Forging
• Oldest of the metal forming operations,
dating from about 5000 B C
Outline • Components: engine crankshafts,
connecting rods, gears, aircraft
• Forging structural components, jet engine
turbine parts
• Types of forging
• Forging analysis • In addition, basic metals industries use forging to establish basic form of
large components that are subsequently machined to final shape and size
• Examples
• Hot or warm forging – most common, due to the significant deformation
and the need to reduce strength and increase ductility of work metal
• Cold forging - advantage is increased strength that results from strain
hardening
• Forge hammer (impact) - applies an impact load
• Forge press (press) - applies gradual pressure
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Types of Forging Dies Open-Die Forging
Flashless forg’g:
piece is completely
constrained in die
and no excess
Open-die forging: work is flash is produced • Compression of work with cylindrical cross-section between two flat dies
compressed between two flat • Similar to compression test
dies, allowing metal to flow
• Deformation operation reduces height and increases diameter of work
laterally without constraint
• Common names include upsetting or upset forging
• If no friction occurs between work and die surfaces, then ………………..
deformation occurs, so that radial flow is uniform throughout workpart
height and true strain is given by:
Impression-die forging: die contains a cavity or Where:
ho
impression that is imparted to workpiece, thus ε = ln ho= starting height
constraining metal flow - flash is created h h = height at some point during compression
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Open-Die Forging with Friction Impression-Die Forging
• Flash must be later trimmed from part, but it serves an important function
during compression:
- As flash forms, friction resists continued metal flow into gap, forcing
material to fill die cavity
• Friction between work and die surfaces constrains lateral flow of - In hot forging, metal flow is further restricted because the thin flash cools
work, resulting in …………… effect quickly against the die plates
• In hot open-die forging, effect is even more pronounced due to heat • Several forming steps often required, with separate die cavities for each step
transfer at and near die surfaces, which cools the metal and - Beginning steps redistribute metal for more uniform deformation and
increases its resistance to deformation desired metallurgical structure in subsequent steps
- Final steps bring the part to its final geometry
- Impression-die forging is often performed manually by skilled operator
under adverse conditions
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Impression-Die Trimming
• Advantages compared to machining from solid stock:
- Higher production rates
- Conservation of metal (less waste)
- ……….. strength
- Favorable grain orientation in the metal
• Limitations:
- Not capable of close tolerances
- Machining often required to achieve accuracies and • Cutting operation to remove flash from workpart in impression-die forging
features needed, such as holes, threads, and mating • Usually done while work is still hot, so a separate trimming press is
surfaces that fit with other components included at the forging station
• Trimming can also be done by alternative methods, such as grinding or
sawing
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Flashless Forging Forging Hammers (Drop Hammers)
• Starting workpart volume must equal die cavity volume within
very close tolerance
• Process control more demanding than impression-die forging
• Best suited to part geometries that are simple and symmetrical • Apply an impact load against workpart - two types:
• Often classified as a precision forging process - Gravity drop hammers - impact energy from falling weight of a heavy ram
- Power drop hammers - accelerate the ram by pressurized air or steam
• Disadvantage: impact energy transmitted through anvil into floor of building
• Most commonly used for impression-die forging
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Forging Presses Upsetting and Heading
wire stock is fed to the stop gripping dies close on the stock
and the stop is retracted
punch moves forward bottoms to form the head
• Forging process used to form heads on nails, bolts, and similar
• Apply gradual pressure to accomplish compression operation - types: hardware products
• Mechanical presses - converts rotation of drive motor into linear • More parts produced by upsetting than any other forging operation
motion of ram • Performed cold, warm, or hot on machines called headers or formers
• Hydraulic presses - hydraulic piston actuates ram
• Wire or bar stock is fed into machine, end is headed, then piece is cut
• Screw presses - screw mechanism drives ram
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Upsetting and Heading Swaging – Radial Forging
heading a nail using open dies round head formed by punch
two common head styles for screws formed by die carriage bolt head
formed by punch and die • Accomplished by rotating dies that hammer a workpiece radially inward to
taper it as the piece is fed into the dies
• Used to reduce diameter of tube or solid rod stock
• Wire or bar stock is fed into machine, end is headed, then
• Mandrel sometimes required to control shape and size of internal diameter
piece is cut of tubular parts
• For bolts and screws, thread rolling is then used to form • Radial forging: is similar to swaging except that the workpiece rotates
instead of the forging dies.
threads
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Other Forging Processes Forging - Analysis
Force required:
F = K f Yf A
Where:
F: force
A: cross-sectional area
Kf: forging shaping factor Ideal Actual
0.4 µD Impression Kf
K f = 1+
h Simple w/ flash 6.0
Where: Complex w/ flash 8.0
Roll forging µ: coefficient of friction Very complex w/ flash 10.0
D: work-part diameter
Orbital forging Flashless
(or other dimension representing
contact length with die surface) Coining 6.0
h: work-part height Complex shape 8.0
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Hot Forging - Analysis Hot Forging - Analysis
• Theoretically, a metal in hot working behaves like a perfectly plastic material,
with strain hardening exponent n = 0 the deformation force is:
– However, an additional phenomenon occurs during deformation,
m
especially at elevated temperatures: (strain rate becomes important) v
F = C A
Strain rate is defined: h1
. v Where: the work is:
ε= V = deformation velocity h
h h = instantaneous height of workpiece being deformed ∫
W = F dh
ho
– As strain rate increases, resistance to deformation increases assume constant strain rate:
– This effect is known as strain-rate sensitivity . m
W = CV ε ε 1
the power consumed is:
Yf = Cε& m
1 . m Where:
where P = CV ε ε 1 V is the volume of the work piece
C = strength constant t
t is the time
m = strain-rate sensitivity exponent
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Example 1: Cold Upsetting Example 2: Hot Upsetting
A 302 stainless steel cylinder of height 12 cm and diameter 7 cm at room The 302 stainless steel cylinder of the previous example is hot upset at
temperature is compressed to a height of 2 cm between large platens. 1000°C to a height of 2 cm by a platen moving at 2 cm/s. Graphite is
Mineral oil is used as a lubricant between the cylinder and platens. used as a lubricant between the platens and workpiece. Calculate the
Calculate the force necessary and stress on the platens. forging force.
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Next time
Rolling
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