GENERAL ENGLISH

Supplemental Lecture Handout for ENGLISH PROFICIENY TEST

I. BASIC GRAMMAR and ACADEMIC WRITING
Grammar refers to the rules for speaking or writing a particular language, or an analysis of the rules of a particular
aspect of language.
1. Lexicon
1.1. Diction: Lexical Accuracy
Problems with diction (or lexical accuracy) can easily be solved by simply referring to current international
dictionaries. If you cannot define the term, nor give a synonym for it, then you must be using the word based on how you
have been exposed to it, and your usage might be erroneous. Learn to read the dictionary for the different meanings of
words (or word forms) in different classifications. For example, read entries for such simple words as make or set, and
appreciate their different uses.
1.1.1. Lexical Change
Be open to changes in the form and use of English words. For formal written communication, use international
newsmagazines and reputable journals as models.
1.1.2. Lexical Variation
Some words may have similar meanings or the same meaning, sometimes even the same source, but tend to be
used in particular English dialects. Especially confusing to Filipino users of English are principally British forms, e.g.:
elevator, French fries, TV (American) – lift, chips, telly (British).
1.1.3. Homophonous and Homographic Words
Differentiate between homophonous (same pronunciation) and homographic (same spelling) words. If you have to
use a word which sounds or looks like another word (or, put another way, a word form which has several meanings), make
sure that the context of its use clearly and firmly establishes the meaning you are using it for, e.g.: bore – 1. She bore a child
out. 2. Her boyfriend was such a bore that she left him. 3. Termites bore holes as they eat their way through wood.
1.1.4. Word Meanings
Differentiate between words which are very closely related in meaning to each other, e.g.: advance vs. advanced,
astonish vs. surprise, consent vs. assent, etc.
1.1.5. Explicitness
Use the right word, and be explicit as possible. Do not leave ideas “understood.” E.g. The blank was not legibly
written (incorrect) vs. The entry on the blank was not legibly written.
1.1.6. Filipinisms and Slang
Use Filipinisms only when your target readers are familiar with them – fellow Filipinos, or other nationals who have
become familiar with Filipino English, e.g.: ballpen (ballpoint pen), blow-out (a treat), plastic (hypocritical), etc.
Be careful of using English words or phrases that seem to be the source of a Filipinism. Some of these do not have
the same meaning as the Filipino word or phrase, especially those used in slang, e.g.: papa (English - dad) vs. papa (Filipino
slang - boyfriend, especially of gays), stand by (English – stick by) vs. istambay (Filipino slang – hang around).
1.1.7. Loan Words
Use loan words in English correctly. Watch out for their spelling; the diacritical marks are sometimes omitted in an
English text. For the pronunciation of loan words, check the dictionary.

French Word: (a la carte, bon voyage, bourgeois, chaise lounge, buffet, coup d‟ etat, coutourier, de luxe, etc.)
Latin Terms: (ad hoc, ad interim, alter ego, bona fide, cum laude, in toto, mea culpa, per se, status quo, etc.)
Italian Words: (a cappella, adagio, alto, bravo, falsetto, forte, opera, piano, vivace, etc.)
1.2. Idioms

An idiom is a particular combination of words, the combination having its own meaning often unpredictable from the
individual meanings of its components. Because of its unpredictability, the best way for you to learn idioms is to memorize
and use them. Always refer to a dictionary or a reference book on idioms.

Phrasal Verb: (abide by, adhere to, brag about, differ from embark on, give back, make off, pick up, etc.)
Verb with Reflexive: (absent oneself, avail oneself, brace oneself, enjoy oneself, hurt oneself, etc)
Verb-Noun: (catch a cold, commit an error, hit a note, make faces, see/watch a movie, etc.)
Preposition-Noun: (at bay, at this point, at work, in love, in order, in tune, off limits, in good terms, etc.)
Phrasal Adjective: (abreast of, addicted to, ashamed of, beholden to, envious of, familiar with, fond of, etc.)
Preposition-Noun-Preposition: (in behalf of, in compliance with, with regard to, in spite of, on charge of, etc.)
Phrasal Adverb of Time: (at daytime, in the morning, in May, this week, week after next, next weekend, etc.)
Expressions: (birds of feather flock together, It remains to be seen, sight unseen, swan song, etc.

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1.3. Prepositions
Prepositions express relationships between nouns, between a verb and a noun, and between an adjective and a
noun. The “preposition + NP” construction, or prepositional phrase, functions as modifiers.

>The on the table on the table is not mine. (On the table functions as a modifier of book and comes from the
adverb of place of an underlying be construction.)
>We commute from Bulacan to Manila every day. (From Bulacan to Manila functions as modifier of commute.)
>This essay is full of slang. (Of slang functions as modifier of full.)
Prepositions are usually classified according to meaning:
1. location: (aboard, across, after, along, around, before, behind, between, by, down, next to, apposite, etc.)
2. direction: (across, against, around, beyond, down, inside, into, off, onto, out, through, to, toward(s), up, etc.)
3. time: (about, after, around, as of, before, during, prior to, since, till, times, until, etc.)
4. process: (by means of, through via, etc.)
5. possession: (of)
6. approximation: (about, around)
7. attribution: (according to)
8. relation: (along with, apart from, because of, besides, but, by, considering, due to, except, including, like, etc.)
Prepositions may also be classified according to form:
1. simple: (across, after, among, around, at, before, beneath, beside, etc.)
2. compound: (according to, along with, because of, in accordance with, in relation to, etc.)
2. The Kernel Sentence
2.1. Parts of Speech
The term parts of speech traditionally refers to the following classes of words in English:
1. Nouns: (dog, group, happiness, UNESCO)
2. Verbs: (do, be, walk, shall)
3. Adjectives: (sad, green, asleep, burnt)
4. Adverbs: (well, later, near, however)
5. Pronouns: (you, yourself, one, anything)
6. Prepositions: (on, of, across, like)
7. Conjunctions: (and, or, since, if)
8. Interjections: (No!, Alas!, Oh!)
Modern grammars have used the concept distribution – the pattern of occurrence and non-occurrence – as the
defining criterion. Technically then, “parts of speech” in modern grammars are actually distribution classes. For example, in
English, a “noun” is any word which may occur with a determiner before it (the book), or with a plural (books) or possessive
(book‟s/books‟) morpheme. In a sentence, it may occur before the verb phrase, functioning as its subject; after a transitive
verb, functioning as its object or complement; after a linking verb, functioning as its complement; or after a preposition;
functioning as its object. It may also occur after another noun or noun phrase, functioning as its appositive.
Knowing the classification of a word allows you to use it properly. For instance, you might associate the suffix –ly
with adverbs, as in really, derived from the adjective real. Yet some –ly words are not, such as kingly, an adjective derived
from the noun king. You should not use it as a substitute for regally since this is an adverb derived from the adjective regal.
2.2. Noun Phrase
2.2.1 Determiners
Determiners, positioned before nouns, are words which express (1) degrees of definiteness (i.e., degrees of
certainty by the speaker and hearer of the actual identity of the nouns referred to), or (2) the position of the nouns relative to
the speaker or to the text, or (3) their quantity.
The Different Types of Determiners are:
1. Article
a. Indefinite Article – a and an with singular nouns (a chair, an apple), zero for plural nouns (chairs, apples). Use
indefinite articles when you are referring to an item which is not yet commonly known by you and the
reader/hearer.
A occurs before words or initials pronounced with an initial consonant; an occurs before words or initials
pronounced with an initial consonant.
b. Non-definite Article – some with singular noun. Use the non-definite article when you are referring to an entity
identifiable to some extent by you and your hearer or reader, but which you prefer not to name, e.g.: Some
man delivered this suspicious package.

2. Demonstrative
a. Near – this (sg), these (pl). Use these demonstratives to indicate that the noun is nearer you than your hearer, or
more recently mentioned in the text.
b. Far – that (sg), those (pl). Use these demonstratives to indicate that the noun is not near you – it may be nearer
your hearer, or far from both of you – or not recently mentioned in the text.
3. Specifier – such, followed immediately by a noun. (Such commodities used to be heavily traded.)

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4. Quantifier
1. any, each, every, either, neither with a singular noun (each gallon, every child)
2. all, some, both, few, many, more with a plural noun (all gallons, some children)
3. less, much with a non-count noun (less attention, much suffering)
5. Negative – no, with a singular noun, meaning “not one,” or with a plural noun, meaning “not any.” No with a
singular noun emphasizes the meaning of “not a single (one).”
>No person should be above the law. >No trees grow above the mountain.
6. Possessive – my, your, his, her, its, our, their denote a sense of belongingness. (his thesis, their theses)
2.2.2. Nouns
Nouns have been commonly defined as “names of persons, places, or things.” This notional definition, however, is
not a good working definition – it cannot be used categorically determine whether a word in English is a noun or not. The
linguistic approach to defining the “noun” is to describe its forms, functions, and possible positions in the basic or kernel
sentence.
Basically, nouns or noun phrases are either proper or common. Proper nouns (Mario, Manila) are specific names,
and are capitalized, while common nouns (student, city) are not capitalized. The different types of common nouns are further
classified according to:
1. grammatical number:
a. collective nouns – e.g. persons (jury, committee), animals (herd, school, convoy)
b. count nouns – e.g. box, package, truck, house, chair
c. non-count or mass nouns – e.g. cloth, water, coffee, wheat, flour
2. reference
a. abstract nouns – e.g. imagination, anger, fear, love, honesty
b. concrete nouns – e.g. thunder, earthquake, fragrance, sweetness
Derivations
1. Adjective-Noun Derivation – Adjectives may be transformed into nouns with their respective derivational suffix.
-age (short-shortage), -ance (brilliant-brilliance), -dom (wise-wisdom), -ion (cautious-caution),
2. Verb-Noun Derivation – Verbs may be transformed into nouns with their respective derivational suffix.
-age (marry-marriage), -al (approve-approval), -ance (perform-performance), -ience (obey-obedience)
3. Nominal Agentive Form (a.k.a. active agentive) from verbs – denote the doer of the action.
-art (brag-braggart), -ent (study-student), -er (teach-teacher), -ist (copy-copyist), -man (sell-salesman)
Noun Transformations
1. Concrete-Abstract – Concrete nouns may be transformed into abstract nouns with their respective inflectional
suffixes, e.g.: -hood (man-manhood), -ship (friend-friendship), -ice (coward-cowardice)
2. Person-Position/Territory – From the title of a person may be derived his position or the territory he controls or rules
over, e.g.: duke-dukedom, duchy, king-kingdom, official-officialdom
3. Nominal Agentives – Nominal agentives may also be formed from nouns to denote the practitioner in the discipline,
or user of the object, e.g.: -ian (history-historian), -er (drum-drummer), -ist (guitar-guitarist)
4. Names referring to place of origin or citizenship – e.g.: Bahamas-Bahamian, Belgium-Belgian, England-English
2.2.3. Gender
Gender in English grammar refers to the biological sex of the noun‟s reference, thus, masculine (god) or feminine
(goddess) for animate nouns, neuter for inanimate nouns (universe).
1. The feminine form of nouns is generally constructed by adding –ess, e.g.: baron-baroness, count-countess, lion-
lioness, host-hostess, prince-princess, steward-stewardess, villain-villainess.
2. Some get their masculine or agentive suffix –or/-er replaced by –ress, e.g.: actor-actress, director-directress,
instructor-instructress, traitor-traitress, murderer-murderess, sculptor-sculptress, songster-songstress.
3. Some undergo a slight stem change, e.g.: duke-duchess, emperor-empress.
4. A few Latin forms are also used in English, e.g.: alumnus-alumni, emeritus-emerita.
5. Some masculine-feminine pairs of nouns are idiomatic, e.g.: groom-bride, boy-girl, dog-bitch, hero-heroine,
merman-mermaid, merman-mermaid, warlock-witch.
6. Some apparently masculine forms are being transformed into gender-neutral ones, mostly in response to criticism
about “sexism” in language, e.g.: chairman-chairperson/chair, salesman-salesperson, policeman-police officer.
7. Some are readily associated with a particular sex such that the other –gender forms need modifying words, e.g.:
nurse-male nurse, doctor/physician- lady doctor/physician, alto-male alto or countertenor.

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2.2.4. Number
Grammatical number refers to the meanings “singular” and “plural” as signaled initially in the noun, and, because of
agreement rules, also in the determiner and verb. Nouns form the plural in regular and irregular ways.
1. The most common regular plural form is constructed by adding –s, e.g.: fact-facts, lie-lies.
2. Regular nouns ending in the sounds “s”, “sh”, “ch” or “z” take –es for the plural form, e.g.: batch-batches, buzz-
buzzes, flash-flashes, kiss-kisses.
3. Nouns ending “-se” get only the written suffix “-s” but the resulting plural form is actually a full syllable “-es”, e.g.:
hose-hoses, rose-roses.
4. Regular nouns ending in “o” preceded by a vowel take “-s”, e.g.: cameo-cameos, radio-radios, zoo-zoos.
5. Nouns ending in “o” preceded by a consonant are tricky. Some take an “-es” for the plural form, e.g.: echo-echoes,
hero-heroes, potato-potatoes. Others take only “-s”, e.g.: embryo-embryos, Filipino-Filipinos, photo-photos. Some
use either “-s” or “-es”, e.g.: cargo-cargo/cargoes, halo-halos/haloes, mango-mangos/mangoes.
6. Nouns ending in “ix” or “ex” undergo a stem change and take the form “-ices”, e.g.: apex-apices, index-
indices/indexes, vertex-vertices/vertexes, vortex-vortices/vortexes.
7. Nouns ending in “f” or “fe” undergo a stem change and take the form “-ves”, e.g.: calf-calves, elf-elves, half-halves,
knife-knives, leaf-leaves, loaf-loaves, sheaf-sheaves, shelf-shelves.
Exception 1: belief-beliefs, chief-chiefs, cliff-cliffs, gulf-gulfs, oaf-oafs, proof-proofs, reef-reefs, safe-safes
Exception 2: Some nouns ending in “f” take both forms, e.g.: dwarf-dwarfs/dwarves, scarf-scarfs/scarves.
8. Nouns ending with “-y” preceded by a consonant form the plural by replacing the “-y” with “-ies” e.g.: ally-allies,
baby-babies, country-countries, lady-ladies, lily-lilies, reply-replies.
9. Nouns ending with “-y” preceded by a vowel form the plural with the regular “-s”, e.g.: bay-bays, decoy-decoys, guy-
guys, jersey-jerseys, jockey-jockeys, key-keys, ray-rays.
Except nouns ending in “-quy”, e.g.: colloquy-colloquies, obloquy-obloquies, soliloquy-soliloquies
Irregular Plurals
Many nouns, especially loan words, have irregular plural forms brought into modern English from their respective
languages of origin.
1. Anglo-Saxon Plurals: brother-brethren, child-children, die-dice, foot-feet, goose-geese, louse-lice, man-men,
mouse-mice, ox-oxen, tooth-teeth, woman-women
2. Latin Plurals: abacus-abaci, agendum-agenda, alumna-alumnae, amoeba-amoebae, bacillus-bacilli, bacterium-
bacteria, crocus-croci, erratum-errata, forum-for a, fungus-fungi, gymnasium-gymnasia, modus operandi-modi
operandi, nucleus-nuclei
3. Greek Plurals: analysis-analyses, automaton-automata/automatons, axis-axes, crisis-crises, dogma-dogmata,
schema-schemata, thesis-theses, trauma-traumata, oasis-oases
4. French Plurals: adieu-adieux, beau-beaux, bijou-bijoux, coup d‟ etat-coups d‟ etat
5. Italian Plurals: alto-alti/altos, concerto/concerti/concertos, mafioso-mafiosi, palazzo-palazzi, solo-soli/solos
6. Hebrew Plurals: cherub-cherubim/cherubs, seraph-seraphim/seraphs
7. Nouns have a zero plural affix, i.e., the singular and plural forms are spelled and pronounced the same, e.g.: deer,
elite, headquarters, means, ,moose, odds, regalia, reindeer, salmon series, sheep, species, trout, vermin
8. Names of nationalities and languages which have the same form in the singular and plural, e.g.: Chinese, English,
French, Irish, Japanese, Portuguese.
9. Some nouns which normally have a zero affix for the plural are given a regular plural affix in professional usage, to
refer to different species or varieties, e.g.: fish-fishes, grass-grasses, rice-rices.
10. Non-count nouns are pluralized by adding a quantifier, e.g.: advice-pieces of advice, bread-pieces/slices/loaves of
bread, fish-school of fish, food-food items, graft and corruption- cases/instances of graft and corruption
11. Some nouns are plural in form and use, e.g.: antics, assets, barracks, briefs, clothes, eyeglasses, goods, literati,
manners, minutes, nuptials, pliers, premises, proceedings
12. Letters, figures, symbols, signs, and words referred to as words take „-s” for the plural form. These are spelled with
an apostrophe, -„s, e.g.: $‟s, =‟s, 2‟s, if‟s, or‟s.
13. Current editorial practice in print media, however, omit the apostrophe for plurals of numerals and acronyms, e.g.:
1990s, „90s or 90s, CDFs, NGOs.
14. Titles used with names take idiomatic plural forms. Some use the English regular plural form, others use the
French plural form. Note the abbreviation of the plural, e.g.; Mr. Aranda-Messrs Aranda, Mrs. de Vera-Mesdames
de Vera, Miss Henson-the two Misses Henson, Doctor Mendoza-Doctors Mendoza.
15. Title and name combinations may pluralize the name instead of the title. Still, the plural should occur only once, e.g.:
Mrs. de Vera-Mrs. de Veras, Miss Henson- the two Miss Hensons, Doctor Mendoza-Doctor Mendozas.
16. Compound nouns take the plural form in the principal noun, e.g.: curriculum vitae-curricula vitae, daughter-in-law-d
daughters-in-law, editor in chief-editors in chief, jailhouse-jailhouses, passerby-passersby.

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2.2.5. Pronouns
A pronoun is traditionally defined as a word that replaces a noun. This is not quite accurate. Often in conversations,
it is the noun which replaces the pronoun, such as when you talk about something without knowing what its name is at first.
There are times, too, when the pronoun cannot be said to replace a noun but simply refers to the speaker/writer or
hearer/reader.
Pronouns may be defined as a closed set of nominals whose referents are established in context. That they are
closed set means all the forms can be listed, which cannot be said for nouns since these constitute an open set. That their
referents are established in context means they do not have any definite meaning by themselves apart from what the act of
communication assigns to them.
In addition, pronouns are composite of various grammatical grammatical morpheme. For example, she means
personal, singular, third person, female or feminine (gender), and subjective (case).

Classification
1. Personal Pronouns

Subjective Objective Possessive

Singular 1st Person I me my/mine
2nd Person you you your/yours
3rd Person, masculine he him his
feminine she her her/hers
neuter it it its
Plural 1st Person we us our/ours
2nd Person you you your/yours
3rd Person they them their/theirs

The word you, whether singular or plural, always takes a plural verb.
2. Relative Pronouns –derive their grammatical number from the number of their antecedent.
Subjective Objective Possessive
Human who whom whose
Non-human which which which
H or non-h that that

3. Demonstrative Pronouns – indicate their relative distance (d1 - this & these – near the speaker / d2 - that those –
far from the speaker), and grammatical number.
Singular Plural
d1 this these
d2 that those

4. Interrogative Pronouns
Subjective Objective Possessive
Eliciting Human who whom whose
Non-human what what
Selecting which which

5. Indefinite Pronouns
(Singular) Compound forms: combinations of the forms some-, any-, no- and every- with the forms –one, -body- and
–thing, e.g.: someone, anyone, no one, somebody, anybody, nobody, something, someone, everyone, everybody, etc.
(Singular) Simple forms: one, little, much
(Plural) –both, many, few, several, others
(Singular or plural) – according to sense: all, most some
6. Impersonal Pronouns - allow you to refer to both genders at the same time, e.g.: one. In many cases, one is a
formal substitute for he/she, you, or we.
7. Distributive Pronouns – are always singular, e.g.: each, either, neither.
8. Reflexive Pronouns – are used to refer back to the subject – as (1) the form of the object if the object is the same
person as the subject, as (2) a kind of appositive to emphasize the subject, and (3) with by to mean the action
is done alone by the referent.
Singular Plural
1st Person myself ourselves
2nd Person yourself yourselves
3rd Person, masculine himself themselves
feminine herself themselves
neuter itself themselves

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2.2.6. Case
In English, case refers to the form of the noun and pronoun as dictated by their function in the sentence, or
meaning. The three basic forms are subjective, objective and possessive. Generally, the “subjective” case applies to
pronouns functioning as subject of the sentence, or complement of the verb “be”; the “objective” case applies to pronouns
functioning as object of a preposition or transitive verb; the “possessive” case applies to nouns and pronouns indicating
possession, or nouns and pronouns functioning as subject of an embedded clause whose verb takes the suffix “-ing.”
Subjective and Objective Cases:
Forms
Subjective Objective
I me
you you
he him
she her
it it
we us
they them

1. Subject of the Verb – e.g. We must be organized.

2. Object of a Preposition – e.g. Such clothes are certainly not for me.
3. Appositive – e.g. The new crimebusters, Atty. Galvez and I, were selected by the Commissioner.
The Commissioner selected the new crimebusters, Atty. Galvez and me.
4. Complement with “be” – e.g. It is I. That is she.
5. Comparative with “as” or “than” – e.g. He has many degrees as she has. He has as many degrees as she.
6. Object of the prepositions “but” and “like” – e.g. Nobody but him was able to complete the test.
Reflexive Case:
Forms

Subjective Reflexive
I myself
you (sg) yourself
he himself
she herself
it itself
we ourselves
you (pl) yourselves
they themselves

The reflexive form is used:

1. To refer to an object pronoun which refers back to the subject – e.g. We must train ourselves constantly.
2. To emphasize the noun or pronoun which it refers to – e.g. I myself handled the workshop.
3. To indicate that the action was done “on one‟s own” or “unaided” – e.g. The chairman himself choose to ignore the
agenda.
Possessive Case
The Possessive case denotes a sense of belonging, as in actual ownership (David‟s pen, the pen of David) or in
intent (David‟s room, the room for David). The of and for phrases are used more often when the object noun of of/for is
inanimate, e.g., the contents of the book vs. the book’s contents.
Forming the Possessive of Nouns:
1. Generally, the possessive case if formed by adding “-s” to the singular noun, e.g.: the President’s favorite
or plural noun which does not end in the plural suffix “-s”, e.g.: the women’s organization
or only apostrophe to the plural noun ending in “-s”, e.g. the presidents’ first ladies
2. Common nouns with more than one syllable and ending in “-s” take only an apostrophe, e.g.: albatross‟ wings
3. Proper nouns ending in “-s” form the possessive in both ways, e.g.: Jesus‟ teachings, Moses‟ laws
4. Single-syllable names often occur with apostrophe and “-s”, e.g.: Zeus‟s children
5. Compound nouns add the possessive suffix to their last element, e.g.: editor in chief - editor in chief‟s, father-in-law
– father-in-law‟s, someone else – someone else‟s
6. Compound nouns joined by a conjunction may add the possessive suffix in two ways, with different meanings.
Jack and Jill‟s (joint ownership), Jack‟s and Jill‟s (separate ownership)
7. When a noun is followed by an appositive, the possessive suffix is added to the appositive, e.g.: This is Mr. Lopez,
the manager‟s, personal car.

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 Forming the Possessive of pronouns:
The possessive case of personal pronouns is formed idiomatically. There are two forms, a predicative (after the
verb “be”, e.g.: That is mine.), and an attributive (before the modified noun, e.g.: That is my bag.).

Subjective Possessive Possessive

Attributive Predicative
I my mine
you your yours
he his his
she her hers
it its its
we our ours
they their theirs

2.3. Verb Phrase

2.3.1. Verbs
Classification of English verbs:
1. Intransitive – In the kernel sentence (simple, declarative, affirmative, active sentence posited as the basic sentence
in English) these verbs do not have complements, i.e., they are not followed by noun or adjective phrases,
since they indicate actions done by the subject, involving no one or nothing else, e.g. The lame walked. Mt.
Pinatubo exploded.
2. Transitive – These verbs are followed by noun phrases functioning as their direct object, e.g.: The congressman
bought an island. The townsfolk saw an apparition.
3. Ascriptive – These verbs are followed by a noun phrase, adjective phrase, or adverb of place or time (which may be
a prepositional phrase). They are also known as linking verbs, copular or copulative verbs, or verbs of
incomplete predication. They ascribe as an identity, and quality, e.g.: The time is now. The World became flesh. We
remain silent.
4. Impersonal – These verbs, which also belong to other classification, may take an impersonal it as subject. These
are generally verbs which refer to the weather or denote impressions, e.g.: It is raining. It seems that not all is
clear.
5. Reflexive – These verbs take the reflexive pronoun, indicating actions done by the actor for himself, e.g.: Scholars
pride themselves on their theories and discoveries. Most students enjoy themselves during vacation periods.
6. Modal – These verbs occur before the main verb, and denote modification of the basic meaning of the main verb, in
terms of attitude, conditionality of the action, and the like.
simple:
inflected:
irregular:
present past
can could
may might
shall should
will would
regular:
dare dared

uninflected:
must
need

phrasal
inflected:
be about to
be (going) to
have to
uninflected:
had better
ought to
used to

7. Auxiliary – These verbs are used to complete the verb phrase in certain constructions such as the emphatic, the
negative, the passive, or the perfect and progressive aspects, e.g.: Light does have like a particle or a wave. The
economy is showing signs of improvement. DepEd has seriously considered transferring the opening of school year
to June.

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Derivations
1. Nouns may be transformed into verbs with their respective derivational suffixes.
a. “-ize” – computer-computerize, emphasis-emphasize, energy-energize
b. “-en” – case-encase, code-encode, rage-enrage, trap-entrap
c. “-ify” – beauty-beautify, city-citify
2. Adjectives may be transformed into verbs with their respective derivational suffixes:
a. “-ize” – central-centralize, commercial-commercialize, modern-modernize
b. “-en” – black-blacken, fat-fatten, fresh-freshen, hard-harden, thick-thicken, white-whiten
c. “-ify” – dandy-dandify, pure-purify, simple-simplify, solid-solidify

2.3.2. Principal verbs

Traditionally, English verbs are said to have five principal parts, i.e., five main inflections: infinitive (to go), present
tense (go, goes), past tense (went), present participle (going), and past participle (gone).

The past participle which has regular and irregular forms, appears as an inflection for the perfect aspect and the
passive transformation.
1. The regular forms are:
rd
infinitive present (3 per, sg) past past participle
bloom blooms bloomed bloomed
climb climbs climbed climbed
study studies studied studied
2. Verbs which do not change in form for the past tense and past participle:
rd
infinitive present (3 per, sg) past past participle
bet bets bet bet
burst bursts burst burst
cast casts cast cast
3. Verbs which have the same form for the past tense and past participle:
rd
infinitive present (3 per, sg) past past participle
bend bends bent bent
build builds built built
have has had had
leave leaves left left
4. Verbs which have the same form for the past tense and past participle, but which also change the vowel of the
stem:
rd
infinitive present (3 per, sg) past past participle
bind binds bound bound
bleed bleeds bled bled
feed feeds fed fed
fight fights fought fought
find finds found found
flee flees fled fled
hold holds held held
meet meets met met
sell sells sold sold
shoot shoots shot shot
slide sides slid slid
sneak sneaks snuck snuck
speed speeds sped sped
strike strikes struck struck
swing swings swung swung
win wins won won

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5. Verbs which have the same form for the past tense and past participle, but which also change vowel of the stem
and have an added “-t” or “-d” suffix:
rd
infinitive present (3 per, sg) past past participle
bring brings brought brought
buy buys bought bought
feel feels felt felt
hear hears heard heard
hold holds held held
keep keeps kept kept
lay lays laid laid
lose loses lost lost
mean means meant meant
pay pays paid paid
say says said said
seek seeks sought sought
sell sells sold sold
sleep sleeps slept slept
stand stands stood stood
sweep sweeps swept swept
teach teaches taught taught
tell tells told told
think thinks thought thought
6. Verbs which have quite different forms for the present tense, past tense and past participle:
infinitive present past past participle
be am, is, are was, were been
do does, do did done
go goes, go went gone
see sees, see saw seen
7. Verbs which have different forms because of vowel changes:
rd
infinitive present (3 per, sg) past past participle
begin begins began begun
become becomes became become
blow blows blew blown
come comes came come
drink drinks drank drunk
ring rings rang rung
run runs ran run
sing sings sang sung
sink sinks sank sunk
spin spins span spun
spring springs sprang sprung
stink stinks stank stunk
swim swims swam swum
8. Verbs which change the vowel for the past tense, and then add “-n” to the past tense form for the past participle:
rd
infinitive present (3 per, sg) past past participle
bear bears bore borne/born
break breaks broke broken
choose chooses chosen chosen
forget forgets forgot forgotten
freeze freezes froze frozen
get gets got gotten
hide hides hid hidden
lie (recline) lies lay lain
speak speaks spoke spoken
steal steals stole stolen
swear swears swore sworn
tear tears tore torn
wear wears wore worn
2.3.3. Tense and Aspect
The Tense and aspect (perfect and progressive) forms in English may be formulated as follows:
tense + (modal verb) + (perfect) + (progressive) + verb stem
where
tense – past, present
modal verb – will, shall, can, may, dare, must, ought to, had, etc.
perfect – have + en [or present participle]
progressive – be + ing [or present participle]

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Tense Usage:
1. Present Tense
a. a statement held to be generally true at the moment of speaking, e.g.: The moon is made of the same materials as
earth.
b. a statement of a habit or usual activity, e.g.: Bicolanos cook many dishes with coconut and chili.
c. a commentary about an ongoing activity, e.g.: The traffic light turns yellow and drivers go even faster to beat the red
light.
d. stage directions and synopses, e.g.: Tiresias turns away from Oedipus and is led out.
e. a statement about some prearranged activity, e.g.: The space shuttle flies again next month for experiments in
crystals.

2. Past Tense
a. a statement which was true in the past but no longer, or not necessarily, true at the moment of speaking, e.g.: The
young Mozart was the darling of Europe.
b. a statement which became true in the past, i.e., the action or state referred to by the verb happened in the past,
e.g.: An asteroid impacted in the bay of Mexico at the close of the Jurassic period.
nd
c. an if statement which is not real, yet applies to the present [2 conditional, or “present-unreal”], e.g.: If he
understood the staff‟s sentiments, he would know whom to appoint as their director. [i.e. He did not understand, and
He does not know]
d. a tentative or polite statement , with modal verbs, e.g.: Could I record this interview?

3. Present Perfect Tense

a. a statement which was true in the past and is still relevant to the present, or continuing at present, e.g.: Since 1992,
the words “consultation,” and “empowerment,” have become popular, and often misused, terms.
b. a statement with the adverb just, to indicate a recently completed action, e.g.: she has just eaten.

4. Past Perfect Tense

a. a statement which was true, or an action which was completed before another past action or past time reference,
e.g. The mail arrived right after you had gone.
rd
b. an if statement which is not real, applying to the past [3 conditional, or “past-unreal”], e.g.: If the tapes had been
erased or destroyed, he would not have incriminated himself.

5. Future Perfect Tense

a. a statement which will be completed before another future action or future time reference, e.g.: Before the next
term begins, these textbooks will have run out of copies.
The progressive aspect is used to indicate continuing action at given points in time – past, present (moment of
speaking), or future, e.g.: He was playing piano earlier. He is playing piano now. He is playing the piano later.
The progressive of the verb be is used to indicate a temporary or fanciful state, e.g.: I am being a classroom
teacher, I should really be guidance counselor.

The perfect and progressive combinations put together the respective meanings of both aspects, e.g.: Alice had
been learning French before she went to France.
Some verbs (cost, love, know, like, need, own, understand, and want) do not take the progressive aspect, e.g.: He
has been knowing the answer (incorrect) vs. He has known the answer (correct).
Verbals are forms of the verb which take auxiliaries other than tense. These verbals may actually be derived from
the basic formulation. The three kinds of verbals are:
1. infinitive: to + verb stem
2. gerund: verb stem + ing
3. participle:
present participle: verb stem + ing, e.g.: The boy dancing is the director‟s son.
past participle: verb stem + part, e.g.: Satisfied, the producer began paying the artists.
perfect participle: having + verb stem + part, e.g.: Having recovered her voice, the soprano hit her top notes well.
passive perfect participle: having been + verb stem + part, e.g.: Having been received well by the audience, the
lead actor took an extra bow.
Tense of Reported Speech
The traditional rule of making the verb of a reported statement use the same tense as the reporting clause, (The
registrar said it was not possible for me to shift courses a fourth time) is no longer held as a strict rule. Rather, the meaning
of the reported speech dictates its tense. If it is still true as of the moment of speaking, the present tense is used; if not, then
the past (The registrar said it is not possible for me to shift courses a fourth time)
2.3.4. Mood
Mood refers to the way by which a language signals an attitude about or an interpretation of the idea being
expressed in the sentence. The three moods are:
1. indicative – states a fact or supposition; asks a question;
2. subjunctive – qualifies the truth of the statement;
3. imperative – expresses a command.
Use indicative mood form for making assertions, e.g.: Another proof is the bending of the sun‟s rays as they pass
through a gravitational field.

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 Use the subjunctive form for the following reasons:
1. to express an unfulfilled wish, e.g.: Would I had had more time? (This form is dated.)
2. after if, expressing something which is not factual, e.g.: If they were less ruthless, they would be more popular.
I shouldn‟t do it, if I were you.
However, if the clause expresses a condition which might be fulfilled, the indicative forms are used, e.g.: If it rains,
the concert will be held indoors.
3. after lest
Take care lest the garage charge you more than it should.
4. after as if and as though, expressing something which is accepted as not true, e.g.: He talked to his secretary as if
she were an idiot.
If, with certain verb inflections, signals significant Distinctions in time, truth, and probability. These combinations are
known as the conditionals.
1. zero conditional (general truth), e.g.: If hydrogen is mixed with oxygen, an explosion occurs.
st
2. 1 Conditional (future-probable), e.g.: If I take your offer, I will be richer.
nd
3. 2 Conditional (present-unreal), e.g.: If I took your offer, I would be richer.
rd
4. 3 Conditional (past-unreal), e.g.: If I had taken your offer, I would have been richer.
The verb in the wish clause, i.e., the subordinate clause functioning as object of the verb wish, is always in the
subjunctive form. The verse I wish I may…I wish I might…is a good reminder for this rule. Another example is I wish I could
play the piano.
The subordinator that is often omitted in the “wish clause”, e.g.: I wish that I should have used the metric system vs.
I wish I should have used the metric system.
For the verb be, the form were is preferred even if the subject is singular, e.g.: I wish I were…
The phrase would have in a “wish clause” should be replaced by had, e.g.: I wish I had outlined my ideas more
clearly.
2.4. Agreement
Agreement of Subject and Verb:
The verb of a sentence must agree in number with the subject. The difference between the singular and plural
forms of the verb appears only in the present tense (except for be); even then, problems with agreement of subject and verb
arise because many types of academic writing use the present tense more than any other tense.
1. auxiliary verbs
When the auxiliary verb do is used, as in the negative or interrogative sentence, it is the one which agrees with the
simple subject, and not the main verb, e.g.: Policy sometimes doesn‟t reflect public opinion. Don‟t his antics disturb you?
2. Personal Pronouns as Subject:
st
The linking verb be must also agree in person with the subject. A special form for the 1 person appears in the
present tense form of be, e.g.: I am, I was, You are, You were, He/she/it is, He/she/it was, We are, We were, They are, They
were. The personal pronoun “you” always takes a plural verb. It is the context which communicates whether “you” is singular
or plural.
3. Indefinite Pronoun as Subjects
The indefinite pronouns everyone, everybody, everything, little, etc. are always singular. The indefinite pronouns
many, some, few, others, etc. are generally regarded as plural. The indefinite pronouns all, most, and some may be singular
or plural depending on the grammatical number of the nouns they refer to, e.g.: All the singers are here vs. All are here, All
the world is calm vs. All is here.
4. Collective Nouns as Subject:
Collective nouns (not to be confused with mass nouns), such as audience, Cabinet, commission, committee,
council, couple, crew, family, group, jury, majority, minority, pair, personnel, and staff are treated as singular if the reference
is to the group altogether, and as a plural if the reference is to the members of the group as individuals.
5. Proper Nouns as Subject:
Proper nouns, even if in the plural form, are generally treated as singular. This rule applies as well to titles of books,
stories, musical compositions, and other creative works, as well as to names of countries, e.g.: The United Nations was
forced to vote on the issue. The UP Madrigal Singers is featured in the concert.
Exception: Names of mountain ranges and groups of islands which are in the plural form are plural in number, e.g.:
the Alps, the Cordilleras, the Bahamas, the Hawaiian Islands, the Himalayas, the Hebrides
6. Singular Nouns ending in –s:
Some nouns ending in “-s” are actually singular. Note that removing the “-s‟ will not produce a singular noun, e.g.:
economics, linguistics, logistics, mathematics, news.
7. Subjects with of phrase:
Somewhat confusing are subjects with an of phrase, since the word of may be the last word of a prediterminer (e.g.
a number of the survivors) or the first word of a prepositional phrase (e.g. the number of the survivors). If the former, then,
the verb agrees with the noun after of, if the latter, the verb agrees with the noun before of, e.g.: A number of survivors suffer
from amnesia.
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8. Compound subjects:
Noun phrases joined by and are plural, e.g.: Maria and Tony are the ill-fated lovers in that musical. This rule does
not apply when and is followed by not, e.g.: Love not hate makes the world go round. Subject noun phrases joined by and
which are taken as one unit constitute a singular subject, e.g.: Coffee and cookies is my favorite snack. When subject noun
phrases are joined by or, nor, either…or, neither…nor, the verb agrees with the nearer noun phrase, e.g.: There appears to
be no index nor tables in this report.
9. Subjects with predeterminers:
Distinguish between prediterminers and simple subjects. Forms like a lot of, a quantity of, and a number of are
tricky prediterminers, e.g.: A lot of the people were drunk. A number of the ladies were not sober.
10. Subjects with Modifiers
The verb agrees with the simple subject. Do not be confused by modifiers of the subject, e.g.: One of the
businesses is bound to fail. The leader with his followers was arrested.
Modifying phrases beginning with with, together with, along with, and as well as do not affect the number of the
simple subject, e.g.: Jerry, as well as his brother, is on the
11. Subjects with Quantifiers and Terms of Measurement:
The quantifiers every, each, and many a modify singular nouns. Even if the nouns are in a series, the subject
remains singular in number, e.g.; Every driver, technician, and supervisor is supposed to time in.
Quantifiers, including fractions, as subjects are singular, e.g.: Half the cakes were eaten up. vs. Half was eaten up.
Expressions of time, amount of money, and rate are singular, e.g.: Fifty pesos is how much a cup of coffee costs at the hotel,
but with endless refills.
12. Relative and Interrogative Pronouns as Subject:
The relative pronouns who, which, and that assume the grammatical number of the noun they refer to, e.g.: She is
one among the women managers in this company who complain about sexism [who refers to manager]. The nominal
interrogative pronouns who and what, when functioning as subject, assume the grammatical number of the nouns they are
eliciting, e.g.: Who have the six best jobs in Hong Kong?
13. Adverbs between Subject and Verb:
Quite often, adverbs (e.g. at times, sometimes, always) which are positioned between the subject and the verb
cause the writer or speaker to commit an agreement error. This happens especially when the adverb ends in –s, which
somehow triggers a false plural sense, e.g.: A Broadway musical always makes for good entertainment.
14. Subjects which follow the verb:
Some sentences are in the inverted order, where the predicate precedes the subject. Remember that even in the
inverted order, the verb still agrees with the simple subject, e.g.: Here comes the bride, there goes the groom.
The verb of equational sentences, whose subject and complement may be reversed in position, always agrees with
the noun phrase appearing in subject position, e.g.: Black holes are his pet theory. vs. His pet theory is black holes.

The verb phrase there is/there are agrees

15. The Subject of a Cleft Sentence:
The craft sentence begins with it is. This should not be confused with the existential. The verb be in the cleft
sentence agrees with it and, is always singular.; e.g.: It is the boys who pulled the prank.
16. Adjectives as Subject:
A subject of an adjective with the is treated as plural, unless the context of the sentence clearly shows that the
adjective modifies a singular noun which is omitted in the construction. Grammatically, the adjective as subject is the result
of an ellipsis in which the noun it modifies, presumably understood in context, has been omitted, e.g.: Only the good die
young. vs. Only the good ones die young.
Agreement of Pronoun and Antecedent
Personal pronouns agree in number (singular/plural) and gender (masculine/feminine) with the nouns they refer to,
e.g.: We told our matron that she is most welcome to join our party.
When a third person singular pronoun is needed for a personal noun, it is better to use the pronoun he and treat it
as generic, than the awkward he/she or even the construction s/he, e.g.: The theatre needs a good ticket clerk. He should be
good at handling the details of production titles and schedules.
It and they are used to refer to nouns referring to non-humans (e.g., pets, institution, countries). After the first use of
these, you may use the pronoun they provided it does not ambiguously refer to human nouns as well, e.g.: Martha has long
been my favorite pet snake. She just coils up so cutely.
Collective nouns, even when denoting people, as referred to by it if singular, they if plural, e.g.: he committee
finalized its list of recommendees. As expected, it spent nearly an hour deciding on who will make the presentation.
The indefinite pronouns anyone, anything, everyone, everything, anybody and everybody are grammatically
singular, e.g.: Everybody is welcome to apply but he is not assured of admission.
Demonstrative Pronouns agree in number with the nouns they refer to, e.g.: These striking personnel should be
stricken off from the rolls.

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 Relative Pronouns also agree with their antecedent nouns. Human nouns take who, non-human nouns take which
(unless personified, such as pets). Either type may take that, but that relative clause should be used as restrictive clause,
e.g.: The accountant who/that dared present incriminating evidence of corruption was transferred to still another branch
(restrictive clause). Which is also used to refer to collective nouns even if these refer to people, e.g.; The tribes which settled
in America came from Northeast Asia. In the objective case, the human relative pronoun is whom, the non-human is still
which, e.g.: Our teachers, whom we admire, are severely underpaid. The schools, which CHED allowed to charge us such
high fees, should pay our teachers better. In the possessive case, the human relative pronoun is whose. The non-human is
of which, which involves a change in word order. Whose can also be used for non-human antecedents, provided it does not
confuse the nature of the noun referred to, e.g.: We should patronize only those newspapers whose reports are accurate.
2.5. Adjectives and Adverbs
Adjectives are words that modify pronouns, nouns, or noun phrases. When they occur after the linking verbs, they
modify the subject of the verb and are called predicative adjectives. When they occur before (rarely after) a noun or a noun
phrase which they modify, they are called attributive adjectives.
A few adjectives are exclusively attributive, i.e., occurring only before a noun, never after a verb, e.g.: complete,
current, extreme, in-depth, initial, latest, mere, only, present, previous, same, etc.
Even fewer are adjectives that are exclusively predicative, i.e., occurring only after a verb, never before a noun,
e.g.: alike, all right, ashamed, awake, aware, etc.
The negative prefix for adjectives varies according to the word modified. Always consult a dictionary for a form you
are unsure of.
a – (acausal, amoral, apolitical), dis (disagreeable, disbelieving, dishonorable, dissatisfied), im (immature, immobile,
improper), in (inconsistent, incongruent, incurable, inaccurate, inaudible), il )illegal, illegible, illogical), ir (irregular, irrelevant,
irresponsible), mis (misgoverned, misplaced), non (nonacademic, nontoxic), un (unavoidable, uncontested, unequal)
Derivations:
Nouns may be transformed into adjective with their respective derivational suffixes. As with the negative prefix,
these derivational suffixes have their respective sets of adjectives.
able (profit-profitable), ac (demon-demoniac), al (form-formal), ar (molecule-molecular), ate (doctor-doctorate), en
(gold-golden), ent (ambience-ambient), ful (event-eventful), ial (proverb-proverbial), ic (demon-demonic), ical ( whimsy-
whimsical), ine (pork-porcine), ish (child-childish), less (end-endless), like ( child-childlike)
Proper nouns tend to have idiosyncratic adjective forms, e.g.: Buddha-Buddhist, Christ-Christian, Napoleon-
Napoleonic, Paul-Paulinian, Pope-papal, Denmark-Danish, Finland-Finnish, Great Britain-British.
Verbs may be transformed into adjectives with their respective derivational suffix, e.g.: ible (collect-collectible), ant
(expect-expectant), ary (imagine-imaginary), ive (act-active).
Ordinal numeral, which are adjectives, have corresponding Latin-bases forms which convey an abstract sense, e.g.:
first-primary, second-secondary, third-tertiary.
Adverbs may be classified, according to their meaning, into:
1. manner [how?]: well, automatically, with care
2. frequency [how often?]: never, sometime, occasionally, seldom, often, daily, always, every
3. place [where?]: here, there, inside, outside, near, nearby
4. time [when?]: now, later, tomorrow, earlier, yesterday, as soon as possible
5. degree [to what extent?]: immensely, completely, partly, mainly, rather, fairly, too, so
6. interrogative: when, where, how, why, on what date, in what place, for what reason
7. affirmation: certainly, surely, assuredly, by all means
8. doubt: perhaps, probably, may be, in all probability
9. approximation: about, approximately, sometime
10. negation: not, by no means
Derivations:
Adjectives may be transformed into adverbs with “-ly” or “-ily”, e.g.: aimless-aimlessly, careful-carefully, momentary-
momentarily, slow-slowly, simple-simply.
Nouns may be transformed into adverbs with “-ways” or “-wise”, e.g.; length-lengthwise, side-sideways.
Common adverbs have the same form as their adjective counterparts, e.g.: fast, hard, late, likely, right, still.
Do not confuse between adjectives and adverbs; adjectives modify nouns, while adverbs modify verbs, adjectives,
and adverbs, such as good (adj.) vs. well (adverb), e.g.: This is a good printers. This printer is now working well. Take of
most vs. mostly vs. almost, real vs. really, some vs. somewhat, sometime vs. at some time vs. sometimes.
2.6. Position
Position of Prepositions and Particles
Ignore the rule which states that you should “never use a preposition with which to end a sentence.” Put the
prepositions or particles where they are more “natural,” following spoken usage, i.e., you may use a preposition to end a
sentence, e.g.; What does the criticism refer to? The Time website was where I got the data from.
Never double the preposition, e.g.: (incorrect) The safety of the students while on a school field trip is something for
which teachers are responsible for.

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Position and Sequence of Adjectives
In the normal word order, the adverbs come at the end of the sentence in the following sequence: (1) adverb of
manner, (2) adverb of place, (3) adverb of time, e.g.: He delivered the lecture excellently at the conference this morning. The
adverb of frequency is placed before the verb, except the verb be, e.g.: Books often seem authoritative, yet are sometimes
erroneous. The adverb of time is often preposed, i.e., put at the beginning of the sentence, e.g.: This morning he delivered
the lecture excellently at the conference.
Position of Modifiers
In general, modifiers must be placed as close as possible to the word or phrase modified. Adjectives in English
generally precede the noun modified. Some idiomatic or poetic constructions, however, position the adjective after the noun,
e.g.: the brothers Grimm (the noun Grimm functions as an adjective).
Intensifiers are positioned before the adjective or adverb modified, e.g.: Many English books in the market are
absolutely outdated.
3. Beyond the Kernel
3.1. Single-Base Transformations
3.1.1. Passive Voice
Kernel sentence with transitive verbs may be transformed into the passive form, whereby the noun phrase
functioning as object of the verb becomes the subject, and the noun phrase functioning as subject of the verb-and denoting
the actor-becomes part of the adverbial phrase of the form “by + noun phrase” which may be deleted, e.g.: The secretary
recorded the meeting (active) vs. The meeting was recorded by the secretary (passive).
Ditransitive verbs (those which take a direct object and an indirect object) may also be transformed into the passive
form with the indirect object as subject of the sentence. These verbs are those which take a to or for complement, e.g.: His
mother gave him a gift (active). vs. A gift was given to him by his mother (passive) or (He was given a gift by his mother
(passive).
3.1.2. Negation
A positive sentence may be transformed into a negative sentence by adding the negative morpheme to the verb
phrase, e.g.: The proctor is here. The proctor is not here.
The basic negative sentence may be further transformed in various ways:
1. by replacing not + indef + NP with no + NP, e.g.: He is not a hero. He is no hero.
2. by replacing not + comparative with no + comparative, e.g.: The new browser is not better than the old one. The
new browser is not better than the old one
3. by shifting the negative to the verb‟s object, e.g.: I didn‟t say anything. I said nothing.
4. by shifting the negative to the verb‟s subject, e.g.: The actors are bad. The actors are not good.
5. by shifting the negative to the main clause, especially with verbs of opinion or perception (though this may give rise
to a slight shift in interpretation), e.g.: Most people don‟t understand evolution. I don‟t think most people understand
evolution.
Avoid double negatives, e.g.: It hasn‟t hardly moved (incorrect). It has hardly moved (correct)? Why doesn‟t he
never write (incorrect)? Why doesn‟t he ever write (correct)? The bamboo rarely blooms, doesn‟t it (incorrect)? The bamboo
rarely blooms, does it (correct)?
The negative Affix has many forms. Though the prefix “–un” is the most common and is used as the general form,
many set of words require different forms of the negative affix.
a - meaning “without” or “not”, e.g.: acausal, amoral, apolitical, asexual, atonal, asymmetrical
ab - meaning “not”, e.g.: abnormal
an - meaning “not”, e.g.: anaerobic, anastigmatic, anhydrous
anti - meaning “against”, e.g.: Antichrist, anticlimax, anti-nuclear, antiracist, anti-viral
counter - meaning “against”, e.g.; counteract, counterbalance, counterclockwise
de - meaning “cancel,” “release,” or “remove”, e.g.: decaffeinated, declassify, deconstruct, deodorize
dis - meaning “not,” “reverse,” „unmake,” or “lack of”, e.g.: disable, disbelieve, disconnect, disgrace, disrobe
free - meaning “without” or “without need of”, e.g.: duty-free, error-free, rust-free, tax-free
ig - meaning “not”, e.g.: ignoble
il - meaning “not”, e.g.: illegal, illegible, illegitimate, illiterate, illogical
im - meaning “not”, e.g.: immobile, immoral, immortal, impartial, impenetrable
in - meaning “not”, e.g.: inaccurate, inconvertible, indefinite, inelegant
ir - meaning “not”, e.g.: irrational, irreligious, irresistible, irrespective, irresponsive
lack - meaning “without”, e.g.: lackluster
less - meaning “without”, e.g.: armless, hairless, loveless, meaningless
mal - meaning “badly,” or “wrongly”, e.g.: maladjusted, malformed, malnutrition, malpractice
mis - meaning “wrong,” “wrongly,” or “faulty”, e.g.: misadventure, misfortune, misread, misuse
non - meaning “”not”, e.g.: nonacceptance, nonresident, nonsmoker
un - meaning “no” or “not”, e.g.: unbending, unforgiving, unmanly, unpronounced
un - meaning “release/remove from” a restriction, e.g.: unbind, unbridled, unhook, unscrew, unwind
un - meaning “undo”, e.g.; uncover, undress, unlearn, unseat, unthrone

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3.1.3. Other Single Transformations
The emphatic form is constructed by adding the auxiliary do, does, did before the verb stem and making it take the
tense morpheme. The emphatic form is not applicable to the verb be, nor to the verb phrases with modal verbs, or the
perfect progressive aspects, e.g.: She does love you. They do love you. She did love you.
A regular sentence may be transformed into an exclamatory form (or exclamative) by using what followed by the
principal noun phrase in the predicate. The word what replaces the intensifier, e.g.: That was a difficult test. What a difficult
test that was! What a difficult test!
…or by using how followed by the adjective or adverb, then the rest of the sentence, e.g.; She belted out the song.
How well she belted out the song!
Inversion or fronting. A sentence with the verb be may be recast in the inverted form (or fronted form) to postpone
the subject, for greater emphasis, e.g.: The main event is at the end of the program. At the end of the program is the main
event.
Existential. A sentence with the verb be and an indefinite subject may also be recast as an existential sentence. –
beginning with there followed by the be verb phrase, then the subject and the rest of the original sentence – to focus on the
meaning of location or existence of an indefinite noun phrase, e.g.: Many refugees are in the city. There are many refugees
in the city.
Cleft. Any declarative sentence, except an existential, may be transformed into a cleft sentence – beginning with it
followed by the be verb phrase, the fronted word or phrase, and the relativized form of the rest of the original – to focus
attention on a component word or phrase of the original sentence, e.g.: The chairman evaluated your records. It was the
chairman who evaluated your records.
Interrogatives
The “yes/no question” is formed by preposing the inflected verb – placing it before the subject noun phrase. For
verb phrases without be, modal verb, or auxiliary have, the construction “tense + do” is the one fronted or preposed, e..g.: It
is safe. Is it safe? She hears it ticking. Does she hear it ticking? She took the ball. Did she take the ball? The colors are
changing. Are the colors changing?
The “wh-question” is formed by using an interrogative word for the item being asked, such as:
1. who for personal noun, e.g.: Who proposed the term “black hole”?
2. what for a non-personal noun, e.g.: What is a “black hole”?
3. what happens for a verb or full verbal predicate, e.g.: What happens to anything that falls into a black hole?
4. what kind for a modifier, e.g.: What kind of national leader do we need?
5. which for a noun phrase being singled out, or for a determiner and/or attributive adjective, e.g.; Which career is the
most rewarding these days?
6. whom for a personal noun or pronoun in the objective case, e.g.: For whom is the university?
7. whose for a noun in the possessive case, e.g.: Whose preaching should we follow?
8. when for an adverb of time, e.g.: When do we ever start on time?
9. where for an adverb of place, e.g.: Where could I find such information?
10. how for an adjective or adverb of manner, e.g.: How is he as a co-worker?
11. how for a phrase or clause expressing manner or process, e.g.: How do you plan to live in your life?
12. why for a clause expressing reason, e.g.; Why was I born?
Tag questions to declaratives are formed by repeating the inflected verb (whether it is the main verb, an auxiliary
verb, or a modal verb) but in the opposite or contrary mode, an supplying a pronoun to refer to the subject. If the inflected
verb is the simple verb stem (except be), the tag question uses the auxiliary do, does, did, e.g.; Mr. Fernando is late, isn‟t it?
(negative tag for affirmative sentence), Mr. Aranda isn‟t sick, is he? (affirmative tag for negative sentence) Sheila comes late,
doesn‟t she? Sheila and Ann come late, don‟t they? Sheila came late, didn‟t she?
3.2. Double-Base Transformations
3.2.1. Conjoining
Two (or more) sentences which are related may be joined by a conjunction which indicates the meaning
relationship between these sentences. The result is commonly called compound sentence.
Kinds of Conjunctions:
1. Coordinating Conjunctions join sentences which are of roughly equivalent importance. These are classified according to
form:
a. simple (and, but, for, yet, either/neither, or/nor, otherwise
b. correlative (both…and, not…but, either…or, neither…nor, as…so, not only…but also)
c. compound (except that, or else)
2. Conjunctive Adverbs (also known as words of transition, transitional words and phrases, sentence connectors, or
sentence adverbs), indicate particular semantic relationship between the preceding and succeeding sentences. They are
classified below according to the idea they express:
a. addition (also, furthermore, in addition, likewise, moreover)
b. emphasis or restatement (actually, doubtless, evidently, in fact, indeed)
c. comment or alternative idea ( anyhow, besides, in any case)
d. contrast 9however, instead, nevertheless, on the contrary, on the other hand, otherwise, still, yet)
e. result (accordingly, as a result, consequently, for the reason, hence, so then, therefore, thus)
f. time sequence (afterwards, again, at last, finally, hereafter, eventually, meanwhile, later on)
g. parallel idea (in like manner, in other words, in short, that is)
h. example (for example, for instance, namely, next)
i. condition (in all likelihood, perhaps, possibly, presumably, probably)

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3. Subordinating Conjunctions transform sentences into subordinate clauses which function like adverbs in the sentences
to which they are attached. Below is a classification according to meaning:
a. time (after, as, as soon as, before, once, since, till, until, when, whenever, while)
b. reason or purpose (as, because, in order that, inasmuch as, lest, since, so that, whereas, why)
c. result or purpose (so, that, so+adj+that, such a+adj+NS+that, quite a+NS+that)
d. condition (although, even if, if, in case, on condition, that, only, though)
e. opposition/contrast (although, though, whereas)
f. disjunction (unless)
g. place (where, wheresoever, wherever)
h. possibility (whether)
i. process or manner (how)
j. comparison (as well as, adj/adv+comparative+than, as though+as+adj/adv+as)
k. comment (as far as, insofar as)
3.2.2. Comparison
Traditionally, three degrees of comparison are identified:
1. positive – involving one noun phrase; no comparison at all;
2. comparative – involving two noun phrases; and
3. superlative – involving three or more noun phrases.
Only the comparative and the superlative require additional morphemes.
Formation of the Comparative and Superlative Forms:
The comparative and superlative forms of adjectives and adverbs are similar. Adjectives and adverbs with one or
two syllables take the regular suffixes “-er” for the comparative and “-est” for the superlative. Longer adjectives and adverbs
use the modifiers more or less for the comparative, and most or least for superlative, respectively. These modifiers are
positioned before the adjective or adverb modified; e.g.: pleasant>more/less pleasant, most/least pleasant
sad>sadder/less sad, saddest/least sad.
For adjective ending in „-cy”, change the “-y” to “-i” then add the “-er” or “-est”, e.g. dry>drier>driest.
For monosyllabic adjectives ending in consonants, double the final consonant before adding the “-er” or “-est”
suffixes, e.g.: big>bigger>biggest, fat>fatter>fattest.
Some adjectives and adverbs have idiosyncratic forms for the comparative and superlative:

positive comparative superlative

much, many more most
little less least
good, well better best
bad, ill, badly worse worst
far farther farthest, farthermost
further further, furthermost

Use of the Comparative and Superlative Forms

1. The comparative form should be used when referring to one of two noun phrases, the superlative for one of three or more
noun phrases, e.g.: Both sculptures look good, but this is more expensive (comparative). All the sculptures look good, but
this one is the most expensive.
2. The statement of comparison follows several patterns, depending on the meaning you wish to convey:
a. if two nouns are of the same quality, use the form “as + adj + as”, e.g.: Movies are as boring as comic books.
b. if one noun is greater in quality than another, use the form “adj + comp + than”, e.g. Angel is prettier than Ann.
c. if one noun is lesser in quality than another, use the form „less + adj + than” or “not so/as + adj + as”, e.g.: Younger
teachers are less strict than the older ones. This toy is not as tough as that one.
d. if there is the impression that one noun is of greater quality than another, although they are really the same, use the
form “not + adj + comp + than”, e.g.: The winning team is not better than the runner-up.

Avoid double comparisons, i.e., using both the comparative or superlative suffix and modifying word in the same
sentence, e.g.: His grades are more higher than his gangmates (incorrect).
Comparisons should be clear on which items are being compared, e.g.: The professor‟s car is older than his
students. [The car is older than the students? or the car is older than the students‟ cars?]
Items compared should be explicitly set apart from each other; a member should be set apart from the rest of the
group, e.g.: Pollution is worse in Manila than in any city. [But Manila is itself included in the phrase any city.] Pollution is
worse than in any other city.
In the superlative, the focused noun phrase must logically belong to the same set or group as the other noun
phrases, e.g.: Noel is the tallest among his brothers. [Noel is not part of the phrase his brothers.] Noel is the tallest of the
brothers.
Some adjectives do not admit comparisons, nor do they (with few exceptions) occur with intensifiers. These are
called absolute adjectives, e.g.: absolute, extreme, square, omnipotent, omnipresent, omniscient, supreme, final, ideal, total,
immaculate, unique, entire, invaluable, perpetual, essential, everlasting.
Correct, right, and wrong, usually listed as absolute adjectives, may actually admit comparisons, especially when
there are several criteria used for judging “correctness.”

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3.2.3. Embedding
Embedding is the process by which the proposition or meaning of a simple sentence (called the insert sentence)
becomes part of another sentence (called the matrix sentence). This is the grammatical explanation for the piling up of
meanings in a sentence, which accounts for the increase in the difficulty of understanding complex sentences.
“The pretty girl flunked” is already two sentences put together. Note that is someone responds with a “No!” to this
sentence, you are not sure which part of the sentence is being negated: “No, the pretty girl did not flunk.” “No, it was the
plain girl who flunked.” This accounted for by a process that reduces the insert sentence into a nominal clause, then reduced
into a nominal phrase: The girl is pretty>the girl who is pretty>the pretty girl, which could be inserted into a matrix sentence
that refers to the same noun: The pretty girl topped the test again>I saw the pretty girl in the library>She is the pretty girl.
Nominalization with “that.” The subordinator that transforms any declarative sentence into a noun phrase, allowing
the resulting phrase to function as subject or object of a verb, e.g.: The world is round (S) > that the world is round (NP) >
That the world is round is known by all modern cultures.
Dangling Modifiers are subordinate phrases which appear to modify something other than the one intended.
These are largely caused by faulty positioning of the modifier, or failure to supply the noun which is supposed to be modified.
Position the modifier as close as possible to the noun being modified:
Lady Diana warmly welcomed the delegates, suffering from AIDS (incorrect).
Lady Diana warmly welcomed the delegates who were suffering from AIDS (correct).
Avoid dangling modifiers. See to it that the implied subject of the participle is the same as the subject of the main
clause: Going up the stairs, the reports were read by me (incorrect).
Going up the stairs, I read the reports (correct).
Avoid dangling prepositional phrases: Before she was born, Greta‟s mother died (incorrect).
Before Greta was born, her mother died (correct).
4. Text Graphics
4.1. Spelling
English is probably the most chaotically spelled language in the world, owing to its long continuous history as a
written language, its having many dialects, each evolving on its own, its having become appropriated as a lingua franca or
official language by the non-English-speaking countries, and its being so open to influences from other languages. So, to be
sure, always consult a contemporary dictionary, preferably a collegiate version of an international dictionary published not
earlier than the „90s.
Capitals
1. Capitalize the first word of a sentence, including quoted sentences, e.g.: Linguistics is not a esoteric as you think. He
said, “Music is food for the soul.”
2. Capitalize proper nouns, e.g.: Michael Mayo, Isaiah, Zeus.
3. Capitalize geographic and political areas (towns, cities, states, provinces, regions, continents, mountains), e.g.: the
Cordilleras, Pinatubo.
4. Compass points as references to regions are capitalized, but as references to directions, they are not capitalized, e.g.:
The wild West is not a Hollywood creation. Go west, young man.
5. Capitalize buildings, bridges, and other infrastructures, e.g.: Folk Arts Theater, Marcos Highway.
6. Capitalize organizations, bureaucracies, and other social institutions, e.g.: Bureau of Fisheries, Rotary Club of Manila.
7. Capitalize historical periods, events, and documents, e.g.: Philippine-American Revolution, Magna Carta for Public School
Teachers.
8. Capitalize days of the week, months, holidays (not seasons), e.g.: National Heroes Day.
9. Capitalize heavenly bodies, e.g.: Andromeda, Milky Way, Pluto.
10. Capitalize commercial products, e.g.: Coca-Cola, Jollibee.
11. Language courses and specific academic course, e.g.: The school offers Nippongo.
12. Capitalize proper adjectives (adjectives derived from proper nouns), e.g.: A Shakespearean sonnet in three quatrains
and a couplet.
13. Capitalize acronyms of institutional names, e.g.; IMF (International Monetary Fund), CHED (Commission on Higher
Education).
14. Capitalize the title of a person, when placed before the name, e.g.: Vice President Lazaro was the leader of the Speech
Test Team.

Writing is a constant process of decision making, of selecting, deleting, and rearranging material. It is generally
seen as a complex language skill that learners usually find difficult to develop. This could primarily be caused by the fact that
there are a lot of language rules, organizational patterns, and content and cultural issues that should be considered. This
review material focuses on some of the most writing conventions that should be remembered and developed among
learners.
Common Errors
A. Fragment is a group of words that does not express a complete thought.
Two basic causes of fragments:
1. When there are no verbs
2. When a subordinating conjunction is placed before an independent clause
Five types of fragments:
1. Dependent/Subordinate clause, although it has a subject and a verb, cannot stand by itself as a complete sentence; it
can only be part of a sentence, e.g.: My car, which has a dented fender, will be repaired today.
2. Participial Phrase is a participle that is modified by an adverb or adverb phrase or that has a complement. The entire
phrase acts as adjective in a sentence, e.g.: The runner, sitting down now, is my cousin.

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3. Infinitive Phrase is an infinitive with modifiers, a complement, or a subject, all acting together as a single part of speech,
e.g.: We had to phone his employer.
4. Afterthought fragments are additional or extension ideas that writers express in order to expand the previous idea that
he/she has discussed. Afterthoughts usually begin with transitions like: for example, for instance, like, such as, including,
and except.
Jacob has several ways to annoy his instructors. Such as rolling his eyes, smirking, reading supermarket tabloids
during lecture, folding handouts into paper airplanes, and drawing caricatures on his desk.
5. Appositive is used to add more details about the noun or the subject of the sentence. Appositive phrases tend to be
extended especially when the writer wants to provide a detailed description of the subject.
When Dustin pulled into the driveway, Alicia admired his flashy new car. A red convertible with fancy rims and fuzzy
dice hanging from the rearview mirror.
B. Run-on Sentences and Comma Splice
A run A run-on sentence, often simply called a run-on, is two or complete sentences that are unintentionally
capitalized and punctuated as if they were one.
The waves lashed the shore the beach houses were washed away (fused sentence).
In the morning the house was cold, however the sun soon warmed it up (comma splice).
C. Misplaced and Dangling Modifier
A misplaced modifier seems to modify the wrong word in the sentence.
He told us how to cut wood through written directions. (The misplaced prepositional phrase seems to modify cut
rather than told.)
Through written directions, he told us how to cut wood. (corrected sentence)
A dangling modifier seems to modify the wrong word or no word at all because the word it should modify has been
omitted from the sentence.
Playing football all afternoon, my homework remained unfinished. (dangling participial phrase)
Playing football all afternoon, I left my homework unfinished. (corrected sentence)
D. Faulty Parallelism occurs when elements that have the same function in the sentence are not presented in the same
terms.
Many people in developing countries suffer because the countries lack sufficient housing to accommodate them,
sufficient food to feed them, and their healthcare facilities are inadequate. (faulty parallelism)
Many people in developing countries suffer because the countries lack sufficient housing to accommodate them,
sufficient food to feed them, and sufficient healthcare facilities to serve them. (corrected sentence)
E. Faulty Coordination occurs when two or more ideas are not of equal value, and when these ideas are connected by a
coordinating conjunction.
th
George Berkeley was an 18 -century idealist and he believed that there is no existence of matter independent of
perception.
Writing Paragraphs
A paragraph is a group of related sentences, which may be complete in itself or part of a longer piece of writing.
Paragraphs should be unified, coherent, and well-developed.
A paragraph is unified when it focuses on a single idea and develops it. You can create unified paragraphs by
making sure that each paragraph has a topic sentence and that all the sentences in the paragraph support the unifying idea
the topic sentence expresses.
A topic sentence presents the main idea of a paragraph. Placing a topic sentence at the beginning, followed by
supporting sentences, is effective when you want your readers to understand your paragraph‟s unifying idea immediately

You may also place the topic sentence in the final position, particularly when you need to lead your readers through
a logical chain of reasoning in order to get them to accept a controversial or surprising idea.
In some situations – especially in narrative or descriptive paragraphs – a topic sentence can seem forced or
artificial. In such cases, your unifying idea should be implied instead of stated in a topic sentence.
A paragraph is coherent if all its sentences are logically related to one another. You can achieve coherence in
paragraphs by arranging details according to an organizing principle and by using transitional words and phrases, parallel
constructions, and repeated key words and phrases.
1. Arranging Details - 3organizing principles: spatial, chronological, or logical
1. Paragraphs arranged in spatial order establish the perspective from which readers will view details. For example, an
object or scene can be viewed from top to bottom or from near to far. Spatial order is central to descriptive paragraphs.
2. Paragraphs arranged in chronological order present details in sequence, using transitional phrases that establish the
sequence of events – e.g. at first, yesterday, later, etc. This type of organization is central to narrative paragraphs.
3. Paragraphs arranged in logical order present details or ideas in terms of their relative emphasis. The ideas in a
paragraph may move from general to specific or specific to general. A writer may also choose to move from most familiar to
least familiar idea – or from least familiar to most familiar. Alternatively, a paragraph can begin with the least important idea
and move to the most important.

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2. Transitional Words and Phrases aid coherence by indicating the relationships among sentences, establishing spatial,
chronological and logical connections in a paragraph.
Function Transitional/Cohesive Device
again, also, and, and then, besides, equally important, finally, first, further, furthermore, in addition, in the
To show addition
first place, last, likewise, moreover, next, or, still, then, too
afterward, as soon as, at first, at the same time, before, earlier, finally, in the meantime, later, meanwhile,
To signal time
next, now, soon, subsequently, then, until
To signal comparison also, by the same token, likewise, in comparison, similarly
although, but, despite, even though, however, in contrast, instead, meanwhile, nevertheless, nonetheless,
To signal contrast
on the contrary, on the one hand, on the other hand, still whereas, yet
To signal examples for example, for instance, namely, specifically, thus
To signal conclusions/
as a result, consequently, in conclusion, in other words, in summary, therefore, thus, to conclude
summaries
To signal concession admittedly, certainly, granted, naturally, of course
To signal causes &
accordingly, as a result, because, consequently, hence, since, so, then, therefore
effects

3. Parallelism is the repeated use of similar grammatical constructions – can help to increase coherence in a paragraph.
4. Repeating key words and phrases – those essential to meaning – throughout paragraph aids coherence by reminding
readers how the sentences relate to one another and to the paragraph‟s unifying idea. You should not repeat words and
phrases monotonously – a well-written paragraph has variety.
Patterns for Paragraph Development/Writing Genres
1. Narration
Narrative paragraphs tell a story, but do not necessarily arrange events in strict chronological order; a narrative can
begin in the middle of a story, or even at the end, and then move back to the beginning
Before the girls got to the porch, I heard their laughter crackling and popping like pine logs in a cooking stove. I suppose my
lifelong paranoia was born in those cold, molasses-slow minutes. They came finally to stand on the ground in front of Momma. At first they
pretended seriousness. Then one of them wrapped her right arm in the crook of her left, pushed out her mouth and started to hum. I realized
that she was aping my grandmother.

2. Description
In descriptive paragraphs, the most natural arrangement of details reflects the way you actually look at the scene or
object: near to far, top to bottom, side to side, or front to back. The arrangement of details is made clear by transitions that
indentify the spatial relationships.
The dirt of the girls' cotton dresses continued on their legs, feet, arms, and faces to make them all of a piece. Their greasy
uncolored hair hung down, uncombed, with a grim finality. I knelt to see them better, to remember them for all time. The tears that had
slipped down my dress left unsurprising dark spots, and made the front yard blurry and even more unreal. The world had taken a deep
breath and was having doubts about continuing to revolve.

3. Exemplification
Exemplification paragraphs use specific illustrations to clarify a general statement.
Illiterates cannot travel freely. When they attempt to do so, they encounter risks that few of us can dream of. They cannot read
traffic signs and, while they often learn to recognize and to decipher symbols, they cannot manage street names which they haven’t seen
before.
4. Process
Process paragraphs describe how something works, presenting a series of steps in strict chronological order.
Transitional words such as first, next, and finally link steps in the process.
Members of the court have disclosed, however, the general way the conference is conducted. It begins at ten A.M. and usually
runs on until later afternoon. At the start each justice, when he enters the room, shakes hands with all others there (thirty-six handshakes
altogether). The custom dating back generations, is evidently designed to begin the meeting at a friendly level, no matter how heated the…
5. Comparison and Contrast
Comparison-and-contrast paragraphs examine the similarities and differences between two subjects. Comparison
emphasizes similarities, while contrast stresses differences.
Two “parks” that indicate Florida’s range of park offerings would be appropriate for very different travelers. Forests and the Santa
Fe River dominate O'Leno State Park. In sharp contrast, Lloyd Beach State Recreation Area, near Fort Lauderdale, is dominated by the oily
bodies of sun-worshippers who crowd into it every summer weekend. Where O'Leno gives so much quiet one can hear the leaves
whispering, Lloyd Beach is a place of boisterous activity. Travelers can walk a few yards in O'Leno and pass beyond every sign of human
civilization. When walking at Lloyd Beach, they have to be careful to step over the picnic baskets, umbrellas, jam boxes, and browning
bodies. At night, O'Leno wraps itself with the silence of crickets and owls. Lloyd Beach is busy with fishermen till well past midnight. If fishing
near town, or diving into the busy bustle of an urban beach is appealing, Lloyd Beach is the place to go. But if you want to stand at the edge
of civilization and look across time into an older natural world, O'Leno is the park to visit
6. Definition
A formal definition includes the term defined, the class to which it belongs, and the details that distinguish it from
other members of its class.
The viola is a stringed instrument in the violin family. It is only slightly larger than the violin and is tuned at a lower pitch. Like its
smaller relative, the viola is held on the shoulder under the chin and is played with a bow. While the violin has many uses, the viola is used
mainly in orchestral and chamber music.

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7. Classification
In classification, you take many separate items and group them into categories according to qualities or
characteristics they have in common.
There are many types of stringed instruments. The violin family is made up of the violin, viola, cello, and double bass. Fretted
instruments (frets are strips that show players where to put their hands) include the banjo, mandolin, lute, ukulele, and guitar. Related to
these instruments are the lyre and the harp. The dulcimer, zither, and psaltery form another family, whose strings are stretched over flat
sound boxes. Finally, there are the keyboard stringed instruments such as the piano, clavichord, and harpsichord.
8. Cause and Effect
Cause-effect paragraph explore why events occur and what happens as a result of them.
An avalanche is a huge snow slide that rushes down the side of a mountain, carrying large trees, rocks, and other debris in its
path. Avalanches are similar to landslides but can be more dangerous and destructive. Avalanches can occur when huge amounts of new
snow fall on layers of snow and ice that have become unstable because of melting. They can also be triggered by explosions or
earthquakes.
Transitional paragraphs whose function is to signal a change in subject while providing a bridge between one section of an
essay and another. They can be single sentences that move readers from one point to the next.
An introductory paragraph may be straightforward, concerned primarily with presenting information introducing the subject,
narrowing it down, and then starting the essay‟s thesis.
A concluding paragraph should reinforce an essay‟s major ideas and give readers a sense of completion.

Essay is a short literary composition on a single subject, usually presenting the personal view of the author.
Four Major Types of Essays
1. Narrative Essays: Telling a Story - In a narrative essay, the writer tells a story about a real-life experience.
2. Descriptive Essays: Painting a Picture - A cousin of the narrative essay, a descriptive essay paints a picture with words.
3. Expository Essays: Just the Facts - The expository essay is an informative piece of writing that presents a balanced
analysis of a topic.
4. Persuasive Essays: Convince Me - While like an expository essay in its presentation of facts, the goal of the persuasive
essay is to convince the reader to accept the writer‟s point of view or recommendation.
II. STUDY and THINKING SKILLS
Study Skills refer to the abilities that are necessary for acquiring critical information from a variety of texts and media
sources for differing purposes and uses (Klein, Peterson, and Smington, 1991).
Some of the most important study skills and strategies are important when reading and learning from different text types
and media:
1. Note-taking 5. Unlocking unfamiliar terms
2. Previewing of the text 6. Outlining
3. Summarizing and Paraphrasing 7. Interpreting non-verbal texts (i.e. charts, graphs, maps, etc.)
4. Skimming and Scanning 8. Identifying the main idea, topic, and support details
Identifying the Topic and Main Idea
Topic- general subject of a text
Main idea- presented in statement; shows what the author wants the reader to understand about the topic; a main
idea statement may be stated, i.e. directly found in the text or implied, i.e. a main idea sentence that should be established
by the reader.
Support details- additional information that are necessary to show or clarify the topic and the main idea sentence.
Non-Verbal Texts
Understanding the message presented by graphic or visual aids is a part of developing study and thinking skills
because at some point, learners will eventually encounter texts that involve charts or tables in the presentation of data.
Learning how these charts are used will help learners to easily understand the information presented and its relevance to the
over-all topic or main idea.

Some of the most common types of Non-Verbal texts are the following:
1. Tables
 One of the most common and easy to understand graphic organizer
 Tables are composed of rows and columns that present words or numbers.
 According to Mills and Walter, “The first, or left, column normally lists the independent variable (time, item number
and so on) and the columns to the right list dependent variables.”
 Tables are mostly used for comparing numerical data

2. Line Graph
 A line graph shows the movement or the trend of the data that are being presented.
 Line graphs are very useful in displaying information that continuously change over time and in showing a
comparison between two variables.

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3. Bar Graph
 Bar graphs are used to show relationships between groups although it does not necessarily mean that the variables
affect each other.
 Bar graphs are better in comparing limited items. Unlike line graphs, which can accommodate a huge number of
entries, bar graphs can only accommodate small number of entries.
 Bar graphs show better comparison as opposed to line graphs. Bar graphs are sometimes referred to as column
graphs and they can be presented either horizontally or vertically.
4. Pie Charts/Graphs
 A pie chart is a circular chart that represents 100% of something.
 The segment or the slices in the pie shows the distribution of the whole, hence the pie chart provides the reader
with a percentage of something. Pie charts are very effective if you are aiming to show how big or small something
is as compared to its class or group.

Study Strategies & Thinking Skills

A. Remembering Information
1. Repetition
2. Mnemonics
a. acronyms
b. abbreviations
c. pegwords
d. keywords
e. rhymes
f. graphic organizers
B. Underlining/Highlighting
C. Note taking while reading
1. SQ3R method (survey, question, read, recall, review)
2. PQ5R method (preview, question, read, record, recite, review, reflect)
3. Cornell method (record, reduce, recite, reflect, review, recapitulate)
4. Concept maps and mind maps
5. Charting
6. Outlining

D. Skimming and Scanning

Skimming means reading only parts of a text in order to get an overview of the organization of the text and its main
ideas. Scanning involves looking quickly through a text to find a specific word or piece of information.

E. Summarizing
F. Test-Taking Strategies

Vocabulary Strategies
One hindrance when studying is the learners‟ deficiency when it comes to analyzing and understanding unknown
words. However, various strategies may be employed in unlocking the meaning of unfamiliar words.
Building Vocabulary
Context Clues – refers to the information (definition, synonym, antonym, example, etc.) that appears near a word or phrase
and offers direct or indirect suggestions about its meaning.

Types of Context Clues

1. Definition or Restatement - The meaning of the vocabulary word is in the sentence itself, usually following the
vocabulary word.
Jack's duplicity – crafty dishonesty – caused him to steal his co-worker's pensions by funnelling their
money into an offshore account.
2. Synonym - The sentence uses a similar word to help explain the meaning of the vocabulary word.
The baseball coach punished the team's duplicity or deceitfulness after they admitted to using steroids to
boost their batting averages.
3. Antonym /Opposite/Contrast - The sentence uses a word with an opposite definition to give the meaning of the
vocabulary word.
It was your duplicity that caused me to break up with you! Had you been honest, I wouldn't have felt the
need.
Unlike my last employee who had integrity to spare, you have nothing more than duplicity and will not
receive a recommendation from me for another job.
4. Example or Explanation - This type of context clue uses examples to help the reader infer the meaning of the vocabulary
word.
His duplicity involved lowering his employee's salaries, increasing their stock options, and then stealing the
money he saved by doing so.
I was aghast at her duplicity when she stole my diamond earrings, sold them on eBay and lied to me about
it the whole time.

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5. Cause and Effect - The clues that indicate an unfamiliar word is the cause of and or the result of an action, feeling, or
idea.
Constant drought and windstorm conditions caused the erosion of fertile topsoil that crops needed to grow.

Structural Formation – refers to the new words that are formed by combining words or word part.
1. Roots, Prefixes, and Affixes: words have base words and affixes that are added before or after the root word
survivor (life) anthropology (human) demagogue (people)
illiterate (not) alliterate (not) miscalculate (wrong)
hesitance (act) tolerable (able) overactive (excessive)
2. Compounding: two base words and affixes that are added before or after the root word
doorway high-rise palm pilot
3. Shortening: part of the original word is omitted to shorten the word or change it to another part of speech
celfone (cellular phone) fax (facsimile) nuke (nuclear)
4. Blending: words are shortened and combined
brunch (breakfast + lunch) smog (smoke + fog) motel (motor + hotel)
5. Shifting: the meaning or usage of a word is changed
host (n) > host (v) record (n) > record (v) farm (n) > farm (v)

6. Acronym: words derived from initials of several words

UNESCO (United Nation Educational, Scientific, & Cultural Organization)
scuba (self-contained underwater breathing apparatus)

Word Meanings – Words have many layers of meanings that change depending on the time, place, or situation in which
they are used.

1. Denotation and Connotation - Denotation refers to a word‟s literal meaning, while connotation is the emotional meaning or
association people connect to the word.
I saw a snake in my room. (denotation) I see a snake every time I see my brother. (connotation)
2. Synonym – refers to words with the same meaning and often have subtle shades of or differences in meaning.
They strolled/wandered along the street looking in the store windows.
3. Jargon – is the technical terminology or characteristic idiom of a special activity occupational or social group.
hard copy - A physical print-out of a document rather than an electronic copy
win-win situation - A solution where all parties are satisfied with the results
4. Malapropisms – refers to the misused words because of confusion with another word that sounds similar, especially when
the effect is ridiculous.
The perfect anecdote for a broken heart is a new romance. (Anecdote should have been antidote.)

5. Colloquialism – is an informal word or phrase that is more common in conversation than in formal speech or writing.
We are pulling for Pacquiao to win the boxing match against his opponent.

6. Euphemism - refers to the word or phrase that is more neutral, vague, or indirect to replace a direct, harsh, unpleasant ,
or offensive term.
memorial garden (cemetery), socially maladjusted (rude), casualties (dead)

7. Cliché - is a word or phrase that has lost its original effectiveness or power from overuse.
light as a feather, the heart of the matter, time will tell

8. Context Clues – the environment of the word plays an important role in determining its meaning.

Reading & Thinking Critically

Critical thinking and reading are two very important skills that learners should develop. These two involve the
process of making judgments about what was read, evaluating its relevance or irrelevance, and assessing the adequacy of
information presented.
Reading Actively
1. Previewing
The first time you approach a text, you should preview it – that is, skim it to gain a sense of the author‟s subject and
emphasis. When you preview a book, begin by looking at its table of contents.
2. Highlighting
You highlight a text to identify the writer‟s key points and their relationships to one another. As you highlight, use
symbols and underlining to identify important ideas.

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Reading Critically
1. Distinguishing facts from opinion
As you read and react critically to a text, you should be evaluating how effectively the writer supports his or her
points. This supporting evidence may be in the form of fact and opinion. A fact is a verifiable statement that something is true
or that something happened. An opinion is a conclusion or belief that is not substantiated by proof and is, therefore,
debatable.
2. Evaluating supporting evidence
The more reliable the supporting evidence, the more convincing a statement will be – and the more willing readers
will be to accept it. Statements may be supported by examples, by statistics, or by expert testimony. No matter what kind of
supporting evidence writers use, however, it must be accurate, sufficient, representative, and relevant.
3. Recognizing faulty reasoning and logical fallacies
As a critical reader, you should carefully scrutinize a writer‟s reasoning. Writers who use logical fallacies – flawed
arguments – cannot be trusted.

Types of Logical Fallacies

1. Hasty generalization – drawing conclusion on basis of too little evidence.
2. Sweeping generalization – making generalization that cannot be supported no matter how much evidence is supplied.
3. Equivocation – shifting the meaning of a key word during an argument.
4. Either/Or Fallacy – treating a complex issue as if it has only two sides.
5. Post Hoc – establishing an unjustified link between cause and effect
6. Begging the question – stating a debatable premise as if it were true.
7. False analogy – assuming that because things are similar in some ways they are similar in other ways
8. Red herring – changing the subject to distract an audience from the issue.
9. Argument to ignorance – saying that something is true because it cannot be proved false, or vice versa.
10. Bandwagon – trying to establish that something is true because everyone believes it is true.
11. Skewed sample – collecting a statistical sample so that it favors one population over another.
12. You also – accusing a person of not upholding the position that he or she advocates.
13. Argument to the person – attacking the person and not the issue.
14. Argument to the people – appealing to the prejudices of the people.

3. Recording your reactions

As you read more critically, you should begin to annotate the text – to record your reactions to what you read in the
form of notes in the margins or between the lines.

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