A

LECTURE NOTE

ON

BAKSIC PRINCIPLES IN SURVEYING II

SUG 102

1
 CHAPTER ONE

1.1 TACHEOMETRIC SURVEYING

This is Optical Distance Measurement Method (ODM), which is
derived from a Greek word “Takhus Metron” meaning swift measure.
It is a method of surveying where height and distance between ground
marks are obtained by optical means only. The instruments used are
theodolite and optical enabling distance and height to be derived from
observations.

There are ,four tacheometirc systems which are:

a. Stadia System
b. Tangential System
c. Subtense System
d. Optical System

Our discussion and focus on the stadia system.

In this system, the diaphragm contains two additional horizontal lines

between as STADIA HAIRS, placed equidistance above and below
the main horizontal Cross Hairs.

The distance between these stadia hairs is called STADIA

INTERVAL and is usually constant. In the telescope’s field of view,
the stadia hairs subtend a certain length of the staff which is greater
the farther off the staff is held. This length of staff, called STAFF
INTERCEPT, is proportional to its distance from the instrument
position.

2
 Consider the figure below:
Instrument axis
b Object glass A

o
I x S
x
a

f B
Diaphragm C

d
D

f = the focal length of the object glass

i = stadia interval (a, b)
S = staff intercept (A, B)
d = distance from outer focal point to the staff
D = horizontal distance required
C = distance of the object glass to the instrument axis
o = outer focal point to object glass
 from similar triangle

d/s=f/i
d=D–(f+C)
D–(f+C)=f/i
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 S
D – ( f + C ) = (f / i )S
D = ( f / i) S + ( f + C )
f / i = k = multiplying constant, and
f + C = additive constant = c
D = kS + c is known as stadia formula. In this theory, f = focal length
of the lens = constant. Also, i and d are constant, so that c & k are
instrument constant, k is usually taken to be 100 i.e. f / i = 100 = k.

REDUCTION TO HORIZONTAL DISTANCE

From the stadia formula: D = kS + c
If it is inclined at an angle Ө, therefore D = kS Cos Ө + c
Consider the right angle triangle below:
Y

D V

Ө
O H X

But H = D Cos Ө
H = kS Cos2 Ө + c Cos Ө
For vertical component (V)
V = D sin Ө
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D = kS Cos Ө + c
V = kS Cos Ө Sin Ө + c Sin Ө
But Cos Ө Sin Ө = ½ Sin 2 Ө
 V = ½ kS Sin 2 Ө + c Sin Ө
In instrument where the additive constant is zero (f + C) = 0
The formula is simplify as follows
V = ½ kS Sin 2 Ө
H = kS Cos2 Ө

The height difference between the points can be obtained by the stadia
formula
R. Ls = R.Li + H.i ± v – h (where R.Ls is known)
Where H.i = height of instrument (always positive)
V = Vertical Component (positive for angle of elevation and negative
for the angle of depression)
h = the Center hair reading (always negative)
WORKED EXAMPLES
Reading are taken using a tacheometer with a multiplying constant k
of 100 and an additive constant c of 2 into staff held vertically on a
bendmark of height 314.270m above datum and then on a point P. The
following results were recorded.
Station Stadia Readings Vertical angle (reduced)
U = 2.645m
B/m M = 1.755m + 4◦ 34′ 00″
L = 0.865m
P U = 2.580m - 3◦ 54′ 30″
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 M = 1.875m
L = 1.170m

Calculate
i. The horizontal distance from the instrument to Bench-Mark.
ii. The horizontal distance from the instrument to point P.
iii. The height of point P above datum.

1.2 ELECTRO-MAGNETIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENT (EDM)

It embraces Measurement of distance using electronic methods. There
are different EDM instruments, which depend on the frequency (F)
being used. The instrument emits electro-magnetic waves from the
MASTER and received by the REMOTE to be reflected back to the
MASTER.

1.3 CHARACTERISTIC OF ELECTRO-MAGNETIC WAVES

The electro-magnetic waves are the means by which energy is
transmitted through space. These waves are periodic in nature ans
sinusoidal.
B λ F

A C E G I

∆λ
D H
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 One wavelength or cycle
λ
The main characteristics are that:
i. The wave complete a cycle in moving from such identical
points as A to E or D to H on the wave, and the number of
times/sec, the wave can complete a cycle is known as
frequency, which is represented by f hertz. 1 hertz (Hz) is 1
cycle per second.
ii. The wavelength of a wave is the distance traveled in one cycle
by the wave and is denoted by λ (meter).
iii. The period is the time taken by the wave to travel
through one cycle or one wavelength, this is represented
by T (second)
iv. The velocity (v) of electromagnetic wave is the distance
traveled per unit second. This depends on the medium
through which it is traveling. This is also termed the
speed of light with the symbol C
Speed of light is about 299708.0km/s at 12 C 750mmHg
F = C/ λ
` C=Fλ
1.4 THE PRINCIPLES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC DISTANCE
MEASUREMENT
A modulated electromagnetic waves of known frequency (f) is
transmitted to a distant reflector and returned to the transmitter, but
this transmitting instrument is capable of counting the number of

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 wavelength (n) with an accuracy of 1/1000 of a wavelength.
Thereafter, the value of (n/f) is determined, either manually or
automatically by the instrument and multiplied by the standardized
speed of the signal through the atmosphere.
The result is the slope length of the line measured

Transmitter
Reflector

1.5 THE EDM SYSTEM

As already said that the systems developed from transmission of
electromagnetic waves can be divided into two classes namely:
1) Microwave system (Long range)
2) Electro-optical system (medium and short range)

1.6 MICROWAVE SYSTEM

This group of instruments uses micro wave to measure distance
from 20km to a maximum of 150km with an accuracy of about
3 - 4mm per km. An instrument of this class is the wild M.D.
60, which operates the frequency of about 15mmHz.

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1.7 FIELD OPERATION OF MICROWAVE SYSTEMS
If it is required to measure the length of a survey line using the EDM
with microwave system, 2 instruments are required, Master and
Remote.
One instrument called the master is set at station A and pointed in the
direction of B, the second instrument called the remote is set at B and
reciprocally pointed to A. The instrument is fitted with powerful radio
telephones, so communication between parties is possible over long
distance in order to give the instrument the correct orientation. The
measuring switch is activated and a microwave of wavelength 10m is
transmitted to the remote instrument where it is instantly re-
transmitted back to the master.
The signal has therefore traversed the double distance AB. With this,
it has completed a certain number of whole wavelength and a
fractional part of a wavelength. The fractional part of a wavelength is
called the phase difference. The wavelength is again changed to w 2
and the phase difference is again measured. The process is repeated
several times. The wavelength changes are made automatically in
some instrument like wild MD 60. The result is the slant distance AB
which is displayed in the read out.
NB: at the end of the measuring procedure, the temperature, pressure,
humidity and slope should be measured. Heights of the master and
remote also measured.

1.8 ELECTRO-OPTICAL SYSTEM

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 The instrument employed this system of measurement can be divided
into two groups: (a) the one using light form the medium range, the
other (b) using infrared light form the short-range class. The two have
many common elements
a) VISIBLE LIGHT
Example- Geodimeter 64
Measure 5 – 1okm in daylight
Measure 15 – 25km in darkness
Unaffected by ground conditions
b) INFRA RED LIGHT e.g.
i. Tellurometer M.A. 100
ii. Tellurometer CD 6, wild D13 whose maximum range with
a 9 prism reflector is at 1km, Wild D135- now 2km
The measuring signals are carried on a narrow highly focused beam of
light, which has to be directed optically to the distance target by mean
of an in-built telescope. Alternatively, the short range EDM units may
be mounted on the telescope of a theodolite by means of a bracket
specially designed to point the EDM unit exactly along the line of the
theodolite telescope whenever it is pointed.
The medium range geodimeter 710 model is a purpose built
instrument, which combined an electronic digital theodolite with an
EDM unit as a calculator.

1.9 FIELD OPERATION FOR ALL KINDS OF ELECTRO-

OPTICAL DISTANCE MEASUREMENT

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1) The transmitter is placed at one end of the required line and is
accurately aligned by means of the telescope onto a corner cube
reflector at the other end. The reflector is reciprocally aligned back to
the transmitter by means of the open sights on top of the mounting.
The important function of the reflector is that it reflects light back
along any line on an exactly parallel course. One reflector is effective
up to about 600mm. The more the number of reflectors, the longer the
length it could measure.
2) The signal is transmitted on a known frequency to the reflector, from
which it is returned to the instrument and the phase difference is
measured.
3) The frequency is changed either manually or automatically by the
instrument. The measuring procedure is repeated to enable the number
of wavelengths to be counted and slope distance to be calculated.
4) Measurement of the atmospheric conditions are made and appropriate
corrections are made to the slope length by means of the monograph
supplied with some instruments.
5) The vertical angle between the instrument and reflector is measured to
enable the plane length of the line to be calculated.

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 CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LEVELLING
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Leveling is the process of determining the difference in height
between two or more points on the surface of the earth.
The accuracy with which the measurements are made depends on the
purpose of the survey and the means available.

When only a moderate degree of accuracy is needed, for example, on

a steep bank, a wooden straight-edge and sample spirit level can be
used with a folding rule.
For an accurate determination of difference in height, particularly over
longer distance, a level instrument is essential.

2.2 LEVELING TERMINOLOGIES

i. A Level Surface or A Level Line: This is a surface or line, all
points of which are normal or at right angles to the pull of gravity.
The surface of a still lake is an example of level surface.
ii. A Datum Surface: This is any level surface to which the elevations
of points may be referred. The surface most commonly adopted as a
datum is the mean level of the sea because it can be determined by
tidal observations.
iii. A Reduced Level: The reduced level of a particular point is its
height or elevation above the surface adopted as a datum.
iv. Bench-marks: These are stable reference points, the reduced levels
of which are accurately determined.
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 v. Temporary Bench Marks: These are stable points, but of a less
permanent nature, established close to the site of a survey to save
continual reference to a bench mark which may be some distance
away.
vi. Back Sight: This is the first reading obtained when set up level
instrument.
vii. Fore Sight: This is the second or last reading taken before moving
level instrument to another station.
viii. Leveling Staff: The vertical distance above or below the horizontal
surface I read on a leveling staff. These may be either telescopic pr
folding, extending to a length usually of 4m, graduated to be easily
read in the field of view of the level telescope. The British
standards metric staff is graduated in 10mm divisions. Odd-
numbered graduations are in red and even in black. The staff face is
either white or yellow.
2.3 TYPES OF LEVEL
There are three basic types of level commonly use:
i. Dumpy Level: In this type of level, the bubble tube is mounted on
the left-hand side of the telescope. The instrument is leveled by
means of three footscrews separating two plates. The telescope is
mounted on a vertical spindle in the upper plate and the lower plate
screws directly on the tripod head. The essential difference between
the dumpy level and other types is that the telescope is rigidly
attached to the vertical spindle.
ii. The Tilting Level: In this level the telescope is not fixed rigidly to
the vertical spindle but is capable of a slight tilt in the vertical plane
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 about a point just below the telescope. The vertical movement of
the telescope is made by rotating the tilting screw below the
eyepiece. Two bubbles are fitted to tilting levels; one a circular
bubble on the upper plate designed for appropriate leveling by
means of the three foot screws at the leveling head. The other one is
telescope bubble which is leveled for every sighting by the tilting
screw only.
iii. The automatic level: This is a level with the leveling head of
which may again contain either foot screws or a ball-and socket
joint. However, the level is automatically gives a horizontal line of
sight without a bubble having to be accurately set. The line of sight
is always horizontal once the instrument has been approximately
leveled.
The essential difference between the automatic level and other
types is that there is no need for the telescope to be capable of
tilting, and thus there is no tilting screw either. Another point of
difference is that the automatic stabilizer within the telescope gives
rise an upright image in the field of view.
iv. Digital level: efforts to automate leveling process have resulted in
the design of digital levels. Digital levels use digital electronic
image processing for determining heights and distances and
recording them automatically. The properties of the digital level
include:
a. Reading levels from staves and recording them automatically in a
storage facility and later down-loaded into a computer for further
computations and analysis.
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 b. Displays of digital measurements
c. Automatic computation and reduction of levels of the reduced
levels of observed points given the reduced level of the starting
point.

The digital level has the same optical and mechanical components as the
conventional level. So, the digital level can be used as conventional levels.

The leveling staff of digital levels is not like the conventional one but is
coded in computer readable form.

The advantages of the digital levels are: they are efficient and make leveling
operation easier and stress free.

The transfer and accumulation of errors are not allowed. Since the results are
stored directly in the instrument, the observer can concentrate on sighting,
focusing and measurement. They make leveling operation faster and they
have high accuracy.

Other types of level are:

a.) Hand level
b.) The Crowley level
c.) Spirit Level
d.) Water level
2.4 REDUCTION OF OBSERVATIONS
The field data is reduced later in the office in either of the two methods.
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 a.) By the height of instrument or height of collimation method.
b.) By the rise and fall method.
2.4.1 Height of Collimation Instrument Method
If the heights of the ground at the staff stations 2 and 3, in the above figure,
are required, readings are booked and reduced as show below:
The height of the starting point A-a (e.g. the height above mean see level) is
entered on the first line. The back sight ri is entered on the second line and
added to the height of A = 1 to give the height of the instrument Ii. The fore
sight Vi is entered and subtracted from Ii. The fore sight Vi is entered and
subtracted from Ii (i.e. the height of instrument II) to obtain the ground
height of point 2. r2 is added to the height of point 2.
Point No Reduction R/L Remarks
A=1 650.000 Starting points/Bench
Mark A
Ri +2.500
Ii 652.500
Vi -1.800
2 650.700 Curb
R2 + 0.900
I2 651.600
V2 -1.900
3 649.600 Ditch
R3 +3.100
I3 652.700
V3 -0.900
B =4 651.900 End point

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 A=1 650.00
H. +1.900 difference in height A to
B

The height of the instrument I2. the fore sight V2 is subtracted to give the
height of point 3. R3 is added to give I3 and V3 is subtracted to obtain the
height of the end point B = 4.
2.4.2 By the Rise and Fall Method: Considering the figure above, it will be seen
that there is a rise of 0.700 from the starting point A = 1 to 2, obtained from
ri-vi (2.500 – 1.800) = 0.700. This method of reduction continues in the
same way.
Always considering the rise or fall from staff position to the next by
subtracting the second from the first as though each were a simple back sight
and foresight, thus B.S – F.S.
i.e. 2.500 – 1.800 = +0.700 (rise)
and 0.900 – 1.900 = -1.000 (fall)
Point No B.S F.S Rise Fall Reduce Level
A =1 2.500 6.500
2 1.800 0.700 6.500
2 0.900
3 1.900 1.000 649.700
3 3.100
4 0.900 2.200
6.500 4.600 2.900 1.000
4.600 1.000 h = 651.900 –
650.00
1.900 1.900 = 1.900
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Always subtract the fore sight or the intermediate sight from the back sight
to get the rises and falls, after the rises and falls have been reduced, the
differences between the sum of each column will give the total rise or fall.
This must agree exactly with the difference between the sum of B.S and F.S,
if the reduction is correct.

After checking the rises and falls, the reduced level of each point is obtained
by adding the rise or fall to the reduced level of the station that preceding it.

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 CHAPTER THREE
3.1 TRAVERSING (TERTIARY)
Traversing is the measurement of angle between successive lines and the
length of each of the line in order to determine the position of the stations. Ti
is a means of providing a network of control stations over an area. The
stations being used consequently for surveying details in the preparation of
sites plans prior to design and setting out of an engineering project. The lines
are known as LEGS and the points as STATIONS.
There are two major types of traversing
1.) Open Traverse: This is a traverse which commences from a known point
and finished up at unknown point and therefore not close. It is used only in
exceptional circumstances since there is no external checked on the
measurement.
2.) Close Traverse: This could be classified into two types namely: (i) loop
close traverse and (ii) connecting close traverse.
i. Loop Close traverse is a traverse that proceeds from one coordinated point
and close back on the same coordinated point. In this types of traverse,
there is an external check on the observation since the traverse starts and
finishes on a known point.
ii. The connecting traverse is a traverse which starts from a coordinated point
and closes on another coordinated point. It could easily be checked since it
starts from a known point and end on another known point.
3.2 METHOD OF TRAVERSING EQUIPMENT
EQUIPMENT FOR TRAVERSING
The equipment needed for Theodolite and Total Station traversing includes
the following:
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 i.) Theodolite or total station, plumb bob or plumbing rod and tripod.
ii.) Steel band for chaining
iii.) Linear tape for offsetting details
iv.) Harmer, wooden pegs, nails, pillars for marking stations
v.) Ranging rod for marking station
vi.) Arrows for making of measured tape length
vii.) Umbrella and cutlass
viii.) Targets (prisms for Total Station)
ix.) Field book etc.
3.3 SPECIFICATIONF OR TERTIARY TRAVERSING
i.) Angular misclosure = 30 N
Where N is number of stations
ii.) Linear Misclosure = 1/15,000
3.4 RECCONNAISSANCE (RECCE)
In traversing, the reconnaissance stage involves the following phases:
a.) Feasibility Study: In ideal situation, field party should consist of a
surveyor, survey assistance and labourers. On arrival on site, a recce
should be made during an overall picture of the area is taken. This will
serve as a bases for stations selection.
b.) Selection of Station: In selection of stations we always apply the
principle of working from the whole to parts. Set out a simple, main
traverse to a high degree of accuracy to provide control points densified
around the site. In selecting the station positions, the following criteria’s
should be used.
i. The stations should be positioned in such a way that as few as possible
are needed.
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 ii. All traverse legs should be as long as possible and about the same
length to prevent inaccuracies of angular measurement.
iii. Line of sight should not pass too close to the ground. This will result
inaccuracies in angular measurement due to lateral refraction.
iv. The ground station must be stable to prevent movement of the
instrument.
v. Station should not be placed where the instrument is likely to be
damaged or where observations could be displayed by traffic. As far as
possible traverse lines should be freed of natural obstructions and the
pedestrians and vehicular traffic.
vi. Stations should be clearly intervisible
vii. Stations should be placed so that they can easily survey important
details.
c.) Beaconing: This includes construction, emplacement and numbering.
After selecting the stations, they are then beacon in accordance with
survey rules and regulations. The pillars should be moulded according to
their specifications laid down by survey regulation.
d.) Control checking: Select three visible pillars from which at least two are
intervisible. Occupy and observe the included angle on one of the pillars
and measure at least one length in between the pillars. Then confirm that
these values compared favourably with the computed data before they are
carried forward.
e.) Instrumental Test: This is to carry out both temporary and permanent
adjustments of all the instruments to be used in readiness for the
observations and measurement.
3.5 THE SURVEY (OBSERVATION AND MEASUREMENT)
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 Angular observations should be made on both faces and the mean angle is
taken. A method of repetition or reiteration may be used. Always remember
to observe slope angle for every station. The distance is taped or measured
simultaneously. After completion, a check on angular observation must be
made to affirm whether it closes well. Sum up all external angles and this
must be equal to (2N + 4)900 where ‘N’ is the number of setting up. If
internal angles are measured the angles must sum up to (2N – 4) X 900
where ‘N’ is the number of setting up.
3.6 AZIMUTH DETERMINATION
Astronomical observations should be made as frequent as possible to check
the accuracy of the bearing
3.7 BOOKING OF FIELD DATA
All readings must be recorded as they are made on the field. All necessary
measurement must be entered in ink. No erazor shall be made or paper torn
out. And all erroneous figures shall be neatly crossed.
3.8 PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN WHEN PERFORMING A
THEODOLITE TRAVERSING
A.) To ensure accurate distance measurement
i. Measurement should be made on the slope and the vertical angle should
be measured.
ii. Each tape length should be made aligned accurately using the
Theodolite.
iii. Temperature should be recorded and appropriate corrections applied.
iv. Steel band/tape should be standardized before used.
v. Correct tension should be applied to the band
vi. Distance should be check chained.
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 B.) To ensure accurate angular observation
i. Always observe on both faces of the instrument when measuring
vertical and horizontal angles.
ii. The Theodolite must be properly leveled before observation.
iii. Ensure that the theodolite tripod is stable with its legs firmly planted in
solid ground and that the tripod adjusting screws are properly tighten.
iv. The theodolite must be properly centered over the station marked with
an optical plument or plumbing rod or plumb bob.
v. The horizontal circle should not be moved between observations.
3.9 TRAVERSE COMPUTATION
Traverse computations involved the use of corrected linear and angular
dimensions. Therefore, the traverse field data have to be reduced and
necessary corrections applied. Traverse computation consists of following
phases.
i.) Reduction of angles (both vertical and horizontal)
ii.) Reduction of slope distance to horizontal or corrected length
iii.) Forward computation
iv.) Back computation
v.) Area calculation/computation
The reduction of observed angles and distances measured is to obtain the
bearings and the corrected lengths of the traverse legs. The obtained
bearings and lengths of the traverse legs were computed to obtain
coordinates of the legs.

i.e N = L cos θ
E = :L sin θ
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 Where L is the corrected length and θ is the bearing of each leg. N and E
are the partial coordinates of the legs. The obtained partial coordinates is
added, if positive to the initial coordinates or subtracted, if negative from the
initial coordinates to obtain the final coordinates.
In back computation, we make use of the final coordinates of the points.
These one used to obtain partial coordinates of the traverse legs that are
subsequently used to compute final bearing and distances of the traverse
legs.
Area Computation: Areas can be obtained directly from field data and from
field data and from the plotted plans. The former is more accurate because
the plotting and scaling errors are absent or eliminated. One popular method
of determining areas from field records is by the use of co-ordinates. As
already said, that area of ground may be obtained from the plotted plan of a
survey but results are only accurate when it is possible to scale off the
drawings. Accuracy is greatly increased by using the measurement taken in
the field.

In most surveys the area is divisible into two parts:

i.) The rectilinear areas
ii.) Irregular areas

Rectilinear areas: Such areas include those enclosed by the survey lines of
a chain survey or theodolite traverse and fields enclosed by straight line
boundaries.

The straight sided figure can be divided into well-conditioned triangles

24
 i. Simple Triangle: If chain surveying is used the area will be made up of
series of triangles and are calculated from the field dimensions from the
formulae:

c
a

` A
C
b

(a) Area = √s(s-a) (s-b) (s-c)

Where a, b and c = lengths of the triangle sides and
S = a+b+c/2 The semi-perimeter
(b) Area = ½ ab sin C
(c) Area = ½ ac sin B
(d) Area = ½ bc sin A
Where A, B and C are the angles contained between side lengths
(e) Also areas = ½ (base x perpendicular height) = ½ bh

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 ii. If traversing is used and the survey stations are co-ordinated. The
computer co-ordinates are used in the area calculation either through
coordinate method or by double latitude and departure method.

Irregular Areas: the following methods may be used for calculating the
areas of irregular figures such as ponds, lakes etc.

i. “Give and take” lines method

“Give and take” lines

Boundary

The irregular boundary is first replaced by a straight line. So arrange that

any small areas excluded from the survey by the straight line are
balanced by other areas outside the survey which are now included. The
whole area is often divided into triangles or trapezoids.
ii. Counting squares method: A squared tracing paper is laid on the
drawing. The number of squares and parts of squares which are enclosed
by the figure under consideration is counted. Knowing the scale of the
drawing and the size of the square laid on the drawing, the total area of
the figure is counted.

26
iii. Trapezoidal Rule: An integrating method of determining the area of an
irregular figure is trapezoidal rule. The survey line is divided into a
number of small equal intervals of length and offsets.

The method is usually applied to areas of land bounded by streams,

rivers, roads etc. The area of each trapezoid is calculated and the
summation of areas of all trapezoids included gives the area of land under
consideration.

27
 The figures above shows a traverse contained inside an area having irregular
sides. The shaded area is the remaining part to be calculated after using one
of the straight-sided methods to calculate the area enclosed bythe traverse
lines.

01 L L L L L L 07

01

A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6

A7

03 05
06
02 04

The figure above shows an enlargement of a section of figure (i). The offset
O1,O2,O3…O7 are either measured directly in the field or scaled from a
plan. The trapezoidal rule assumed that if the interval between the offsets is
small, the boundary can be approximated to a straight line between the
offsets. Hence, the figure is assumed to be made up of a series of trapezia as
shown above.
:. A1 = O1+ O2 L
2
A2 = O2+ O3 L
2

Hence, for N offsets, the total areas (A) is given by

28
 A = O1+ O2 L + O2+ O3 + ……….+ ON-1+ ON L
2 2 2

This leads to the general trapezoidal rule shown below

A = L/2 ( O1+ ON + 2(O2+ O3+ O4 + …………… ON-1))

Or A = L O2+ O3 + O2+ O3+ O4 + …………… ON-1

2

The trapezoidal rule applies to any number of offsets.

3.10 THE NEED FOR AZIMUTH CHECKS

i. To check the accuracy of initial bearing carried forward and to terminate or
eliminate any error due to accumulation and rounding off of figures which
might exist during observation.
ii. It is also necessary to check the authenticity of the Azimuth of the initial
bearing before carrying it forward for computation by making use of
observation to celestial bodies.
iii. Azimuth check is needed to detect any angular error which occasionally
exist in any three selected controls before embarking on the survey. This
survey must be tied to the higher order control to increase accuracy of the
job.

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 CHAPTER FOUR
4.1 TRIANGULATION (MINOR)
The mean approach to establish and extend control (most especially
horizontal control) is given by triangulation, although there are other
methods such as trilateration and traversing.

4.2 BASIC PRINCIPLE OF TRIANGULATION

If the length of one side of a triangle is known and at least any two
angles of the triangle are measured, the length of other two sides can
be calculated.

4.3 ANGULAR OBSERVATION

It must be noted that all angular measurements are made with
Theodolite or Total Station using reiteration or repetition method.
Since the accuracy of the triangulation is largely depend upon the
angular measurement, attention must be paid to the centring of the
instrument and targets on the triangulation stations. Every angle of the
triangles is measured three times on each face of the instrument.
4.4 SOLUTION OF TRIANGULATION USING SINE RULE
A

C b

B C
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 a
consider the above triangle ABC in which angle A, B and C and
length `a´ are known. Then b and c can be calculated using sine
formula a b c
Sin A Sin B Sin C
4.5 FACTORS AFFECTING CHOICE OF SELECTION OF
STATIONS AND BASE LINES
a) Availability of Hills: Hills and rocks can provide a long distance in
triangulation. Two stations on top of two hills may be selected as the
baseline.
b) Intervisibility problem: Every station should be visible from the
adjacent stations.
c) Strength of figures: Angles of the triangles should be within the limit
of 30◦ and 150◦.
d) Size of the triangles: They should be as large as possible to avoid
inaccurate bisection i.e. 1 – 15km.
e) Accessibility: All the triangulation stations shall be accessible so that
angular observation will be possible.
f) Safety: The safety of both the instrument and surveyors should be
considered.
4.6 APPLICATION OF TRIANGULATION SURVEYS
I. Intersection: When it is extremely difficult to set up instrument on a
point which has to be coordinated, we use intersection method to fix
the point which must form the apex of well-conditioned triangles. The
3 points must be intervisible. The intersected points are therefore
fixed by means of intersecting from adjacent stations.
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32
 A B

C
AB = Base line
Point C = intersected point
II. Resection: This is a process by which an accessible point which has
not been previously observed to can often be established by observing
from it to surrounding controls.
The three controls points must not necessarily needed to be
intervisible but must be visible from the resected point.
A B

C
A, B and C are the surrounding control points. Point D = resected
point.

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 CHAPTER FIVE
5.1 CONTOURING
A contour line or contour is an imaginary level line that connects points of
equal elevation or height on the ground. It is the line formed by the
intersection of the level surface with the surface of the earth.
A contour is represented in nature by the short line of a rocky or of a still
water.
The contour interval of a map is the vertical distance between contour lines.
The interval is determined by the purpose of the map and by the terrain
being mapped. Since the contour lines on a map are drawn in their horizontal
position with respect to the ground surface.
Topographical map containing contour lines shows not only the elevation of
points on the ground but also the shapes of the various topographic features,
such as hills, valleys etc.

On maps intended for purposes of navigation, peaks and hilltops along the
coast are sometime shown by means of form lines such lines resemble
contours but are not drawn with the same degree of accuracy.

On aeronautical charts and maps intended for special purposes, such as those
which may accompany reports on some engineering project, elevations may
be indicated by “tinting”. The area lying between two selected contours is
coloured one tint. The area between two other contours another tint and so
on. The areas to be flooded by construction of dams of different heights for
example might be shown in different tints.

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5.2 CHOICE OF CONTOUR INTERVAL
The contour interval depends on the following:-
i.) Cost: The smaller the interval, the greater is the amount of work involved,
and the higher the cost.
ii.) Type of Terrain: Steep and rough terrain can be clearly shown by a fairly
large interval, which would be inadequate for flat ground.
iii.) Purpose of the survey: A small interval is needed for detailed design and
the measurement of earthworks by topographical mapping, a large interval
of 10 or 20m is often adequate.
5.3 METHODS OF CONTOURING
A contouring by grid leveling: This is the most popular method of
contouring because the process is simple to understand. It can be carried out
be relatively inexperienced operators. Staff positions can be re-established
and it produces levels over a site in a form which allows earthworks to be
simply calculated.

The procedure is that, the grid inverval, say 10m is pegged out along one of
the survey line used for surveying the site. Peg out the base line, say AK, in
such a way that A, A7 and K1, K7, say 50m each are measured out. Line A,
A7 the staff can be held at every 10m, the tape itself providing the line. The
same process is repeated for the line B, B6 and so on. After reduction of the
field book, the reduced levels are noted against the appropriate grid
intersection ready for interpolation. Then plotting the contours.

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 CONTOURING BY SPOT HEIGHTING: This is the method most
commonly adopted for large areas. It is accurate and keeps the number of
spot heights needed to be observed and plotted to a minimum.

The procedures are:

i) Suitable stations are surveyed by traversing or triangulation to command the
area and the levels of these points are established by a leveling circuit.
ii) Observations from each station are made to the staff held at salient points.
The bearing, distance and level sights to these points are recorded.
iii) Distances may be obtained by direct taping or by some form of tacheometry
iv) Computer the reduced levels of all the staff positions using stadia formula:
R.Ls = R.LI + H.I + I (V-h)

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