Electric Circuit Theory 2

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First-Order RL and RC Circuits

Module 002 First-Order RL and RC Circuits

Course Learning Outcomes:

1. Be able to determine the natural response of an RL/RC circuit

2. Be able to determine the step response of RL and RC circuits

First-Order RL and RC Circuits

In the last module, we reviewed two circuit elements, inductance – L and capacitance – C.
Now we can analyze more complicated circuits where both inductance and capacitance
exist. In this module, we will learn about first-order RL and RC circuits. Our analysis of RL
and RC circuits will be divided into three phases.

In the first phase, we will consider the currents and voltages that arise when stored energy
in an inductor or capacitor is suddenly released to a resistive network. This happens when
the inductor or capacitor is disconnected abruptly from its dc source. The currents and
voltages that arise in this configuration are referred to as the natural response of the
circuit. This is to emphasize that the nature of the circuit itself determines its behavior, not
external sources.
In the second phase of our analysis, we consider the currents and voltages that arise when
energy is being acquired by an inductor or capacitor due to the sudden application of a dc
voltage or current source. This response is referred to as the step response.

In the third phase, which will be tackled on the next module, we develop a general method
that can be used to find the response of RL and RC circuits to any sudden change in dc
voltage or current source.

Natural Response of RL Circuits

RL and RC circuits are also known as first-order circuits, because their voltages and
currents are described by first-order differential equations. This means that no matter how
complex a circuit may appear, if it can be reduced to a Thevenin or Norton equivalent
connected to the terminals of an equivalent inductor or capacitor, it is a first-order circuit.

Course Module
The natural response of an RL circuit can be described in terms of the circuit shown below.
We assume that the independent current source generates a constant current of Is A, and
that the switch has been in a closed position for a long time. A long time, for now, means
that all currents and voltages have reached a constant value. Therefore only dc currents can
exist in the circuit just prior to the switch being opened. And therefore the inductor
appears as a short circuit (Ldi/dt = 0) prior to the release of the stored energy.

Figure 1. An RL circuit

Because the inductor appears as a short circuit, the inductive branch’s voltage is zero, and
there can be no current in either R0 or R. Therefore all the current source Is appears in the
inductive branch. Finding the natural response requires finding the voltage and current at
the resistor after the switch is opened, that is, after the source is disconnected and the
inductor begins releasing energy. If we let t = 0 be the instant when the switch is opened,
the problem becomes finding v(t) and i(t) for t ≥ 0. For t ≥ 0, the circuit shown below
reduces the one shown in Figure 1.

Figure 2. The circuit shown in Fig. 1, for t ≥ 0

Deriving the Expression for the Current

To find i(t), we use Kirchhoff’s voltage law to obtain an expression involving i, R, and
L. Summing the voltages around the loop gives

𝑑𝑖
𝐸𝑞 1: 𝐿 + 𝑅𝑖 = 0
𝑑𝑡

Equation 1 is known as a first-order ordinary differential equation, because it

contains terms involving the ordinary derivative of the unknown, that is, di/dt. The
term first-order comes from the highest order derivative appearing in the equation,
which is one.

To solve the equation, we divide it by L, transpose the term with i to the right side of
the equation, and then multiply both sides by a differential time dt. The result is
 Electric Circuit Theory 2
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First-Order RL and RC Circuits

𝑑𝑖 𝑅
𝐸𝑞 2: 𝑑𝑡 = − 𝑖 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝐿

Next, we recognize the left-hand side of Eq. 2 as a differential change in the curent i,
that is, di. We now divide by i, getting

𝑑𝑖 𝑅
𝐸𝑞 3: = − 𝑑𝑡
𝑖 𝐿

Then we integrate both sides of the expression for i as a function of t. Using x and y
as variables of integration, we get
𝑖(𝑡)
𝑑𝑥 𝑅 𝑡
𝐸𝑞 4: ∫ = − ∫ 𝑑𝑦
𝑖(𝑡𝑜 ) 𝑥 𝐿 𝑡𝑜

in which i(t0) is the current corresponding to time t0, and i(t) is the current
corresponding to time t. Here, t0 = 0. Therefore, carrying out the integration gives
𝑖(𝑡) 𝑅
𝐸𝑞 5: 𝑙𝑛 =− 𝑡
𝑖(0) 𝐿

Based on the definition of the natural logarithm,

𝐸𝑞 6: 𝑖(𝑡) = 𝑖(0)𝑒 −(𝑅/𝐿)𝑡

Recall that an abrupt change of current cannot occur in an inductor. Therefore, in
the instant after the switch had been opened, the current in the inductor remains
unchanged. If we use 0- to denote the time just before switching, and 0+ for the time
immediately after switching, then

𝐸𝑞 7: 𝑖 (0− ) = 𝑖(0+ ) = 𝐼0

where I0 is the initial current in the inductor. The initial current in the inductor is
oriented in the same direction as the reference direction of i. Hence Eq 7 becomes

𝐸𝑞 8: 𝑖 (𝑡) = 𝐼0 𝑒 −(𝑅/𝐿 )𝑡 , 𝑡 ≥ 0,
which shows that the current starts from an initial value I0 and decreases
exponentially toward zero as t increases. The figure below shows this response.

Course Module
 Figure 3. The current response for the circuit shown in Fig 2

We derive the voltage across the resistor in Fig 2 from a direct application of Ohm’s
law:

𝐸𝑞 9: 𝑣 = 𝑖𝑅 = 𝐼0 𝑒 −(𝑅/𝐿 )𝑡 , 𝑡 ≥ 0+
Note that in contrast to the expression for the current shown in Eq 7, the voltage is
defined only for t > 0, not at t = 0. This is because a step change occurs in the voltage
at zero. Note that for t < 0, the derivative of the current is zero, so the voltage is also
zero. Thus

𝐸𝑞 10: 𝑣 (0 − ) = 0

𝐸𝑞 11: 𝑣(0+ ) = 𝐼0 𝑅

where v(0+) is obtained from Eq 9 with t = 0+. With this step change in an instant in
time, the value of the voltage at t = 0 is unknown. Therefore we use t ≥0 + in defining
the region of validity for these solutions.

The expression for the power dissipated in the resistor is

𝐸𝑞 11: 𝑝 = 𝐼02 𝑅𝑒 −(𝑅/𝐿)𝑡 , 𝑡 ≥ 0+

The Significance of the Time Constant

The expressions for i(t) and v(t) include a term of the form 𝑒 −(𝑅/𝐿)𝑡 . The coefficient
of t – namely, R/L – determines the rate at which the current or voltage approaches
zero. The reciprocal of this ratio is the time constant of the circuit, denoted by

𝐿
𝐸𝑞 12: 𝜏 = time constant =
𝑅

Using the time-constant concept, we write the expressions for current, voltage and
power as

𝐸𝑞 13: 𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐼0 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 , 𝑡≥0

𝐸𝑞 14: 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝐼0 𝑅𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 , 𝑡 ≥ 0+

𝐸𝑞 15: 𝑝 = 𝐼02 𝑅𝑒 −2𝑡/𝜏 , 𝑡 ≥ 0+

Calculating the natural response of an RL circuit can be summarized as follows:

1. Find the initial current, I0, through the inductor.

 Electric Circuit Theory 2
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First-Order RL and RC Circuits

2. Find the time constant of the circuit, 𝜏 = 𝐿/𝑅.

3. Use Eq 13, 𝐼0 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 , to generate i(t) from I0 and 𝜏.
All other calculations of interest follow from knowing i(t). The example below
illustrates the numerical calculations associated with the natural response of an RL
circuit.

Example:

The switch in the circuit below has been closed for a long time before it is opened at
t = 0. Find

a) iL(t) for t ≥ 0,

b) i0(t) for t ≥ 0+,

c) v0(t) for t ≥ 0+

Figure 4. The circuit for the example above

Solution:

a) The switch has been closed for a long time prior to t = 0, so we know the voltage
across the inductor must be zero at t = 0-. Therefore the initial current in the
inductor is 20 A at t = 0-. Hence, iL(0+) is also 20 A, because an abrupt change in
the current cannot occur in an inductor. We replace the resistive circuit
connected to the terminals of the inductor with a single resistor of 10 Ω
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 2 + (40 ∥ 10) = 10Ω

The time constant of the circuit is L/Req, or 0.2 s, giving the expression for the
inductor current as

𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) = 20𝑒 −5𝑡 𝐴, 𝑡 ≥ 0

b) We find the current in the 40 Ω resistor easily by using current division; that is
10
𝑖0 = −𝑖𝐿
10 + 40

Course Module
 Note that this expression is valid for t ≥ 0+ because 𝑖0 = 0 at 𝑡 = 0− . The inductor
behaves as a short circuit before the switch is opened, producing an
instantaneous change in the current 𝑖0 . Then

𝑖0 (𝑡) = −4𝑒 −5𝑡 𝐴, 𝑡 ≥ 0+

c) We find the voltage v0 by direct application of Ohm’s law:

𝑣0 (𝑡) = 40𝑖0 = −160𝑒 −5𝑡 𝑉, 𝑡 ≥ 0+

Natural Response of RC Circuits

RL and RC circuits are also known as first-order circuits, because their voltages and
currents are described by first-order differential equations. This means that no matter how
complex a circuit may appear, if it can be reduced to a Thevenin or Norton equivalent
connected to the terminals of an equivalent inductor or capacitor, it is a first-order circuit.

The natural response of an RC circuit is developed from the circuit shown in Fig 5. We
begin by assuming that the switch has been in position a for a long time, allowing the loop
made up of the dc voltage source Vg, the resistor R1, and the capacitor C to reach a steady-
state condition.

Figure 5. An RC circuit

A capacitor behaves as an open circuit in the presence of a constant voltage. Therefore the
voltage source cannot sustain a current, and so the source voltage appears across the
capacitor terminals. Hence, the problem reduces to solving the circuit shown in Fig 6.

Figure 5. An RC circuit
 Electric Circuit Theory 2
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First-Order RL and RC Circuits

Deriving the Expression for the Voltage

We can find the voltage v(t) by thinking in terms of node voltages. Using the lower junction
between R and C as the reference node and summing the currents away from the upper
junction between R and C gives

𝑑𝑣 𝑣
𝐸𝑞 16: 𝐶 + =0
𝑑𝑡 𝑅

Using the same mathematical techniques from Eq 1 to obtain the solution for v(t), we get

𝐸𝑞 17: 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑣(0)𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶 , 𝑡 ≥ 0,

As we already noted, the initial voltage on the capacitor equals the voltage source Vg, or
𝐸𝑞 18: 𝑣 (0− ) = 𝑣(0) = 𝑣(0+ ) = 𝑉𝑔 = 𝑉0

where V0 denotes the initial voltage on the capacitor. The time constant for the RC circuit
equals the product of the resistance and capacitance,

𝐸𝑞 19: 𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶

Substituting Eq 18 and Eq 19 into Eq 17 gives us

𝐸𝑞 20: 𝑣 (𝑡) = 𝑉0 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 , 𝑡≥0

which shows us that the natural response of an RC circuit is an exponential decay of the
initial voltage. The time constant RC governs the rate of decay. Figure 6 shows the plot of
Eq 20 and the graphic interpretation of the time constant.

Figure 6. The natural response of an RC circuit

After determining v(t), we can now easily derive the expressions for current and power:

𝑣(𝑡) 𝑉(0) −𝑡/𝜏

𝐸𝑞 21: 𝑖 (𝑡 ) = = 𝑒 , 𝑡 ≥ 0+
𝑅 𝑅

𝑉02 −2𝑡/𝜏
𝐸𝑞 22: 𝑝 = 𝑣𝑖 = 𝑒 , 𝑡 ≥ 0+
𝑅
Calculating the natural response of an RC circuit can be summarized as follows:

Course Module
 1. Find the initial voltage, 𝑉0 , across the capacitor.
2. Find the time constant of the circuit, 𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶.
3. Use Eq 20, 𝑣 (𝑡) = 𝑉0 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 , to generate v(t) from V0 and 𝜏.
All other calculations of interest follow from knowing v(t). The next example illustrates the
numerical calculations associated with the natural response of an RC circuit.

Example:

The switch in the circuit shown below has been in position x for a long time. At t = 0, the
switch moves instantaneously to position y. Find

a) vC(t) for t ≥ 0,

b) v0(t) for t ≥ 0+,

c) i0(t) for t ≥ 0+

Solution:

a) Because the switch has been in position x for a long time, the 0.5mF capacitor will
charge to 100 V and be positive at the upper terminal. We can replace the resistive
network connected to the capacitor at t = 0+ with an equivalent resistance of 80 kΩ.
Therefore the time constant of the circuit is (0.5 × 10−6 )(80 × 103 ) or 40 ms. Then

𝑣𝑐 (𝑡) = 100𝑒 −25𝑡 V, t ≥ 0

b) The easiest way to find vo(t) is to note that the resistive circuit forms a voltage divider
across the terminals of the capacitor. Thus
48
𝑣0 (𝑡) = 80 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) = 60𝑒 −25𝑡 V, t ≥ 0+

This expression for vo(t) is valid for t ≥ 0+ because vo(0-) is zero. Thus we have an abrupt
change in the voltage across the 240 kΩ resistor.
c) We find the current i0(t) from Ohm’s law:
𝑣 (𝑡)
0
𝑖0 (𝑡) = 60×103 = 𝑒
−25𝑡
mA, t ≥ 0+

Step Response of RL and RC Circuits

We are now ready to discuss the problem of finding the currents and voltages generated in
first-order RL or RC circuits when either dc voltage or current sources are suddenly
applied. The response of a circuit to the sudden application of a constant voltage or current
source is referred to as the step response of the circuit. In presenting the step response,
we show how the circuit responds when energy is being stored in the inductor or capacitor.
We begin with the step response of an RL circuit.
 Electric Circuit Theory 2
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First-Order RL and RC Circuits

Step Response of an RL Circuit

To begin, we modify the first-order circuit shown in Fig 1 by adding a switch. We use the
resulting circuit, shown in Fig. 7.16, in developing the step response of an RL circuit. Energy
stored in the inductor at the time the switch is closed is given in terms of a nonzero initial
current The task is to find the expressions for the current in the circuit and for the voltage
across the inductor after the switch has been closed.

Figure 7. The circuit used to illustrate the step response of a first-order RL circuit

𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠
𝐸𝑞 23: 𝑖(𝑡) = + (𝐼0 − )𝑒 −(𝑅/𝐿)𝑡
𝑅 𝑅

When the initial energy in the inductor is zero, I0 is zero. Thus Eq 23 is reduced to

𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠 −(𝑅/𝐿)𝑡
𝐸𝑞 24: 𝑖(𝑡) = − 𝑒
𝑅 𝑅

The voltage across an inductor is Ldi/dt, so for t ≥ 0+,

𝐸𝑞 25: 𝑣 = (𝑉𝑠 − 𝐼0 𝑅)𝑒 −(𝑅/𝐿)𝑡

And when the initial inductor current is zero, Eq 25 simplifies to

𝐸𝑞 26: 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑠 𝑒 −(𝑅/𝐿)𝑡

Step Response of an RC Circuit

We can find the step response of a first-order RC circuit by analysing the circuit shown in
Fig 8.

Figure 8. The circuit used to illustrate the step response of a first-order RC circuit

Course Module
The step response of an RC circuit has the equation
𝐸𝑞 27: 𝑣𝐶 = 𝐼𝑠 𝑅 + (𝑉0 − 𝐼𝑠 𝑅)𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶 , 𝑡≥0
The solution for i is obtained by using the same translations used previously. Thus

𝑉0 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶
𝐸𝑞 28: 𝑖 = (𝐼𝑠 − )𝑒 , 𝑡 ≥ 0+
𝑅

where V0 is the initial value of vC, the voltage across the capacitor. We obtained Eq 27 and
Eq 28 by using a mathematical analogy to the solution for the step response of the
inductive circuit.
 Electric Circuit Theory 2
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First-Order RL and RC Circuits

References and Supplementary Materials

Books and Journals

1. Charles K. Alexander, Matthew N. O. Sadiku; 2017; Fundamentals of Electric Circuits,

6th Edition; McGraw-Hill

2. James W. Nilsson, Susan A. Riedel; 2019; Electric Circuits, 11 th Edition; Pearson;

Online Supplementary Reading Materials

1. Lessons in Electric Circuits Volume 1 – DC, Chapter 16: RC and L/R Time Constants;
http://www.ibiblio.org/kuphaldt/electricCircuits/DC/DC_16.html;
Online Instructional Videos

1. RC and RL Circuits; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uXuuJOdQoO4

Course Module