Chapter 4 – Runoff Quantity

Control

Zarina Md Ali, Dr Mohd Shalahuddin Adnan and

Dr Siti Nazahiyah Binti Rahmat
Outline of Chapter 4
4.3 Detention: On site, community
& Regional 4.1 Introduction

Chapter
4

4.4 Retention: On site, community

& Regional 4.2 Principle of Quantity Control
4.1 Introduction
This chapter provides the explanation of stormwater quality control facilities that can
be classified either detention or retention facilities. The characteristics and estimation
of both facilities will be explained in this chapter.

The main topics in this chapter are;

Detention Facilities

Retention Facilities
 4.2 Principle of Quantity Control

• Detention and retention facilities can reduce the peak and volume of runoff from a given
catchment, that can reduce the frequency and extent of downstream flooding.
Detention/retention have been used to reduce the costs of large stormwater drainage system
by reducing the size required for system in the downstream areas.

• The reduced post-developed runoff hydrograph is typically

designed so that peak flow is equal to or less than the pre-
development peak flow rate. Besides, the volume of post-
development hydrograph is required to be reduced to the
same volume as the pre-developed runoff hydrograph.
 Detention and retention storages may be classified on the basis of their location and size as follows;
(a) On-site storage: small storages constructed on individual residential, commercial and industrial
lots
(b) Community storage: storage facilities constructed in public open space areas.
(c) Regional storage: large community storage facilities constructed at the lower end of catchments
prior to discharge to receiving waters.
Facilities can be categorized as;
(a) on-line storage : a facility that intercepts flow directly within a conveyance system. Occasionally
provided as an on-site facility, though it is more often a community or regional facility.
(b) off-line storage : the diversion of flow from a conveyance system into a separate storage facility.
Ex: a side channel spillway that diverts flows from the conveyance system into an adjacent
storage facility.
(c) conveyance storage : Detention may also be provided as conveyance storage. Slower-flowing
conveyance caused by flatter slopes or rougher channels can markedly retard the build up of
flood peaks and alter the time response of the tributaries in a catchment.
 4.3-1 On-site Detention
• ‘dry facilities’ are the most common type of storage facilities used for controlling peak flow, which
release all the runoff temporarily detained during a storm.
• Other facilities which commonly used are detention ‘ponds’, which incorporate a permanent pool
of water for water quality control for the temporary storage and release of runoff for flood
control.
• Detention facilities should be provided only where they are shown to be beneficial by hydrologic,
hydraulic, and cost analyses.

• On-site detention (OSD) may be provided as above-ground storages, below-ground storages, or a

combination of both.
 Above-ground storages
The main advantages of above-ground storages are they can generally be easily incorporated into
the site by slight re-grading/modification to the design of surface features inexpensive compared to
below-ground storages.
(a) Landscaped areas - lawns and garden beds and can enhance the aesthetics of a site.
(b) Impervious areas - car parks, driveways, paved storage yards, and other paved surfaces may be
used for storm water detention.
(c) Flat Roofs - provided as protection against leakage in the structural design of the building.
(d) Surface Tanks - provide to reduce flows from building roofs. If a rainwater harvesting tank is to
be utilised for detention, the detention storage must be in addition to the storage provided for
rainwater harvesting.

Open Closed
surface surface
Below-ground storages
The main advantages of below-ground storages are they are out of sight, occupy less physical space,
and will not cause any inconvenience with ponding of water that could result using above-ground
storage.
a. Underground tanks - Typical storages are circular or rectangular tanks and normally constructed
of reinforced concrete. Tanks are the relatively expensive compared to above-ground storages
due to high construction costs. The advantage is tanks can take up less area of the site and can
minimise the size of drainage reserves.
b. Pipe packages - A pipe package consists of one or more parallel rows of buried pipes connected
by a common inlet and outlet chamber. The configuration of the pipes can be shaped to suit any
available site space by providing horizontal bends. Pipe packages are less expensive to construct
than tanks as commercially available pipes may be used.
Below ground storage tank
combined with rainwater harvesting
Combined storages
• With combined storages, a proportion of the total storage is provided as below-ground storage,
whilst the remainder of the storage is provided as above-ground storage.

Typical OSD Storage facilities

Detention: Storage Tank Characteristics

Storage Characteristics:
(a) Basic configuration: as shown in table.
(b) Structural adequacy: material
(c) Layout plan: installation, area
(d) Bottom slope: should not > 10%
(e) Ventilation: minimise odour
(f) Overflow provision: allow tank to overflow if
exceeded
(g) Access openings: to allow maintenance
personnel

• Typical type of tank and

storage volume formula
Detention: Primary Outlet
1. General Design Considerations: 2. Flow resisting pipe
Flow regulator and locations – advantage: easy to modify hydraulic capacity of
- Flow detention is provided by a storage pipe and flow reduction
volume when water released through a
flow regulating device.
- Location - above ground: at DCP,
- below ground: within storage
facilities

3. Discharge Control Pit (DCP)

– used to house a flow
regulator for an above
ground storage.
 Detention: Secondary Outlet

The suitable overflow arrangement must

be provided to cater for rare storms than
OSD facilities were designed for or in the
event of a blockage anywhere in the site
drainage system.

Examples of secondary outlets

Detention: Design Procedure
Design consideration:
(a) Design storm ARI
(b) Permissible Site Discharge (PSD)
• Max allowable post-dev discharge from a
site.
• Estimated flow within the d/stream
stormwater drainage system.
(c) Site Storage Requirement (SSR)
• Total amount of storage to ensure required
PSD is not exceeded & OSD facilities does not
overflow based on the storage design storm
ARI.
(d) Concept Plan Preparation (flow chart)
• Is required to support all development app
except for single family properties that
located near end of a drainage system eg:
lakeside or seaside properties. Preliminary design procedure
for OSD storage system
Detention: Design Procedure
Design step:
The design steps are outlined as in table.

Example 4.1:
Under ground OSD tank

Example 4.2:
Above ground OSD tank

Detailed design procedure

for OSD storage system
4.3-2 Community and Regional Detention
Community and Regional Detention
• Community and regional detention are larger facilities than OSD which are provided in public
areas outside of private properties.
• Facilities are commonly formed by the construction of an embankment across a stream or
stormwater conveyance and/or the excavation of a basin storage area.
• The storage basin is usually drained via an ungated outlet through the base of the embankment
and an overflow spillway set near the top of the embankment is required to safely discharge
larger storms that exceed the basin capacity.
• Dry basins and flood storage reservoirs are the types of detention facilities normally provided for
community and regional detention.
Community and Regional Detention
Flood storage reservoirs
Dry basins
• The primary function is to
• Basins are normally dry/
provide water quality
empty when not in
control by means of a
operation, i.e. they do not
Design Flood level permanent pond area,
have a permanent water
but they may also be
pond or pool associated
designed to incorporate
with them.
(a) DRY BASIN temporary flood storage
• This method suited to
Design Flood level above the permanent
multi-purpose use and sites
Maximum pond level pond for flood control
may be selected to
purposes.
incorporate passive or
• In such facilities, the
active recreation areas (b) WET BASIN
(flood storage within ponds and lakes)
permanent pond is
such as public parks and
termed permanent
open space, or sporting
storage while the flood
facilities such as soccer
storage component is
fields.
termed active storage.
Detention: Pond
The detention pond reduces flood peak discharge d/stream by temporary storage and gradual release control
outlet, usually ungated structure, riser or culvert, located at the base of embankment.

System components and configurations

• Inlet zone – inlet structure, sediment forebay,
GPT, wetlands, rock weirs
• Storage zone – low flow channel/drain,
maintenance ramp, pond body and
recreational facilities.
• Outlet zone – primary outlet (usually multi
level riser with culvert), secondary outlet
(usually a spillway), embankment,
outfall/energy dissapator.

Water quality control requirement:

• sediment forebay, GPT, water quality pond

Typical detention pond

Detention: Design Consideration
1. General 3. Primary outlet
a. Design & analysis – to meet the flow a. Culverts
control objective b. Trash racks
b. Release timing – to control peak 4. Secondary outlet (Emergency spillway)
discharge release 5. Storage zone
c. Multiple design storms – rainfall events a. Dry time
that provides worst case b. Low flow channel
d. Extreme floods – must perform dam
6. Embankment
break analysis
a. Classification
e. Public safety – most important
b. Design criteria
2. Inlet i. Pond water depth
a. Inlet structure ii. Embankment top width
b. GPTs and sediment forebay iii. Side slopes
c. Water quality pond or wetlands iv. Bottom grades
v. Freeboard
Detention: Sizing Flood Detention Site
Tasks:
1. Pond volume
estimate
2. Stage – storage
curve
development
3. Stage –
discharge curves
4. Sizing steps –
Primary outlets
& secondary
outlets

Detail in Ch 7 (MASMA, 2012)

Detention pond sizing procedure for Detention pond sizing procedure for
volume and primary outlets secondary outlets
4.4 Retention
This is done by having a portion of the stormwater infiltrate or percolate into the soil. Typically, it has
been used to control stormwater from individual residential lots. This approach has received greater
attention locally. The advantages often cited for the use of local disposal include:
1. recharge of groundwater
2. reduction in the settlement of the land surface in areas of groundwater depletion
3. control of saline water intrusion
4. preservation and/or enhancement of natural vegetation
5. reduction of pollution transported to the receiving waters
6. reduction of downstream flow peaks
7. reduction of basement flooding in underground drainage systems
8. smaller storm drains at a lesser cost
• Retention facilities as defined here include extended detention facilities, infiltration structures,
recharge wells and swales.
• In addition to stormwater storage, retention may be used for water supply, recreation, pollutant
removal, aesthetics, and/or groundwater recharge. Infiltration facilities provide significant water
quality benefits, and although groundwater recharge is not a primary goal of stormwater
management, the use of infiltration basins and wells can provide this secondary benefit.
• Retention facilities are typically designed to provide the dual functions of stormwater quantity
and quality control. These facilities may be provided at one or more locations and may be both
above-ground or below-ground.
• These locations may exist as collection and conveyance facilities (swales or perforated conduits),
and on-site facilities such as parking lots and roadways using porous pavements.
• Design criteria for retention facilities are the same as those detention facilities except that it may
not be necessary to remove all runoff after each storm.
On-site and Community Retention
The main types of retention using infiltration techniques are infiltration
trenches, soakaway pits, porous pavement and infiltration basins.
a. An infiltration trench is a trench in which the permeable fill material
extends to the ground surface and overland flow discharges onto the
top of the trench along its length. The top of the trench must retain
an infiltration rate sufficient to allow for inflows from the surface at
the design rainfall intensity multiplied by the surface area ratio.
b. A soakaway pit has been the traditional method of disposal of
stormwater in many western countries, where no drain or
conveniently close watercourse existed. Before the production of
geotextiles, the soakaway pits were subject to infilling by soil from
above or from the sides as local percolation of groundwater
transported material into the pits. Precast concrete ring unit
soakaways are commonly used as they retain access for cleansing
and monitoring of performance.
On-site and Community Retention

c. A porous pavement is an ‘engineered’ construction allowing

stormwater to infiltrate into the pavement generally across the
whole surface. This type of pavement allows the water to percolate
to the subgrade for recharge of groundwater. There is a range of
alternative methods for disposing of the water entering the
pavement.

d. An infiltration basin is an area of land surrounded by a bank or berm,

which retains the stormwater until it has infiltrated through the base
of the basin. The basin is frequently excavated in the ground surface,
but occasions do occur where berms are used to enclose an area of
land on the ground surface, or on one side where the basin is
constructed on sloping ground.
Regional Retention
• It is more cost-efficient to implement large scale stormwater retention facilities in conjunction
with artificial groundwater recharge/groundwater management programme.
• The main recommended methods are by spreading, recharging and integrated pumping
schemes (including recharge).
• Spreading methods may be classified as basin, stream/channel, ditch and furrow flooding and
irrigation while recharge methods include pits and injection wells.

(a) Basin Method

• Water may be recharged by releasing it into basins formed
by construction of dykes/levees/by excavation. Silt-free
water aids in preventing sealing of basins during
submergence.
• Most basins require periodic maintenance to improve
infiltration rates by scarifying, disking, or scraping the
bottom surface during dry period.
Regional Retention

(b) Ditch-and-Furrow Method.

• Water is distributed to a series of ditches, or furrows, that are shallow flat-bottomed, and
closely spaced to obtain maximum water-contact area.
• One of three basic layout is generally employed :
(1) contour, where the ditch follows the ground contour and by means of sharp switchbacks
meanders back and forth across the land;
(2) tree-shaped, where the main canal successively branches into smaller canals and ditches;
and
(3) lateral, where a series of small ditches extend laterally from the main canal. On very steep
slopes checks are sometimes placed in ditches to minimise erosion and to increase the
wetted area.
Regional Retention

(b) Ditch-and-Furrow Method.

• Gradients of major feeder ditches should be sufficient to carry suspended material through the
system.
• Deposition of fine-grained material clogs soil surface openings. Although a variety of ditch plans
have been devised, a particular plan should be tailored to the configuration of the local area.
• A collecting ditch is needed at the lower end of the site to convey excess water back into the
main stream channel.
Regional Retention
(c) Flooding method
• At flat topography, water may be diverted to spread evenly over a large area. It is desirable to
form a thin sheet of water over the land, which moves at a minimum velocity to avoid disturbing
the soil. In order to control the water at all times, embankments or ditches should surround the
entire flooding area.
• This method achieved highest infiltration rates occur on areas with undisturbed vegetation and
soil covering. Compared with other spreading methods, flood spreading costs least for land
preparation
.(d) Irrigation Method
• In irrigated areas, water is sometimes deliberately spread by irrigating cropland with excess
water during dormant or non-irrigating seasons.
• The method requires no additional cost for land preparation because the distribution system is
already installed.
• The method has the advantage of raising the water table and consequently reducing power
costs.
Regional Retention
(e) Recharge Well Method
• A recharge well admits water from the surface to freshwater aquifers.
• Well recharging of stormwater is practical where deep, confined
aquifers to be recharged exist. If stormwater is admitted into a well, a
cone of recharge will be formed that is similar in shape but is the
reverse of a cone of depression surrounding a pumping well.
• Studies have also demonstrated the feasibility of temporary storage of
fresh water in saline water aquifers through wells first recharged and
later pumped. The efficiencies of the procedures increase with each
recharge-storage-withdrawal cycle.
• The technique thus has application in flat coastal areas underlain by
saline water aquifers where no surface reservoir sites are available to
provide freshwater supplies on a year-round basis.
Bio-retention System
• Bio-retention system is a form of stormwater best management practices (BMPs) that combine
biological uptake and porous media filtration processes to treat stormwater runoff.
• The system integrate vegetation, such as tree, shrubs and grasses, and layered media using soil,
sand and mulches.
• This structural controls capture, temporarily detain and treat runoff from small rainstorms
before release it back to the receiving waters.
• Bio-retention systems can be designed as permeable or impermeable system.
• The component of bio-retention system consist of pre-treatment, inlet, an excavated basin area
with plant and underlying mulch layer with solid bed, sand bed and drainage; and outlet
structure.
• The selection of plant species can provide for a wide variety of landscape designs.
• The plants, soils and organic matter such as compost and a mulch layer all play an important
role in treating runoff by naturally breakdown pollutions.
Retention: Bio-retention System
• The system provide water quality treatment by removing fine sediment, trace metals, nutrients,
bacteria and organics through a variety of pollutant removal mechanisms, including: (1)
filtration, extended detention treatment; (2) Adsorption to soil particles, denitrification; (3)
biological uptake by plants.
• The removal efficiency of bio-retention system for selected stormwater pollutants:

• The treatment stormwater filtered through the vegetation and soil media, is collected either in
an underdrain system or allowed to infiltrate into the ground. Stormwater runoff usually higher
than the design storm ARIs will passing through the bio-retention system.
• The permeable system drains the water through the filtration media and sand bed, before
spreading to surrounding native soil and finally recharging to groundwater.
• The impermeable system similarly drains the water from the filtration media through transition
layers, however intercepted by a subsoil pipe/underdrain located in the drainage later.
Bio-retention System
Application:
• Applied to small sites and ideally suited to many
ultra urban areas, such as parking lots.
• They can fit into existing built up areas and provide
visual enhancements to urban landscape.
• They can be used as a stormwater retrofit, by
modifying existing landscaped areas, or being
resurfaced (parking lot).
• In highly urbanised areas, they are one of the few
retrofit options that can be employed.
Limitation:
1. they are used to treat runoff from small drainage
areas.
2. Congested urban area may reduce available space
uses, although do not consume large area.
Design Consideration
1. General
a. Sitting/location – suitable placing
b. Drainage area – used to capture and treat runoff from small catchments.
c. Slope – best located on the relatively small slopes (less than 5%)
d. In-situ soils
1. Sandy and well drained – permeable bio-retention systems
2. Clayey and poorly drained soils – impermeable bio-retention systems

e. Groundwater – must located above g/w table to ensure that g/w never intersects the
bottom bio-retention systems.
Design Consideration
2. Design System
a. Pre-treatment area – commonly used grass buffer strips or vegetated swales
b. Inlet controls – flow may enter either through sub-surface pipe, open channel/swale or as
surface sheet flow contributed from u/stream catchment area.
c. Basin/ponding area – provides surface storage of stormwater before it filters through the
soil bed.
d. Mulch layer – to protect soil bed from erosion, retains moisture in the plant root zone,
provides a medium for a biological growth and decomposition of organic matter, and
provides some filtration of pollutants mainly larger sediment particles.
e. Planting soil bed – provides water and nutrients to support plant life in the bio-retention
system.
f. Sand bed in permeable system – where underlying native soil has sufficient infiltration
capacity to drain the water from the planting soil bed, sand bed underlies the planting soil
bed and allows water to drain into underlying soil.
g. Drainage layer in impermeable system – used to convey treated flows into the subsoil/
underdrain pipes.
Design Consideration
2. Design System
h. Transition layer in an impermeable system – a granular transition layer is about 100 – 150
mm thick or a suitable geotextile fabric should be included between the planting soil bed
and drainage layer.
i. Plants – important component of a bio-retention system. They remove pollutants and
nutrients through uptake.
j. Outlet controls – must incorporated with design flow
k. Design for maintenance
l. landscaping
Sizing Procedure
Consideration:
a. Purposes & function of bio-retention system
b. Site requirement for water quality control
c. Design storm selected
d. Capabilities for water quality controls
e. Independent or combined installation
Criteria:
a. Filter bed area
Sizing Procedure
Criteria:
b. Maximum infiltration rate – need to be
considered for sizing subsoil drain.
c. Subsoil/underdrain – are perforated pipe
placed at the base of impermeable bio-
retention systems to collect treated water
for conveyance downstream. These pipes
are sized to allow free draining of filtration
layer and prevent ‘choking’ of the system.
Sizing Procedure
Criteria:
d. Outlet structure – excess flow of the ponding area of bio-retention system.
e. Scour velocity of inflows – overflow pit or bypass channel should be located near the
inflow zone to prevent high flows from passing over the surface of filter media (it’s
recommended where possible).
f. Inlet structure – erosion protection should be provided for concentrated inflows to a bio-
retention system. This can be achieved with rock protection and by placing large rocks in
the flow path to reduce velocities and spread flow.
Design step
Procedure:
1. Site evaluation:
a. Drainage area
b. Topography and slopes
c. Soil infiltration capacity
d. Depth to groundwater & bedrock
e. Location/minimum setbacks
2. Field verification of site suitability
a. Thickness
b. Feature colour, abundance, size & contrast
c. USDA soil textural class
d. Soil structure, grade size and shape
e. Soil consistency, root abundance & size
f. Soil boundary
g. Occurrence of saturated soil, impermeable layer/lenses, groundwater, bedrock or
disturbed soil
Retention: Design step
Procedure:
3. Estimating design flow
4. Inlet structure
5. Select bio-retention type
6. Determine site infiltration rates (Saturated hydraulic conductivity)
7. Determine the size of bio-retention area
8. Sizing of perforated collection pipes
9. Determine the size of outlet structure
10. Landscaping design

Refer : Ch 9 (MASMA, 2012)