of Water (T2) = 25°C – 298K
Temp of Ice produced = -4°C = 269K
Plant output = 20kg/hr = 0.33kg/min
In Joule Units
Heat extracted may be expressed by the formula:
m.C.(T2 - Tice) + m.hfus + m.C.(Tice - T1)
= (0.33 x 4.186 x 25) + (0.33 x 334) + (0.33 x 2 x 4) KJ/kg/min
= 34.53 + 110.22 + 2.64
= 147.39 KJ/kg/min
We know that
4186.8 J = 427 kg-m
1J = 0.1019 kg-m
Therefore, 147390 J = 15031.89 kg-m
Power rating of the compressor = Work done (kg-m) per minute/4500 HP
= 15031.89/4500
= 3.34 HP
In Calorie Units
m.C.(T2 - Tice) + m.hfus + m.C.(Tice - T1)
= (0.33 x 1 x 25) + (0.33 x 80) + (0.33 x 1 x 4) KCal/kg/min
= 8.25 + 26.4 + 1.32
= 35.97 Kcal/kg/min
We know that 1 Kcal = 427 kg-m
So, Q = 35.97 x 427 = 15359 kg-m/min (Work Done)
Compressor Rating (HP) = WD (in kg-m/min)/4500
= 3.413 HP
Numerical
Superheated steam at 250°C is used to power the steam turbine of a
locomotive. If steam exits at 120°C, calculate the Work done/kg of steam.
Given: Temp of Superheated steam T2 = 250°C = 523 K
Temp of steam at exhaust T1 = 120°C = 393 K
Sp heat of steam Csteam = 2 KJ/kgK = 0.5 Kcal/Kg°C
Mass of steam (m) = 1 kg
We know that Q = m.C.( T2 – T1) (Thermal energy converted to Work done)
In Calorie Units
Q = 1 x 0.5 x 130 = 65 Kcal
WD = 65 x 427 kg-m = 27755 kg-m (1 Kcal = 427 kg-m)
In Joule Units
Q = 1 x 2 x 130 = 260 KJ = 260,000J
WD = 260,000 x 0.1019 kg-m = 26494 kg-m (I J = 0.1019 kg-m)
Terms & Definitions
What is the difference between a gas & a vapour?
Gases are elements/compounds that occur in nature in the gaseous state.
Solids & liquids when completely evaporated are referred to as vapour. Eg.
Steam, Mercury, Sodium etc.
Define Perfect Gas.: A Perfect Gas is one that obeys all Gas Laws. Liquids like
water when completely evaporated behave as perfect gases.
Define Triple point.:The Triple point of a substance is temperature & Pressure
at which the three phases (solid, liquis & gas) of that substance coexist in
perfect Thermodynamic Equilibrium.
Eg. for water, the triple point is at 0.01°C and 0.6112 kPa.
Ice, water and steam can co-exist at this temperature and pressure.
What is the Critical point of water?
It is the highest temperature at which water exists in the liquid phase which is
374.15°C and 221.2 Bar.
Define Absolute zero.: Absolute Zero is the temperature at which the Entropy
of all matter is zero. The volume of all perfect gases becomes zero. With
respect to the 3rd Law of Thermodynamics, Absolute zero is unachievable &
equal to 0 Kelvin.
Write the expression for converting Centigrade reading to Farheneit.
C/100 = F-32/180
How is the quality of steam expressed?
Dryness Fraction (Ʈ). It is defined as the ratio of the mass of Dry steam to the
mass of Wet steam under study.
What is the degree of Superheat?
It’s the temperature of superheated steam over and above 100oC (Steam
point).
What is Wet Steam?
It’s a mixture of Dry Steam that has completely evaporated from water &
grains of water still in the liquid phase (unevaporated water molecules). The
quality of steam is expressed in terms of Dryness Fraction.
