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Major Compositions Errors

I produced this list of major errors after many years of seeing the simple grammar and structure mistakes that students
repeatedly make as they compose essays and other documents. I do grade based upon this list, so it is in your best
interest to proofread for these errors before printing the last draft of an essay. Also, if you rid your sentences of the
mistakes listed below, your essays will be much more concise.

No Thesis Statement in an Essay = F (No argument will change the grade.)

Length too short = 10% deducted from the final grade

Format (List not exhaustive.)

 Out-of-class assignments:
Typed
Times New Roman 12
Double-space (from the top line of the heading to the last line of the essay)
Black ink
1-inch margins
 In-class assignments:
Written NEATLY in blue or black ink on loose leaf paper on the front only
Margin to margin, leaving room for me to write comments
Single space

 Order to submit prompts and essays: (1) final draft (2) rough draft (3) outline/prewriting

 MLA heading
 MLA header (last name, 3 spaces, page number) when applicable
 Title all prompts and essays, punctuated appropriately
 Thesis Statement for essay
 Topic Sentence / Concluding Sentence for Body Paragraphs
 Quotes integrated accurately, when applicable

Comma Splices, Run-ons, Fragments

Fragment: group of words with no main subject/verb combination
To Repair: Add words to the fragment, or connect it to a sentence around it.

 Although I had not seen her for years.

 In the garden.
 After she woke from her nap.
 If someone were fighting and a gun or knife were used as a weapon and the fight resulted in someone being
killed.  If someone were fighting with a gun or knife as a weapon, the fight may result in someone being killed.
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Comma splice: two independent clauses joined by a comma with no coordinating

conjunction or transitional element

 I went to the store, I bought bread. -- > I bought bread when I was at the store.
 Christopher needed a new notebook, however, he did not go to the store.  Christopher needed a new
notebook; however, he did not go to the store.

Run-on: two independent clauses joined by nothing

 I went to the store I bought bread.  I bought bread when I was at the store..
 Christopher needed a new notebook however, he did not go to the store.  Christopher needed a new
notebook; however, he did not go to the store.

To Repair Comma Splices or Run-on Sentences:

 Form two sentences if the ideas are separate.
 Use a semi-colon between closely related sentences.
 Use a conjunctive adverb (ex. therefore, however) if the ideas show a relationship.
Place a semicolon before the conjunctive adverb.
 Use a comma and a coordinating conjunction.

Verb Tense Shift

Use consistent tense of verbs; that is, do not shift from the present tense to the past tense, from the
past tense to the present tense, or from the present tense to the future tense. On rare occasions, it is
acceptable to shift tenses, but always speak with the instructor or refer to a handbook before making this
decision.

Write about literature in the present tense because the texts of a poem, novel, play, or nonfiction work
lives indefinitely in print. Also, write about literature as if the audience has not read the work; thus, give
adequate details for understanding.

Write about historical fact in the past tense.

Do not use the subjunctive mood would to express an action in the past
tense. Instead, use the subjunctive only when speaking of a possibility or
a legal action.

 We would go to the beach every day when I was a child.  We went to the beach every day when I was a
child.
 The little girl would always cry when her mom left her at the day care center.  The little girl always cried
when her mom left her at the day care center.
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Empty Expletive Beginners

Beginning a sentence or a clause with expletive constructions such as It is, There is, There are, Here is,
Here are, There should be, There may be is wordy and empty.
Opening expletives provide a vague subject. They are almost always unnecessary, and should be
replaced with direct subjects and active verbs whenever possible. If you catch these phrases in your
compositions, revise the sentence to make it more precise.

 There is no other possibility for Macbeth to redeem himself at the end of Act V.  Macbeth had no other way to
redeem himself at the end of Act V.
 There are more single parented families raising teens.  More single parented families are raising teens.
 The sad part about this absurd behavior is that there are people who truly believe that true love can be found
through a reality show.  The sad part about this absurd behavior is that some people truly believe that true love
can be found through a reality show.
 There are many reasons why people put less thought into morals now than in previous times.  People put less
thought into morals now than in previous times.

Person Shift / Point of View

First person pronouns: I, me, my, we, our, myself
I is acceptable in formal writing ONLY when you are narrating a personal experience. Use the first
person only when you have no other method of conveying your ideas.

 A war is necessary when we have been attacked for no reason and many people have died.  The government of
a country may consider a war necessary when its citizens have been attacked and killed for no reason.
 Family is the cornerstone for all other aspects of our lives. Without family, we are nothing.  Family is the
cornerstone for all other aspects of life; it gives people everything.

Second person pronouns: You, your, yourself

You is acceptable in formal writing ONLY when addressing a person (such as in a process essay) or
when incorporating dialogue.

 Americans spend thousands of dollars every year on vacations. These are when you go to a place out of town to
spend time with your family and take a break, to enjoy your family’s company and have fun, and to catch up with
your kids.  Americans spend thousands of dollars every year on vacations. These are when they go to a place
out of town to spend time with their family and take a break, to enjoy their family’s company and have fun, and to
catch up with their kids.

Third person pronouns: He, she, it, they, her, him, themselves
Use the third person in literary analyses. NEVER use the words “I” or “you” within the text of a third
person analytical essay!!! Doing so will cause a considerable reduction in your grade. (Know that this
rule includes phrases such as I believe, I think, or I feel. Essays are by definition the writer’s personal
thoughts, so the phrases are unnecessary.)
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Voice Shifts
Prefer the Active Voice rather than the Passive Voice. Prefer the active voice; an easy way to check
for this is to make sure that the subject of the verb appears first.

 PASSIVE: The article was written by a professor at Yale University.  ACTIVE: A professor at Yale
University wrote the article.
 PASSIVE: It is believed by many people that The Godfather is one of the best movies ever produced. 
ACTIVE: Many people believe that The Godfather is one of the best movies ever produced.
 PASSIVE: Five songs will be sung, three at the beginning of the service, one right before the offering is taken up,
and one to end the service.  ACTIVE: The congregants sing three songs: three to begin the service, one before
the offering, and one to end the service.
 PASSIVE: For a child, napping is not viewed as a privilege, but almost as a punishment. Although not
understood by children, napping is good for the health of a child.  ACTIVE: For a child, napping is not a
privilege, but a punishment. Although children do not understand, napping is good for their health.

Shifts in person, number, or tense

 PERSON: If a person works hard, you can accomplish a great deal.  If people work hard, they can
accomplish a great deal.
 NUMBER: If a student does not understand a problem, they should consult the instructor.  If a student
does not understand a problem, he should consult the instructor.
 TENSE: The main character in the novel suffers psychologically because he has a clubfoot, but he
eventually triumphed over his handicap.  The main character in the novel suffers psychologically
because he has a clubfoot, but he eventually triumphs over his handicap.

NOTE: Certain changes in tense are necessary.

 Roman will graduate from college twenty-three years after his father arrived in the United States.

Pronoun Reference
“This” / “That” / “Those” / “These” + a verb
To specify meaning and intent, always place a noun before the verb.
 This is just not right!  This behavior is just not right!
 That is a good snack!  That Snickers is a good snack!

Do not use “It is” when “it” has no antecedent.

 It is because Europeans in the 1920’s were interested in anything African that they so readily responded to
Josephine Baker’s outrageous style.  Because Europeans in the 1920’s were interested in anything African, they
readily responded to Josephine Baker’s outrageous style.

Guidelines for Clear Pronoun Reference:

 Do not overuse it.
 Place pronouns close to their antecedents.
 Use that, which, and who correctly.
Who reference to people
Which reference to nonessential things (uses a comma)
That reference to essential things
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Contractions
Never use contractions in academic or formal writing. Aside from being informal, the use of such
constructions may possibly lead to agreement errors.

Word Choice
Weak, vague words not to use
a lot aspect/factor good happy interesting
say/said/says sort of/kind of stuff thing very

Do not use a “be” verb (am, is, are, was, were, be, being, been) if you can use another
word in the place of it. Use an action verb such as the following in the place of
the vague “be”:

acknowledges adds asserts admits believes agrees

argues comments compares confirms contends declares
denies disputes emphasizes endorses grants illustrates
implies insists notes observes points out reasons
refutes rejects reports responds suggests thinks writes
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 Allison was in the pageant last night.  Allison competed in the pageant last night.
 The film had the impact of shocking audiences.  The film shocked audiences.
 He is a kind person.  He acts unselfishly.
 She is looking for love.  She seeks love.
 We were annoyed.  They annoyed us.
 She is in need of Darcy most of all.  Darcy needs her. 
 Wordsworth is all about nature.  Wordsworth's poetry bleeds of nature.
 Mrs. Bennet is opinionated throughout the novel.  Mrs. Bennet gives her opinion often.

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Correction Symbols

I provide a version in class of this handout with the handwritten marks.

/ Add a space
Agr Agreement error (subject-verb or pronoun-antecedent)
Begin new paragraph
DM Dangling modifier
(underline 3 times) Capitalize
Chop Choppy sentence
CS Comma splice
Frag Fragment
CS (end of paragraph) Concluding sentence needed
Logic Illogical word choice
Italicize / Underline
MM Misplaced modifier
Case Pronoun case error
Ref Pronoun reference error
P Punctuation error
RO Run-on sentence
Sp Spelling error
T Tense error
TS Topic sentence needed
WC Vague word choice
Rep Repetitious Phrasing
WW Wrong word
Wordy Wordy sentence
Unn Unnecessary words/comments
Wword Delete a letter
Word Delete a word
^ Insert
lc or Word Lower case the letter
Transpose (reverse order)
Close up space
= Unparallel

Written and Compiled by Amy Bryan McKay @ 2004 --- Updated July 2012
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Composition Instruction
WRITING PROCESS
 Planning – Brainstorming, Outlining, Mapping, Choosing quotes (when applicable)
 Drafting – Writing
 Revising –Structural, Sentences, Paragraphs
Eliminate unrelated material
Find repeated material
Check for coherence
 Editing – Grammar, Mechanics, Word Choice
 Proofreading – Check everything before turning in

PURPOSES OF WRITING
 To think on paper and organize thoughts  To persuade
 To inform  To entertain

HELPING WRITER’S BLOCK

 Change scenery
 Leave it alone for a while
 Start on a different paragraph

GENERALITIES
If someone else types your papers, you are responsible for all errors.

If you type every draft on a computer, save each draft in a different file so that you do not lose all of your
work if a file is lost or damaged. Likewise, always save your work in more than one place, perhaps on the
hard drive and a CD. If you lose a document by human error—not saving in enough “safe” places—, you
are NOT excused from a late grade.

The paper should be smooth and free from wrinkles; a virtually error-free assignment may have points
deleted for a poor appearance.

Do not leave one line of a paragraph at the bottom of a page; likewise, do not have one line of a
paragraph at the top of a page. If you must, add or delete words to a previous paragraph to make at
least two lines on the top and bottom of pages.

If I provide word processing instructions on this handout, it is for Microsoft Word. If you have Works or
WordPerfect, you must refer to your user’s manual if you do not already know how to complete the
process.

COMPUTERS
School computers:
 You may not save a word processing document on a school computer. Carry a flash drive for
such an instance when you will need to save.
 Whenever possible, print on both sides of the paper. To find this option, click on “Print” and
“Preferences” or “Properties.” EXCEPTION: Do not print essays on both sides.

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General instructions for emailing documents:

 When emailing documents, attach the file. Documents pasted into an actual email message lose
necessary formatting.
 Save a WordPerfect or Microsoft Works document as a Rich Text File (File/Save As/Files of Type).

General Instructions for changing settings on Word:

 Change Line Spacing:
Word 2003: Format / Paragraph
Word 2007: Home / aragraph
 Change Margins:
Word 2003: File / Page Setup
Word 2007: Page Layout / Margins
 Search for Errors:
Word 2003: Edit / Find
Word 2007: Home / Find
 Page Numbers:
Word 2007: Insert / Page Number
(To remove the number from the first page, click on “Different First Page.”)
 Set Grammar Check:
Word 2003: Edit / Find Tools / Options / Spelling & Grammar / Settings
Word 2007: Top Corner Icon / Word Options / Proofing / Settings

TITLES
 Title all prompts and essays creatively and originally. The title MAY NOT be the name of the literary
work.
 Use capital letters for only the first letters of the words; do not capitalize the articles (a, an, the) and
small prepositions (two letters) in titles unless the words are the first words of the titles.
 Punctuate titles of literary works within an essay correctly. Italicize or underline the titles of long
works (novels, plays); quote the titles of short works (poems, essays).
 Center, but do not underline, the title. Exception: Titles literary works in essay titles are punctuated.
Examples follow:
Symbolism of the Landscape in Wuthering Heights
Historical Importance of “The Recessional”
Understanding Thematic Importance
Street-Wise Angels and Book-Smart Demons
Three Voices Within
My Brother’s Battle
The Ominous Warning in 1984 and Brave New World

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DEVELOPMENT
 Use paragraph breaks between each topic.
 Do not skip a space between paragraphs.
 Indent each paragraph either one inch (typed) or a finger tip space (written).

Audience. Always consider the audience / reader as you write. Provide all details that are necessary
for understanding the topic of your paper. Never assume that the writer has certain knowledge that you
believe is common sense. Explain every detail that would be unfamiliar to the average reader, or that
you know the main audience would not easily understand. For example, if a student writes a paper
about changing oil, and if I am the audience, I would not know the technical names and locations of
automobile parts.

Composition Length. All compositions must be the required length. Neglect of this regulation calls
for a deduction of 10% off the total grade. (Example: If the grade on the paper is 88/B, a short paper
would receive a grade of 88 – 8 = 80/C.)

Transitions. Your support should move your paper at a good pace. Use transitions between differing
thoughts in the body of essays and paragraphs. Make sure that they provide your intended meaning.
One method of transition is the use of key words established in the introduction of a paper and carried
on throughout the paper. They provide coherence and organization, though they should not be repeated
so often as to become obvious.

The Body Paragraph. Include eight to fifteen sentences in each body paragraph.

Topic Sentences. A topic sentence contains the main idea of a paragraph and controls its content.
Write a topic sentence at the beginning of every body paragraph. Aside from making the essay
easier to understand and follow, including topic sentences also adds length. Make sure that every
detail in the paragraph supports the topic sentence.

Concluding Sentences. Write a concluding sentence at the end of each body paragraph. In other
words, conclude each paragraph with a sentence that ties together the main idea of the paragraph.
Do not leave paragraphs “hanging.” Always provide closure to the topic discussed in the paragraph,
making sure that the information is coherent to the audience.

Supporting Details. Include adequate support to explain each point. A good rule is to have two or
three examples, details, or clarifying statements to support each main point. Otherwise, you may be
too vague or form hasty generalizations.

Following are simple formats for paragraphs. You do not have to use this format if you are
comfortable in your ability to adequately support the topic and develop the paragraph in enough
sentences.

Long Paragraph Format (such as prompts and discussion questions responses)

#1
Sentence 1: Topic sentence
Sentences 2-5: Introduce sub-point one. Discuss in 3 to 5 sentences.
Sentences 6-9: Transition into sub-point two. Discuss in 3 to 5 sentences.
Sentence 10: Concluding sentence
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#2 - for critical analysis

Sentence 1: Topic sentence
Sentences 2-5: Introduce sub-point one. Integrate quote. Discuss in 3 to 5 sentences.
Sentences 6-9: Transition into sub-point two. Integrate quote. Discuss in 3 to 5 sentences.
Sentence 10: Concluding sentence

Body Paragraph Format for Compositions

#1
Sentence 1: Topic sentence (TS)
Sentence 2: Introduce first sub-point
Sentences 3-5: Explain sub-point (examples, statistics, etc.)
Sentence 6: Introduce second sub-point
Sentences 7-9: Explain sub-point (examples, statistics, etc.)
Sentence 10: Concluding sentence (CS)

#2 - for critical analysis

Sentence 1: Topic sentence (TS)
Sentence 2: Introduce first sub-point
Sentences 3-6: Integrate quote. Explain sub-point (examples, statistics, etc.)
Sentence 7: Introduce second sub-point
Sentences 8-11: Integrate quote. Explain sub-point (examples, statistics, etc.)
Sentence 12: Concluding sentence (CS)

THESIS STATEMENTS
1. Appears in the first paragraph of the essay, most often as the last sentence.
2. States the essay’s subject—the topic that you will discuss.
3. Conveys the essay’s purpose—either informative or persuasive.
4. Indicates the focus—the assertion that presents your point of view.
5. Uses specific language, not vague words.
6. May briefly state the main subdivisions of the essay.
7. Must be a statement, not a question.
8. No Thesis Statement = F

Weak Thesis Statements

 I am writing my essay about Beowulf’s bravery in battle.
 My essay is about Beowulf’s bravery in battle.
 Paintings by women are getting more attention.
 Deceptive advertising can cause many problems for consumers.

Good Thesis Statements

 Beowulf demonstrates magnificent bravery in the sight of battle, both with men and with pagan monsters.
 During the past ten years, the works of the artists Mary Cassatt and Rosa Bonheur have finally gained widespread
critical acclaim.
 Deceptive advertising costs consumers not only money but also their health.

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Focus and Organization

A clear scheme of organization consistently carried out is the major strength of a paper. The overall
introduction of a paper is established by a good introduction, and a good writer is careful to provide
guideposts right through to the end. Since for many, if not most, topics, the organization is not inherent in
the material, but is selected and imposed by the writer, two things are particularly important: (1) all
points should contribute to the main purpose of the paper in ways made clear to the reader, and (2)
individual points should be related to each other as the paper progresses.

INTRODUCTIONS
 Provides background information or important statistics
 Familiarizes the reader with the topic
 Defines and limits the discussion
 Clarifies the thesis or main idea of the essay
 Relates a brief story or anecdote
 Pose a question or give an example
 Define a key term
 Use a quotation

Strategies to Avoid
1. Do not state your purpose. -- “I am going to discuss … .”
2. Do not apologize. -- “I am not sure this is right, but my opinion is … .”
3. Do not begin a secondary point without establishing context and purpose.
4. Do not state everything that is in the essay; but, do not be overly brief. Usually, the longer the
paper, the longer the introduction.
5. Do not be too general, starting from an unnecessarily large framework.
6. Do not introduce points that will not be fully developed or not mentioned in the paper.
7. Do not be vague.
8. Do not be wordy, using overworked expressions.

Example Introduction
The epic poem Beowulf reveals a constant battle not only with terrifying challengers, but also with fleshly
inclinations. Beowulf, in his various battles, has choices to make and feelings to stay away from. Being a great
warrior with God-given strength, he has many opportunities to fall from good character and conduct. However,
good obviously triumphs over bad in this epic poem.

In Frankenstein, Mary Shelley creates two extremely memorable, diverse main characters. Victor
Frankenstein and his Creation differ in a myriad of ways, causing them to constantly rival with each other. Their
incredibly hateful relationship is a result of their many differences. This diversity causes them to interfere greatly
in each other’s lives and to have a strong influence on the other’s actions. Despite the fact that Victor works
laboriously to form the Creation, they are complete opposites with differing ideas, feelings, and actions.

Brave New World by Aldous Huxley and 1984 by George Orwell are dystopian novels. A dystopian
novel represents a society under strict control of a powerful central government and its oppression of the citizens.
The theme of Brave New World and 1984 is a warning to humans of a powerful centralized government in total
control of the lives of its citizens. These novels make ominous predictions of the future. 1984 and Brave New
World show a dystopian society through technology, drugs and alcohol to control citizens, and the elimination of
the past.

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CONCLUSIONS
 Provide an analogy that summarizes the thesis
 Summarize the main points, only if the writing is longer than three or four pages
 Urge the readers to be aware, especially in an argument essay

Strategies to Avoid
1. Do not introduce new ideas or facts that belong in the body of the essay.
2. Do not reword your introduction.
3. Do not announce what you have discussed. – “In this paper, I have explained . . . .”
4. Do not apologize. – “Even though I am not an expert, I feel my position is correct.”
5. Do not be abrupt, stopping with no final focus.
6. Do not be desperate, providing a conclusion that shows the writer has nothing more to say.
7. Do not write in generalities or summarize.

Example Conclusion
In the epic poem Beowulf, the battles of external and internal matters are quite evident. Beowulf fights
both of these battles and maintains heroic values. Though times appear difficult, he perseveres. Beowulf is a
wonderful warrior who sees many victories.

The numerous differences between Victor and his Creation are a crucial feature in Mary Shelley’s
Frankenstein. These differences cause extreme hatred between the two characters. This animosity fuels their lives
for many years, creating clashes and rivalries. Because they have such opposing views and judgments, they
become severe enemies. Victor and his Creation differ so greatly that the results of their differences take over
their lives and affect all that they do.

Brave New World and 1984 examine the horrors of a dystopian society. Both novels have the same
theme of a warning to man where the world is heading. With technology, drugs and alcohol, and elimination of
the past the two novel’s governments oppress the citizens and suppress their thoughts. The sense of humanity is
lost when man becomes like animals. The goal of both novels is to show the extremities of an over-powerful
central government.

WORD CHOICE
Spelling. Check the spelling of all words; do not depend solely on spell check. For instance, letters
may be transposed and still be misused (from – form; on – no), or the computer or word processor may
not detect the error. Always consult a dictionary with spelling problems.

Never write as you speak!! Writing in and for class should always reflect formal grammar and
composition rules, rather than conversational slang.

Tone. Make sure that your word choice reflects your tone. Be confident. Do not use words such as
“perhaps” or “maybe” if you want the audience to have confidence in your opinions. Likewise, your
words should reflect the attitude that you have toward your subject (positive/negative/middle road).

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Euphemisms. Do not use euphemisms—indirect, inoffensive substitute for a word that is potentially
offensive or blunt—in formal compositions unless you are doing so for a particular purpose.

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custodial engineer  janitor; superintendent human interment space  cemetery

passed away  died reduction in the work force  lay off
senior citizens  elderly people viable role model  hero

Colloquial Language. Conversational language is not always incorrect. It is mostly unsuitable for
formal writing because it is too familiar and trite. Use direct language instead.
a lot, awful lot—many blow money—spend money bunch—surprise me
busted—caught catch some z’s—sleep cheap—inexpensive
cinch—easy cop out—quit cop—police officer
down in the dumps—depressed figured out—decided fixing to—about to
get a kick out of—enjoy get along—communicate give a hard time—antagonize
goof off—waste time gross—disgusting gypped—cheated
hang in—persevere hanging around—associate hassle—bother
hit the books—study kicks—enjoyment kind of, sort of—somewhat, rather
macho—manly mess up—make a mistake out of it—confused
pinch pennies—save money pretty good—acceptable pumped up—excited
put down—insult really into—interested rub the wrong way—irritate
wisecrack—joke spilled his guts—told all super—great
swell—excellent totally—so tough break—unfortunate

Conciseness. Brevity of expression aids emphasis no matter what the sentence structure. Unnecessary
words detract from necessary words. They clutter sentences and obscure ideas.
a certain length of time  a certain time at all times  always
at the present time, at this point in time  now, today because of the fact that, in light of the
fact that  because before long  soon
call your attention to the fact that  remind you, notify you by means of  by
come in contact with  meet destroyed by fire  burned
due to the fact that, by virtue of the fact that  because during the time that  while
for the purpose of  for I would appreciate it if  please
in a hasty manner  hastily in order to  to
in order to utilize  to use in the direction of  toward
in spite of the fact that  although, though in the event that  if
in the final analysis—finally in the month of  in
in view of the fact that, for the reason that because in the nature of  like
of an indefinite nature  indefinite one of the things  one point
prior to  before subsequent to  after
there is no doubt  no doubt, doubtless until such time as  until
used for lighting purposes—used for lighting with the exception  except
would seem to be, is an example of  is

Delete the following phrases:

in a very real sense, in fact, in as a matter of fact in fact
it seems that the point that I am trying to make type of, kind of
what I mean to say is I believe, I think, in my opinion I figure, I mean
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Redundancy. Eliminate needless repetition of words or ideas.

1:00 am in the morning basic essentials blue in color
circle around close proximity consensus of opinion
cooperate together fellow colleagues final outcome
important essentials inexperienced novice large in size
new beginnings puzzling in nature repeat again
round in shape square in shape surrounding circumstances
the future to come transparently clear true facts
two in number widow woman

Trite and Slang Expressions. Do not use trite/cliche (those phases that are dull due to overuse) or
slang expressions (coined words and standard words used to mean something other than their standard
definition) in writing unless you are using them to make a point. Make every effort to use original
phrases. Use of clichés shows your audience that you have little ability to think for yourself.

Trite Expressions
add insult to injury after all is said and done almighty dollar as luck would have it
better late than never bite the bullet breakneck speed burn the midnight oil
busy as a bee by the same token cool, calm, collected cut a long story short
dead as a doornail depths of despair diamond in the rough easier said than done
eat like a bird / pid face the music fat as a cow fate worse than death
few and far between food for thought from rags to riches gentle/meek as a lamb
goes without saying great minds think alike hard as a rock heavy as lead
hit the nail on the head hour of need in this day and age it dawned on me
ladder of success last but not least leave no stone unturned light as day
long arm of the law method in his madness needle in a haystack no place like home
point with pride poor but honest ripe old age sadder but wiser
shadow of a doubt sharp as a marble sharp as a tack shoulder the burden
sing like a bird skinny as a rail slow as molasses sneaking suspicion
sober as a judge stand in awe stands to reason strong as an ox
tried and true up the creek wee small hours went the extra mile
white as snow wise as an owl word to the wise work like a dog
Slang Expressions
birdbrain—unintelligent blow the whistle—tell blow top—lose temper blue/bummed—sad
broke—out of money bum—doesn’t work chewed out—scolded chicken—coward
chick—girl chow—food cool—good crashed—slept
creep—obnoxious ditch—leave dude—boy dukes—fists
dumbbell—stupid floored—surprised flunked—failed grand—thousand
jerk—foolish person kick the bucket—die kids—children kiss off—brush off
kook—crazy person loaded—drugged neat—great off the rocker—insane
rat race—job market ripped off—stolen ritzy—classy sharp—smart
shrink—psychiatrist sweet talk—persuade wheels—car
SENTENCE STRUCTURE

Transition. Use transitions between differing thoughts in the body of essays and paragraphs. Make
sure that they provide your intended meaning. One method of transition is the use of key words
established in the introduction of a paper and carried on throughout the paper. The provide coherence
and organization, though they should not be repeated so often as to become obvious.

Coordinating Conjunctions show that the elements it joins are similar in importance and structure.

and or nor but for so yet

Common Subordinating Conjunctions join a subordinate (dependent) clause to a main clause.

after although as as if as much as as long as

as soon as because before if in order that lest
since so that than that though unless
until when whenever where wherever whether while

Correlative Conjunctions: paired conjunctions that link balanced words, phrases, and clauses

both/and not only/but also not/but

as/as either/or neither/nor whether/or

Conjunctive Adverbs: adverbs that act as a transition between complete ideas; normally show
comparison, contrast, cause-effect, sequence, or other relationships; usually occur between
independent clauses or sentences, but may be parenthetical

accordingly afterward also anyhow anyway

as a result at last at the same time besides certainly
consequently earlier finally eventually finally
for example for instance further furthermore hence
however in addition in any case incidentally indeed
in fact instead later likewise meanwhile
moreover namely nevertheless nonetheless next
now on the contrary otherwise perhaps similarly
so still subsequently that is then
therefore thus thereafter therefore
undoubtedly

Written and Compiled by Amy Bryan McKay @ 2004 --- Updated July 2012
WRITING HABITS TO AVOID

Long-winded phrases—substitute simple words and phrases that do nothing but pad writing.
Padding usually can be cut without any loss in meaning.

 Gray is of the opinion that at this point in time it is no longer acceptable to the American people that
their government should lend its support to an agency specializing in activities that are by their very
nature covert.  Gray believes that Americans no longer want their government to support an agency
specializing in covert activities.
Stringiness—using too many compound sentences

Choppiness—using short, simple sentences repetitively

Monotony—using the same words and/or patterns repetitiously

 The moon is now drifting away from the earth. It moves away at the rate of about one inch a year. Our
days on earth are getting longer. They grow a thousandth of a second longer every century. A month
will someday be forty-seven of our present days long. We might eventually lose the moon altogether.
Such great planetary movement rightly concerns astronomers. It need not worry us. The movement will
take 50 years.

Wordiness—using more words than necessary to express an idea

Combine sentences that repeat material.

 Many famous people were left-handed. Alexander the Great, Michelangelo, and Napoleon were left
handed.  Many famous people, including Alexander the Great, Michelangelo, and Napoleon, were left
handed.

Reduce phrases and clauses to one or two words.

 Many were drawn by her vitality, which was infectious.  Many were drawn by her infectious vitality.
 In addition to these people, Paul Klee, who was a great artist, was left-handed.  Paul Klee, a great
artist, was also left-handed.

Written and Compiled by Amy Bryan McKay @ 2004 --- Updated July 2012
 INTEGRATING QUOTATIONS INTO TEXT

Use literary quotations within essay body paragraphs to support your original thoughts.

1. Be selective. Use only the information that is necessary. Using too many quotations can bore
readers and might lead them to conclude that you are neither an original thinker nor a skilled
writer.

2. Keep quotations as brief as possible. The paper should be your thoughts supported by other
people’s ideas.

3. Comment upon quotations. Do not place them in a sentence just to use a quote.

4. Do not allow a quotation to stand alone as a sentence. Introduce it or incorporate it into an

original sentence, or introduce with a tag phrase.

5. Do not allow a quote to be a fragment, just standing with no main idea.

6. Do not include a literary or scholarly quotation in an introduction. Use the introduction to

demonstrate your style of writing and intent for the paper.

7. Do not begin or end a paragraph with a quotation of any kind. Topic and concluding sentences
should always be your own words. Quotes need to appear within the writer’s paragraphs because
they follow and support a claim and must be explained.

8. If a quote ending a sentence requires a citation, place the sentence period after the citation.
Place question marks and exclamation points before the citation.

If a prose quotation runs no more than four lines and requires no special emphasis, put it in
quotation marks and incorporate it into the text. Place the page number(s) parenthetically at the end
of the quote. You may place a quotation at the beginning, middle, or end of a sentence, or divide it
by your own words.

Vary methods of incorporating quotes into sentences.

NOTE: While the quotes in the following examples do use “the narrator,” students should
not use “the narrator” as the subject unless the noun fits the specific situation. Scan the
remainder of the handout to see other examples.

1. Introduce with a tag followed by a comma:

 The storyteller maintains, "All who know me consider me an eminently safe man" (Melville 117).
 Joseph Conrad writes of the company manager in Heart of Darkness, “He was obeyed, yet he inspired
neither love nor fear, nor even respect” (62).
 Beowulf had lived a life of great merit, as he had taken every chance to demonstrate his strength and
prowess. When he died, all the land honored him as one “deserving of praise” (897).

Alternatively, ending a sentence in a like fashion (though this method used often
becomes awkward):
 “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times” (1), writes Charles Dickens of the eighteenth century.

Identifying tag phrase in the middle of the sentence:

 “He was obeyed,” writes Joseph Conrad of the company manager in Heart of Darkness, “yet he inspired
neither love nor fear, nor even respect” (62).

Written and Compiled by Amy Bryan McKay @ 2004 --- Updated July 2012
 Introduce with a prepositional tag statement followed by a comma:
 According to the narrator, "All who know [him] consider [him] an eminently safe man" (Melville 117).

For accuracy of the sentence, the pronouns “me” have been changed to “him.” When
making changes such as these, ALWAYS write the changes in square brackets.
 Wiglaf admonishes his fellow thanes when he declares, “death / [w]ould be better [. . .] than the kind / [o]f
life you can lead, branding with disgrace!” (860-862)

Capital letters “w” and “o” are changed to lower case. SUCH A CHANGE IS OPTIONAL.
Some words are left out between “better” and “than.”

2. Quote incorporated into the sentence:

 The storyteller reveals that "[a]ll who know me consider me an eminently safe man" (Melville 117).
 The narrator of the story describes himself as "an eminently safe man" (Melville 117).
 For Charles Dickens, the eighteenth century was both “the best of times” and “the worst of times” (1).
 After Grendel’s first rampage in Herot, Hrothgar knows that the “beginning might not be the end” (49).
 The poet refers to Grendel as the “shepherd of sin, guardian of crime” (273).

3. A complete sentence introduces the quotation. In these cases, follow the introductory
sentence with a colon.
 The narrator describes himself in blunt terms: "All who know me consider me an eminently safe man"
(Melville 117).

Parenthetical Citations
When quoting from a prose work, cite with page number.
When quoting from a poetic work, cite with line number.

The quotation is followed by its source author's name within parentheses and then by a period. No
periods or commas should be placed within the quotation marks even if they were part of the
statement in its original location.

However, if the original statement concluded with a question mark or explanation point, that
punctuation should be included within the quotation marks, and your own sentence should still end
with a period after the parentheses.

NOTE: If the written document discusses only one work of literature, include only the
number in the citation. No name is necessary because the audience understands who the
author is.

Explaining the Quoted Material

You not only need to integrate each quotation within a sentence of your own, but also you usually
need to write another sentence after the quotation in order for you to comment on the quotation's
relevance to your point. This step is necessary because quotations do not speak for themselves.
 The narrator describes himself in blunt terms: "All who know me consider me an eminently safe man"
(Melville 117). This statement is ironic because the narrator does not seem to realize that his cautious
attitude might limit his meaningful interaction with other members of society.

Keep in mind that your own sentence which contains a quotation does not need to end immediately
after the quote; instead, you can simply follow the parenthetical citation with a comma or semi-colon
and then continue your sentence.
 When the narrator describes himself in blunt terms as "an eminently safe man" (Melville 117), the reader
almost immediately perceives the irony of the statement. In other words, the narrator does not seem to
realize that his cautious attitude might limit his meaningful interaction with other members of society.

Written and Compiled by Amy Bryan McKay @ 2004 --- Updated July 2012
If what you are quoting originally contained quotation marks itself, then those original double
quotation marks should become single quotation marks when the statement is repeated within your
own sentence inside new double quotation marks.
 According to the report, the lawyer asked the woman, "Why did you say, 'I'm glad,' after the accident?"
(Jones 21)

Punctuating Quotations
Place periods and commas inside quotation marks, unless a literary quote is at the end of a
sentence.
Using a quotation that needs a citation.
word” (#), word” (#).

Using a quotation without the need for a citation – perhaps quoting dialogue.
word.” word,”

Place semicolons and colons outside quotation marks.

word”: word” (#):
word”; word” (#);

Precede the quotation with no punctuation if it is a part of the sentence.

 In an essay on urban legends, Jan Harold Brunvand notes that "some individuals make a point of learning
every recent rumor or tale [...] and in a short time a lively exchange of details occurs" (78).

Precede the quotation with a comma if the quote is introduced with a fragment.
 Goleman states, “Ordinarily, there is a balance between emotional and rational minds [. . .] reflecting the
operation of distinct, but interconnected, circuitry in the brain” (9).

Precede the quotation with a colon if the quote is introduced with a complete sentence.
 In Wuthering Heights, Catherine finally admits her feelings for Heathcliff while she is in the kitchen
speaking to Nelly: “He’s more myself than I am” (202) are the words she uses to describe how her love
takes her.

When the quote ends in a question mark or exclamation point, a period is not placed at the
end of the entire sentence. Logically, a writer would not use two marks of end punctuation.
Space twice after the closing parentheses before beginning the next sentence.
 According to the report, the lawyer asked the woman, "Why did you say, 'I'm glad,' after the accident?"
(Jones 21)

Making Changes in Quotations

In quoting a passage, you will frequently want to omit words, phrases, or sentences in the original
that are not useful to the paper. Whenever you omit material from a quoted passage, be guided by
two principles: (1) fairness to the author quoted and (2) the grammatical integrity of your writing.
Never present a quotation in a way that could cause a reader to misunderstand the sentence
structure of the original source. If you quote only a word or a phrase, it will be obvious that you left
out some of the original sentence. But if omitting material from the original sentence or sentences
leaves a quotation that appears to be a sentence or a series of sentences, you must use ellipsis
points, or spaced periods, surrounded by brackets to indicate that your quotation does not
completely reproduce the original.

To omit a quotation within a sentence and to omit words within a sentence, use the
ellipsis. For an ellipsis within a sentence, use three periods in brackets with a space
before and after each [. . .].
 In an essay on urban legends, Jan Harold Brunvand notes that "some individuals make a point of learning
every recent rumor or tale [...] and in a short time a lively exchange of details occurs" (78).

Written and Compiled by Amy Bryan McKay @ 2004 --- Updated July 2012
If a reference follows the ellipsis at the end of a sentence, use three periods with a space
before each, and place the sentence period after the final parenthesis.
 drama” [. . .].
 drama” [. . .] (101-02).

A comment or an explanation that immediately follows the closing quotation mark appears
in parentheses.

Use sic (from the Latin for “thus” or “so”) to assure readers that you have quoted
accurately even the spelling, logic, or grammar may be incorrect.
 Shaw admitted, “Nothing can extinguish my interest in Shakspear” (sic).

Use italics or quotation marks to emphasize important words or phrases.

 Lincoln specifically advocated a government “for the people” (emphasis added).
 Lincoln specifically advocated a government for the people (emphasis added).

A comment, change, or explanation that goes inside the quotation must appear within
square brackets—NOT CURVED BRACKETS. – unclear pronouns, vague words,
capitalize/lower case letters, verb tense
 Jan Harold Brunvand, in an essay on urban legends, states, "some individuals [who retell urban legends]
make a point of learning every rumor or tale" (78).

 He claimed he could provide “hundred of examples [of court decisions] to illustrate the historical tension
between church and state.”

THE ELLIPSIS

The ellipsis is a mark of punctuation that consists of three spaced periods. It has primarily two
usages:

1. The main usage of ellipsis dots is to indicate an omission within quoted material. Ellipsis periods
are usually not needed at the beginning of quotations because the reader generally is aware that
the quotation has come from a larger context. Writers use the ellipsis to eliminate material from
the quotation because the information is not needed for the current context; however, care must
be taken not to obscure or change the intended meaning of the original author.

2. The one other usage for an ellipsis mark is to show a break or hesitation in dialog.
 “She just doesn’t care . . . She just doesn’t care.”
 “Watch out, Bill! If you do that we’ll. . . .”

USE OF ELLIPSIS IN MLA

The Modern Language Association (MLA) style for documenting with ellipsis dots requires that the
writer place square brackets around the three periods to show that the ellipsis is the writer’s ellipsis
and not part of the original material. When the ellipsis is in the middle of the sentence, a space must
be placed before the first bracket and after the last bracket. Proper punctuation from the original
passage and with the added text is expected. If the ellipsis falls at the end of the sentence, a space
comes before the first bracket and a period comes immediately after the last bracket. If the ellipsis is
at the end of the quotation, the closing quotation marks come immediately after the last bracket
followed usually by the parenthetical citation and then the final period.

Written and Compiled by Amy Bryan McKay @ 2004 --- Updated July 2012
Original passage
 In the movie As Good As It Gets, the character played by Jack Nicholson suffers from obsessive-compulsive
behavior as seen in the way he avoids cracks in the pavement and locks and relocks his apartment door five
times.
 In his essay “A Hanging,” Orwell laments the “unspeakable wrongness” of taking the life of another human.

Ellipsis in the middle of the quote

 Sometimes movies promote stereotypical attitudes about mental disorders such as the obsessive-compulsive
behavior in As Good As It Gets when “Jack Nicholson [. . .] avoids cracks in the pavement and locks and
relocks his apartment door five times” (Mohr online).
 As the prisoner is marched to the gallows, Orwell reports, “All the organs of his body were working [...] all
toiling away in solemn foolery” (47).

Ellipsis at the end of the quote

 Sometimes movies promote stereotypical attitudes about mental disorders by portraying disorders such as
obsessive compulsion in outlandish ways like “[i]n the movie As Good As It Gets [. . .]” (Mohr online).
 In his essay “A Hanging,” Orwell laments the “unspeakable wrongness” of taking the life of another human. As
the prisoner is marched to the gallows, Orwell reports, “His eyes saw the yellow gravel and the grey walls, and
his brain still remembered, foresaw, reasoned [...].”

SQUARE BRACKETS

Use square brackets whenever inserting words into an original source to clarify, simplify, or identify.
Consider the following guidelines:

Place square brackets around ellipsis dots to show omission of words or phrases in a
quotation. Put a space before the first bracket and after the last bracket.
 “In 1981, when President Benjamin Harrison proclaimed the first forest reserves [. . .] his action was called
undemocratic and un-American” (Smith 59).

Place square brackets when clarifying a pronoun in the quotation because the antecedent
is not in the quote that you are using.
 “At that time he [Lindbergh] had not yet flown the Atlantic.”

Place square brackets when you need to clarify information in the quote you are using.
 “The sampling records [from the mountain weather stations] were examined for levels of the same atmospheric
gasses.”

Place square brackets after obvious errors made by the original author and put the Latin
word sic [meaning thus it is] inside the brackets.
 “The general’s words, however, should be understood in the contrext [sic] of the surrounding battle.”

Enclose stage directions:

 Miranda [sipping her coffee]: Are you glad to see me?
 Ernest [glaring at her]: Of course, not!

When enclosing parts within passages already enclosed in parentheses, use square
brackets.
 Have you read this translation of the Bible (the one by Tyndale [died in 1536])?

Written and Compiled by Amy Bryan McKay @ 2004 --- Updated July 2012
TIPS FOR BETTER READING
COMPREHENSION
 Read in a quiet environment with good lighting. If your mind wonders, read
aloud.
 Be alert to the environment. Do not read when you are tired.
 Allow plenty of time for a reread of difficult section.

BEFORE READING

 Scan the material. Notice the chapter length, the type of language, the
sentence structure, and any pictures.
 Read all introductory material or the novel jacket for background information.

DURING READING

 Use a dictionary to define unfamiliar words. OR Use context clues to determine

meaning of words.
 Note all places and new ideas.
 Visual characters in the setting. Apply descriptive techniques. (If necessary,
apply a known figure such as an actress or actor to the part.)
 Summarize the material at the end of the section. Take notes of all characters
and key ideas.
 Predict situations that may occur.
 Note any questions that you have about the plot. Go back to the questions
frequently to see if you can answer them.

AFTER READING

 Review notes.
 Scan the pages and paraphrase each chapter.

Written and Compiled by Amy Bryan McKay @ 2004 --- Updated July 2012