PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS

INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 01: Wind Tunnel Familiarization (Prelim)

LEARNING
MODULE 01:
Wind Tunnel
Familiarization

AE 324
AERONAUTICAL LABORATORY

AE 324 – AERONAUTICAL LABORATORY 1|Page

PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 01: Wind Tunnel Familiarization (Prelim)

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE Ref. No. Page No.

Introduction: Wind Tunnel 1,2,3 5

Wind Tunnel Types and Uses 1,4 7

Liner and Working Section 1,4 16

• Diffusers 4 18

• Driers 4 20

• Shock Tube 4 23

Assessment Activity 24

TABLE OF FIGURES

FIGURE REFERENCE
Tecquipment Academia. Subsonic Wind Tunnel 450 mm. Retrieved from:
1.1
https://www.tecquipment.com/subsonic-wind-tunnel-450mm
National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Wind Tunnel Design.
1.2 Retrieved from: https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-
12/airplane/tunnozd.html
Lockheed Martin. Lockheed Martin Missiles and Fire Control’s High
1.3 Speed Wind Tunnel (HSWT). Retrieved from:
https://www.lockheedmartin.com/en-us/products/highspeedwindtunnel.html
Pope A., Goin K. High Speed Wind Tunnel Testing. New York: John
1.7-1.10
Wiley & Sons.
1.4-1.6 Clancy, L. J. (1975). Aerodynamics [E-book]. Pitman Publishing Limited.
1.11-1.17

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 01: Wind Tunnel Familiarization (Prelim)

TIME ALLOTMENT FOR THIS MODULE

Video Materials Time

https://youtu.be/wikjMVWvVhE 10 mins
Reading Materials
Modules
Introduction: Wind Tunnel 10 mins
Wind Tunnel Types and Uses 10 mins
Liner and Working Section 10 mins
Diffusers 10 mins
Driers 10 mins
Shock Tube 10 mins
References
Pope A., Goin K. High Speed Wind Tunnel Testing. New York: John 10 mins
Wiley & Sons.
Lockheed Martin Missiles and Fire Control. High Speed Wind Tunnel 10 mins
and Test Systems Design Handbook [document on the Internet]. 2002
May 06. [cited 2009 November 15]. Retrieved from:
http://www.lockheedmartin.com/data/assets/13617.pdf
National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Wind Tunnel Index. 10 mins
Retrieved October 1, 2020 from https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-
12/airplane/shortt.html
Clancy, L. J. (1975). Aerodynamics [E-book]. Pitman Publishing 10 mins
Limited.
Activities
Assessment Activity 60 mins

TABLE OF REFERENCES
REFERENCES No.
Pope A., Goin K. High Speed Wind Tunnel Testing. New York: John Wiley &
1
Sons.
Lockheed Martin Missiles and Fire Control. High Speed Wind Tunnel and
Test Systems Design Handbook [document on the Internet]. 2002 May 06.
2
[cited 2009 November 15]. Retrieved from:
http://www.lockheedmartin.com/data/assets/13617.pdf
National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Wind Tunnel Index.
Retrieved October 1, 2020 from https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k- 3
12/airplane/shortt.html
Clancy, L. J. (1975). Aerodynamics [E-book]. Pitman Publishing Limited. 4

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 01: Wind Tunnel Familiarization (Prelim)

HONESTY CLAUSE

As members of the academic community, students are expected to recognize and

uphold standards of intellectual and academic integrity. PhilSCA assumes that as a basic and
minimum standard of conduct in academic matters, the students should be honest and that
they submit for credit the products only of their own efforts.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

Course Learning Outcomes [CLO]

CLO 1: Demonstrate fluency on Module Learning Outcomes [MLO]

how wind tunnels work using
familiarity on the types of wind
tunnels and its elements. MLO 1: . Utilize concepts Topic Learning Outcomes [TLO]
CLO 8: Display professional involving high-speed wind tunnel
commitment to ethical practice by through discussions presented in
showing sense of responsibility in this module. TLO 1: Comprehend knowledge in
complying and compiling academic MLO 2: Differentiate types of high-speed wind tunnel in
requirement. high-speed wind tunnels by its comparison with low-speed wind
definition, operation, and tunnel by their design and operation.
advantages. TLO 2: Explain the different parts
MLO 3: Explain linear working of high-speed wind tunnel design by
section of a high-speed wind tunnel its effects in flow properties and
by the function of its different parts. construction.
TLO 3: Analyze the different high-
speed wind tunnel types by their
characteristics and function.

As an introductory activity, you are encouraged to watch a short video entitled

“Wind tunnel, a tunnel where planes are born”, using the following YouTube link:
https://youtu.be/wikjMVWvVhE. This shows how we use these scale-models in the
Wind Tunnel Test of Turin and Venegono to turn ideas in real aircraft. Now, to get you
acquainted with the terms as well as concepts presented in the video, let us start our
discussion with wind tunnel familiarization.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 01: Wind Tunnel Familiarization (Prelim)

I. INTRODUCTION

Aerodynamicists use wind tunnels to test models of proposed aircraft. In the

tunnel, the engineer can carefully control the flow conditions which affect forces on
the aircraft. By making careful measurements of the forces on the model, the
engineer can predict the forces on the full-scale aircraft. And by using special
diagnostic techniques, the engineer can better understand and improve the
performance of the aircraft.

Wind tunnels are designed for a specific purpose and speed range and there
is a wide variety of wind tunnel types and model instrumentation. The model to be
tested in the wind tunnel is placed in the test section of the tunnel. The speed in
the test section is determined by the design of the tunnel. The choice of speed
range affects the design of the wind tunnel due to compressibility effects.

Figure 1.1 Subsonic Wind Tunnel

For subsonic flows, the air density remains nearly constant and decreasing
the cross-sectional area causes the flow to increase velocity and decrease
pressure. Similarly, increasing the area causes the velocity to decrease and the
pressure to increase. We want the highest possible velocity in the test section. For
a subsonic wind tunnel, the test section is placed at the end of the contraction
section and upstream of the diffuser. From a knowledge of the conservation of mass
for subsonic flows, we can design the test section to produce a desired velocity or
Mach number since the velocity is a function of the cross-sectional area. On the
figure, we note the changes in Mach number, velocity, and pressure through a
subsonic wind tunnel design. The plenum is the settling chamber on a closed return
tunnel, or the open room of an open return design.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 01: Wind Tunnel Familiarization (Prelim)

For supersonic flows, the air density changes in the tunnel because of
compressibility. In fact, the density changes faster than the velocity by a factor of
the square of the Mach number. In a supersonic flow, decreasing the cross-
sectional area causes the flow to decrease in velocity and increase pressure.
Similarly, increasing the area causes the velocity to increase and the pressure to
decrease. This change in properties is exactly the opposite of the change that
occurs subsonically. In addition, compressible flows experience mass flow choking.
As a subsonic flow is contracted, the velocity and Mach number increase. When
the velocity reaches the speed of sound (M = 1), the flow chokes and the Mach
number cannot be increased beyond M = 1. We want the highest possible velocity
in the test section of the wind tunnel. For a supersonic wind tunnel, we contract the
flow until it chokes in the throat of a nozzle. We then diffuse the flow which increases
the speed supersonically. The test section of the supersonic tunnel is placed at the
end of the diffuser. From a consideration of conservation of mass for a compressible
flow, we can design the test section to produce a desired velocity or Mach based
on the area in the test section. On the figure we note the changes in Mach number,
velocity and pressure through a supersonic wind tunnel design.

Notice that in both supersonic and subsonic designs, the velocity is

increased, and the pressure is decreased relative to the station upstream of the test
section. In a subsonic tunnel the area is contracting into the test section; in a
supersonic tunnel the area is increasing.

Figure 1.2 Wind Tunnel Design

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 01: Wind Tunnel Familiarization (Prelim)

II. WIND TUNNEL TYPES AND USES

Wind tunnels are devices which provide an airstream flowing under

controlled conditions so that items of interest to aeronautical engineers can be
tested.

High-speed tunnels are those whose usual operating speeds require the
inclusion of compressible flow effects. This, it turns out, means that in the high-
speed field we usually talk about “Mach number”—the ratio of a given velocity to
the speed of sound in the air about the body—as a more typical parameter than
velocity. A lower limit of “high speed” might be considered to be where the Mach
number is approximately 0.5—about 380 mph for standard sea level conditions.

The power to drive a low-speed wind tunnel varies as the cube of the velocity
in the wind tunnel. Although this rule does not hold into the high-speed regime, the
implication of rapidly increasing power requirements with increasing test speed is
correct. Because of the power requirements, high-speed wind tunnels are often of
the “intermittent” type, in which energy is stored in the form of pressure or vacuum
or both and is allowed to drive the tunnel only a few seconds out of each pumping
hour.

Figure 1.3 Lockheed Martin Missiles and Fire Control’s High-Speed Wind Tunnel

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 01: Wind Tunnel Familiarization (Prelim)

The problems of nozzle and diffuser design are common to all supersonic
wind tunnels. So is the problem of providing the necessary pressure ratio, and thus
the necessary power, to achieve supersonic flow. This latter problem is solved in
very different ways in different tunnels. The different designs include tunnels for
intermittent operation, and continuously running tunnels; tunnels in which the flow
goes straight through and return circuit tunnels: tunnels in which the flow is direct,
and induced flow tunnels. We shall discuss each type in turn.

A. Intermittent Operation

Wind tunnels for intermittent operation may be of the blow-through or

suction type. In a blow-through tunnel, the arrangement is such as the one
illustrated diagrammatically in Fig. 1.4. Air is compressed to a very high pressure
in a reservoir. It is subsequently released through a valve into the nozzle and is
eventually discharged into the atmosphere. No great power is required, since the
reservoir can be charged up relatively slowly by means of a compressor, which
does not have to be especially highly powered.

Figure 1.4 Blow Through Tunnel

However, the running time is generally short, because of the limited amount
of air in the reservoir. Once the pressure in the reservoir drops below a certain
value, the pressure ratio across the tunnel will no longer be sufficient to give
supersonic flow in the working section. It is then necessary to stop the tunnel and
re-charge the reservoir, and the charging time between runs may be considerable.
A further disadvantage is that the stagnation temperature and pressure will vary
during a run, due to the expansion of the air in the reservoir, where the flow
originates.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 01: Wind Tunnel Familiarization (Prelim)

A typical suction type tunnel is illustrated diagrammatically in Fig. 1.5. With

this type of tunnel, instead of the air flowing out of a compressed air reservoir, it is
sucked into a previously evacuated chamber. Throughout a run, the stagnation
conditions remain constant at the atmospheric value, since the flow through the
tunnel originates in the atmosphere outside the tunnel. Also, very high-pressure
ratios are easily achieved, and this implies that high Mach numbers can be
obtained, without the use of a chamber which can withstand high pressurization.
The disadvantage is that the running time is likely to be even shorter than that of a
blow-through tunnel, especially at high Mach numbers.

Figure 1.5 Suction Type Tunnel

B. Induced Flow Tunnels

In this type of tunnel, a high-speed jet is forced through a narrow annular

slot downstream of the working section. This jet induces the flow through the
working section which, if the blowing pressure is high enough, will be supersonic.
The jet through the slots is provided either by means of a compressor or, more
usually, from a com pressed air reservoir, which, as in the case of a blow-through
tunnel, is the effective power supply. To regulate the pressure ratio when a
compressed air supply is used, a continuously variable throttle valve is required
between the reservoir and the slots.

Figure 1.6 Induced Flow Tunnels

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 01: Wind Tunnel Familiarization (Prelim)

Such tunnels may be operated subsonically or supersonically, but it is

generally impossible, because of the difficulties involved in the mixing of the two
jets, to achieve Mach numbers much above 1-8. Their main advantage is that,
while they have the advantage of the blow-through over the suction type tunnel in
terms of running time, they do not suffer from the disadvantage of varying
stagnation conditions, since the air which flows through the working section comes,
not from the reservoir, but from the atmosphere. The running time depends, of
course, on the magnitude of the available compressed air supply-it may even be a
continuously running tunnel. In any case, the rate of mass flow from the reservoir
is generally less than it is for a blow-through tunnel of similar size and at the same
Mach number, so that the running time. given a reservoir of similar capacity, is
longer.

C. Continuous Operation

Continuous operation may be achieved in a blow-through or induced flow

tunnel if a sufficient compressed air supply is available, i.e., supplied by a
compressor whose capacity is such that it can supply air at the required pressure
at least at the rate air is consumed by the tunnel. Apart from this, continuous
operation may be achieved in effectively the same way as in a low speed tunnel,
except that instead of a fan a compressor, usually a multi-stage axial flow
compressor, is incorporated in the tunnel circuit, to provide the necessary pressure
ratio for the achievement of the design Mach numbers. The other features of such
a tunnel, i.e., liner, diffuser, etc., will be the same as in intermittently operating
tunnels, except that almost all compressor driven tunnels incorporate a return
circuit.

RETURN CIRCUITS

A return circuit may be incorporated in a supersonic wind tunnel, just as it

may in a low speed tunnel, and since the speed of flow in the return circuit is
everywhere quite low, there is no reason for the design to be any different. Some
measure of power economy is achieved by using a return circuit. But the principal
advantage is that, since the same air is being re-circulated all the time, there should
be no need for continuous drying. One disadvantage is that if the duration of the
test is long, the temperature may tend to rise, resulting in varying stagnation
conditions, unless some form of cooling is used. If a return circuit is incorporated
in an induced flow tunnel, then there must be a break in the circuit somewhere to
bleed off the excess air which enters the circuit through the inducing slots.
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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 01: Wind Tunnel Familiarization (Prelim)

CHOKING

The phenomenon of choking occurs when the local Mach number in a high-
speed tunnel reaches unity at some point in the flow other than the nozzle throat.
This may happen at points where the effective area of cross-section of the tunnel
is reduced as a result of boundary layer thickening, shock-induced separation, or
simply the presence of a model which is too thick, or at too high an incidence.
When choking occurs, the supersonic flow in the working section breaks down, and
this condition sets a limit to the range of operation of the tunnel-a limit which may
vary according to the model under test, and its attitude.

Essential features of the “continuous” tunnel and three types of

“intermittent” tunnels are shown in Figs. 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, and 1.10. The continuous
tunnel (Fig. 1.7) is used throughout the speed range. The intermittent blowdown
and indraft tunnels (Figs. 1.8 and 1.9) are normally used for Mach numbers from
0.5 to about 5.0, and the intermittent pressure- vacuum tunnels (Fig. 1.10) are
normally used for higher Mach numbers. Both intermittent and continuous tunnels
have their advantages and disadvantages.

Advantages claimed for intermittent tunnels are:

1. They are simpler to design and less costly to build.

2. A single drive may easily run several tunnels of different capabilities.
3. Model testing is more convenient, since a lot of time need not be spent in
pumping down the whole circuit and getting the drive motors up to speed.
4. Failure of a model will usually not result in tunnel damage.
5. Extra “power” is available to start the tunnel.
6. Loads on a model during the establishment of high-speed flow (starting
loads) are less severe because of faster starts.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 01: Wind Tunnel Familiarization (Prelim)

Fig. 1.7 Diagrammatic layout of closed-circuit, continuous flow, supersonic wind

tunnel.

Fig. 1.8 Diagrammatic layout of intermittent blowdown tunnel.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 01: Wind Tunnel Familiarization (Prelim)

Fig. 1.9 Diagrammatic layout of intermittent indraft wind tunnel.

Fig. 1.10 Schematic drawing of Sandia Corporation pebble-heater hypersonic

pressure-vacuum tunnel.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 01: Wind Tunnel Familiarization (Prelim)

Advantages claimed for the continuous tunnels are:

1. We are more in control of conditions and may usually return to a given flow
condition with more accuracy.
2. Since the “panic” of rapid testing is removed, check points are more easily
obtained.
3. Testing conditions can be held constant over a long period of time.

Although intermittent tunnels seem to have more advantages, the fact

remains that very few intermittent tunnels would be built if cost were of no
consequence. We should also note that a tunnel’s being continuous does not
guarantee that it will turn out more data than an intermittent tunnel. For one thing,
faster instrumentation is usually employed with intermittent tunnels, and even if
continuous tunnels were to have such equipment (for some curious reason, they
never seem to), the time lost pumping the pressure tunnels up and down,
bringing the drive up to speed, and stopping it may offset the advantage of being
able to run for longer periods. Particularly, pumping a continuous tunnel circuit
up to a desired pressure may be a problem since some tunnels require two hours
or more.

It is sometimes amusing to listen to an operator of an intermittent tunnel

and one of a continuous tunnel discuss their problems. It is almost as if they
were talking two different languages. This is particularly true when the subject is
the need for higher compression ratios (ratios of supply to discharge pressure)
to start a tunnel than to keep it running.

The intermittent tunnel—particularly the indraft or the pressure-vacuum

type — almost automatically provides these ratios. When the valve on one of
these intermittent tunnels is first snapped open, a near vacuum is provided
against the stagnation pressure, and the pressure ratio is very large. Getting the
tunnel started is no problem at all. On the other hand, the operator of a
continuous tunnel is very well aware of the fact that his compressors will yield
only a particular pressure ratio for a particular mass flow.

There is little choice in the type of intermittent tunnel to be used at the

higher Mach numbers. The compression ratio requirements are so high that a
pressure-vacuum tunnel is dictated. It is not practical to operate with
atmospheric inlet pressure (as with the indraft tunnel) or with atmospheric
discharge pressure (as with the blowdown tunnel). However, there are many
high-speed wind tunnels operating at Mach numbers for which both the indraft
and blowdown tunnel are practical. Lists of the advantages of these two types
of tunnels when compared with each other follow.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 01: Wind Tunnel Familiarization (Prelim)

Some advantages of the indraft tunnel over the blowdown tunnel are:

1. Total air temperature at supply conditions (stagnation temperature) is

constant during a run.
2. Total air pressure at supply conditions (stagnation pressure) is constant
during a run although it may be lower than desired. There are no variations
in total pressure such as those a pressure regulator may cause.
3. The airstream is free from contaminants such as compressor oil (but may
contain dust from the desiccant of the air drier).
4. The headaches and dangers of pressure regulators are removed.
5. Loads on a model during the establishment of the high-speed flow (starting
loads) are smaller.
6. Vacuum is safer to handle than pressure.
7. The noise level is lower.
8. Obtaining low air density (corresponding to high altitude) in the tunnel is not
difficult.
9. The indraft tunnel can operate at higher Mach numbers before heating is
required to prevent the liquefaction of air during the expansion to high
speeds.
10. For a given cost, indraft tunnels are larger.

Advantages of the blowdown tunnel over the indraft tunnel are:

1. It is possible to vary the Reynolds number widely at a particular Mach

number. In some cases, the value corresponding to full-scale flight may be
reached.
2. Cost is from slightly lower than to less than one-fourth of that of an indraft
tunnel of equal Reynolds number.
3. Short-time burning tests are usually possible.

Although we risk antagonizing friends who swear by indraft tunnels by

saying this, few such tunnels are built without the stimulus of strong external
factors—such as gifts of equipment or free vacuum pumps.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 01: Wind Tunnel Familiarization (Prelim)

III. LINER AND WORKING SECTION

In a low speed tunnel, the working section consists simply of a parallel-

sided duct. Increase in velocity is achieved by increase in blowing pressure.
However, it is impossible to achieve supersonic speeds simply by increasing
the blowing pressure. In a supersonic tunnel, therefore, a convergent-divergent
nozzle must be incorporated, as shown in Fig. 1.11, to accelerate the flow to
supersonic speeds. The flow is accelerated subsonically to sonic speed at the
throat, assuming that a sufficient pressure ratio has been established, and then
accelerated supersonically to the required Mach number in the working section,
which is a parallel-sided section immediately downstream of the nozzle,
throughout which the Mach number should remain effectively constant. The
whole channel, nozzle and working section, is called the liner of the tunnel. For
any given liner, the area distribution is fixed and therefore the Mach number
distribution is fixed. To change the operating Mach number, a liner of different
shape is required. This generally means substituting a new liner, but some
tunnels have liners with flexible walls, so that their shape, and hence the
working section Mach number, may be continuously varied, even while the
tunnel is running.

Figure 1.11 Liner and Working Section

The detail shape of the nozzle is a matter for very careful design, but the
theory on which it is based is beyond the scope of this book. The problem arises
from the fact that as the flow accelerates super sonically expansion waves
emanate from points on the tunnel walls. When these waves strike the opposite
walls, they may be reflected as shock waves, which would spoil the flow in the
working section. The shape of the liner walls must be calculated so as to avoid
this wave reflection,

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 01: Wind Tunnel Familiarization (Prelim)

Some liners are single-sided, i.e., one wall of the liner is plane, as
indicated in Fig. 1.12. This makes the replacement of one liner by another much
easier and cheaper, but it may be more difficult to achieve uniform flow. The
working section Mach number is only achieved downstream of an oblique shock
wave located across the tunnel and generated by the concavity of the liner wall.

Figure 1.12 Concave Wall

Supersonic working sections are always rectangular in cross section,

never circular or elliptical, as is the case in some low speed tunnels. There are
several reasons for this, viz:

(a) It is easier to construct nozzles of the required area distribution if the

section is rectangular.

(b) The visualization of the flow by optical methods involves the insertion of
plane windows in the side walls of the working section.

(c) When models are mounted in the working section, and tested, shock
waves are generated by the model. These shocks are inevitably reflected
by the tunnel walls, and it is imperative that the reflected shocks should
not strike the model. For this reason, at any given Mach number, the
working section must have a minimum height in relation to the model
length or chord. This would be impossible over the whole span of a two-
dimensional model if the section were circular.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 01: Wind Tunnel Familiarization (Prelim)

• DIFFUSERS

The diffusion of the flow, i.e., the slowing down of the air after it has left
the working section, in the case of a supersonic tunnel has to be affected in two
stages. A supersonic diffuser is required in which the flow is slowed down from
supersonic to subsonic speeds, and this must be followed by a subsonic
diffuser in which the flow is reduced to the low speeds at which the air is
discharged to the atmosphere or sent on its return circuit. There is no reason
why the subsonic diffuser should be any different from one used in a low speed
tunnel, except that it will probably need to be longer, since it must affect a bigger
speed reduction. It is in the diffuser that most of the power losses occur, and
therefore the design of the diffuser, and particularly the supersonic stage, is a
vital feature in keeping down the power requirement. There are various types
of supersonic diffuser.

The simplest of these consists in an arrangement whereby a normal

shock is allowed to form at the downstream end of the working section. This is
achieved by using a blowing pressure which is just sufficient to maintain
supersonic flow up to that station, or by inserting some obstacle which artificially
generates a normal shock there, The flow behind the shock is subsonic, and
there is a large rise in pressure. Subsonic diffusion follows, as illustrated in Fig.
1.13.

Figure 1.13 Diffuser

This form of supersonic diffuser is inefficient because of the large

wastage of kinetic energy in the shock wave. It is acceptable only if the Mach
number is fairly low.
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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 01: Wind Tunnel Familiarization (Prelim)

Another method consists in narrowing the channel again to what is

known as a second throat downstream of the working section, giving a gradual
reduction in Mach number. Ideally, if the second throat had the same area as
the first throat, sonic flow would occur there also, followed by subsonic diffusion
behind it, resulting in no power loss. However, boundary layer effects interfere
with this ideal flow, and also, as we have seen, it is not possible to compress
the flow isentropically, and some shock losses are inevitably sustained. In
consequence, it is not possible to reduce the second throat area to this ideal
value. A further factor limiting the area of the second throat is the possibility of
choking when the tunnel is first started, which would prevent supersonic flow
from ever being achieved in the working section. Choking implies that the local
Mach number becomes unity somewhere in the flow, preventing further flow
acceleration upstream of this point. If the second throat area were the same as
the first, then, because the boundary layer is relatively thick there, choking
would occur at the second throat. Some tunnels have a second throat whose
area may be varied during operation of the tunnel, so that it is kept open for
starting and, after supersonic flow has been achieved in the working section, is
then narrowed to its optimum value for the given Mach number. In any case,
some measure of supersonic diffusion may be achieved by the provision of a
second throat, even a fixed one. If a normal shock then forms downstream of
the second throat, supersonic diffusion is complete. Since the shock strength is
less than it would be in the absence of the second throat, some improvement
in efficiency will have been achieved. Figure 1.14 illustrates this design. Second
throats are almost always used in tunnels which are designed for use at higher
Mach numbers.

Figure 1.14 Second Throat

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 01: Wind Tunnel Familiarization (Prelim)

If the diffusion from supersonic to subsonic speeds can be arranged to take

place through several oblique shocks, the power loss is, in general, less than that
which is sustained if the same reduction in speed is affected through a single normal
shock. This has led to designs for supersonic diffusers which consist of simple, wedge
shaped obstacles, introduced into the flow downstream of the working section in order
to generate such shocks. In effect, such a device is not much different from a rather
rough and ready second throat, and it is not so efficient as one which is more carefully
designed, though it may be much easier and cheaper to construct.

Figure 1.15 illustrates this concept and shows how the wedge design must take
account of shock reflection

• DRIERS

An essential feature of most supersonic tunnels is some means of drying

the air. In the absence of such a device, the expansion of the air to low
temperature and pressure causes condensation of the water vapor contained
in the air. The condensed particles generate condensation shock waves, which
spoil the flow in the working section. Thus, the air must be dried before it enters
the nozzle. The most common device simply consists in a chamber filled with a
hygroscopic substance, such as silica gel, which absorbs the water vapor from
the air as it passes through. It must be possible to remove the drying agent from
the tunnel periodically and get rid of the accumulated moisture by heating it in
an oven.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 01: Wind Tunnel Familiarization (Prelim)

An alternative means of preventing condensation, without the use of a

drier, consists in heating the air before it enters the tunnel. This may mean that,
even after expansion, the temperature is not low enough to cause
condensation. It may be difficult to maintain this heating for any considerable
running time with a straight through tunnel. Heating also has the added
disadvantage of altering the stagnation conditions in the tunnel. One possible
device consists in the use of a heat sink located in the high-pressure tank or
reservoir from which many tunnels are fed with air. The sink is simply a mass
of loosely packed metal in the tank. As the air is compressed in the tank, it gives
up a good deal of its water content, which may be drained off. The temperature
in the tank also rises, including that of the metal. When the air is released into
the tunnel, the expansion causes rapid cooling. However, the metal now gives
up its heat to the air, so that the amount of cooling is less than it would be
without the heat sink. Such a device may be used to prevent condensation
troubles. Its main use is in tunnels designed for use at high supersonic Mach
numbers, where the cooling on expansion might otherwise be so great as to
cause, not condensation, but liquefaction of the air.

1. High-speed Subsonic Tunnels

High-speed subsonic tunnels have parallel-sided liners, and the speed

and Mach number are increased simply by increasing the blowing pressure, as
in the case of low speed tunnels. However, the effective cross-sectional area
of the channel grows less along the length of the working section because of
the thickening of the boundary layer, and in consequence the speed of the flow
increases. At some subsonic Mach number, the local flow at some point
downstream becomes sonic, and the tunnel is choked. If a model is inserted,
choking will occur at still lower nominal Mach numbers. Choking may be
delayed by using a liner with slightly divergent walls; but, if the walls are solid,
sooner or later choking is bound to occur. In any case, it limits subsonic
operation of the tunnel to a Mach number well below unity, usually about 0-93
to 0-95 with the tunnel empty, and substantially less with a model present.

2. Transonic Wind Tunnels

It is usually impossible, then, to achieve flow at a Mach number much

above 0:9 with ordinary parallel-sided liners. It is also difficult to achieve
supersonic flow at a Mach number below about 1-1 with a convergent-divergent
nozzle with solid walls, because of choking difficulties. Special liners are
required to cover the transonic range of Mach numbers from, say, 0-85 to 1-15.
AE 324 – AERONAUTICAL LABORATORY 21 | P a g e
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 01: Wind Tunnel Familiarization (Prelim)

The design of such liners is based on a working section whose walls are
not solid but perforated. Slots or holes are made in the walls of the working
section, the area of the perforations increasing with distance along the length
of the section. The principle is that the excess air associated with boundary
layer growth or the presence of the model can escape through these
perforations, thus eliminating the effect of a narrowing channel, and preventing
choking. The detail positioning, size and shape of the holes or slots is often
crucial to the successful operation of the tunnel, and it is largely a matter of trial
and error. The perforated walls are surrounded by other, solid walls, and the air
which has escaped through the holes into the expansion chamber between,
which is known as the plenum chamber, is fed back into the tunnel downstream
of the working section Figure 1.16 illustrates this concept.

Figure 1.16

In addition to preventing choking, and so permitting the achievement of

Mach numbers up to 1 in the working section, the use of perforated walls,
through which the flow can expand, may act in some ways as a divergent
channel, so that the flow can expand supersonically, and Mach numbers above
1 may be achieved. In this way, the Mach number range from 1 to about 1-15
can be covered. Sometimes suction may be applied to the plenum chamber,
increasing the flow through the holes and improving the efficiency of the device.

Many tunnels have interchangeable liners, parallel-sided, perforated and

convergent-divergent, so that the whole range of high-speed flows, subsonic,
transonic and supersonic may be covered.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 01: Wind Tunnel Familiarization (Prelim)

• THE SHOCK TUBE

The shock tube is a device for producing a flow at very high Mach
number for a very short time. The principle is illustrated in Fig. 1.17. The device
consists simply of a long tube, in which a diaphragm separates a region in which
the air is compressed to a very high pressure, from an evacuated region. When
the pressure ratio across it reaches a certain value, the diaphragm bursts, (or
it may be punctured by a device incorporated in the tube) and air rushes at very
high speeds into the evacuated region. At the front of this body of air is a mixing
region, terminated by a normal shock, behind which is a region of uniform flow
at high Mach number. This passes over a model mounted at an appropriate
point in the initially evacuated region. When the wave front reaches the end of
the tube, it is reflected back again, and once it has reached the model position
the flow is spoilt. Thus, the time for which uniform flow is achieved is
exceedingly short, probably only a few micro-seconds. Measurement of the flow
properties is very difficult, and many of the problems created by the use of
shock tubes have consisted in the development of special instrumentation for
making such measurements on a very small-time scale. The tube itself is cheap
and easy to construct, and the power requirement is low. More complicated and
refined developments of the idea, such as the gun-tunnel, in which a charge of
air is fired along the tube, have been developed, and the end of the tube may
fork into two branches so as to give increased running time', but the above
account describes the basic principle of these devices.

Figure 1.17 Shock Tube

3. Hypersonic Wind Tunnels

The shock tube and gun-tunnel are experimental tools for the
investigation of flow at hypersonic speeds. Since hypersonic aero dynamics lies
outside the scope of this book, is not intended to deal further here with

AE 324 – AERONAUTICAL LABORATORY 23 | P a g e

PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 01: Wind Tunnel Familiarization (Prelim)

experimental facilities in hypersonic, except to say that it is possible to design

wind tunnels for use in this speed range, i.e., to operate at very high Mach
numbers, on the same basis as the supersonic wind tunnels already described
earlier in this chapter. To achieve such high Mach numbers, liners with very
narrow throats are required, and this may involve special problems, besides
necessitating very high-pressure ratios to provide the necessary expansion of
the flow. One major problem is the likelihood of liquefaction of the working fluid
once the Mach number becomes very large, because of the associated very
low temperature. The idea of a heat sink to reduce this likelihood has already
been explained, but its usefulness is limited to moderate Mach numbers, not
much above 4. One possible solution is to use a working fluid other than air,
such as freon gas, with much lower liquefaction temperature, and a lower value
of the adiabatic index, y, which results in reduced temperature and pressure
ratios for a given Mach number.

ASSESSMENT ACTIVITY
Answer the following questions in your notebook.

1. What is the purpose of a wind tunnel?

2. Enumerate the different types of supersonic wind tunnels, citing its
advantages and disadvantages.
3. Explain the different parts of high-speed wind tunnel design by its effects in
flow properties and construction.
4. Explain linear working section of a high-speed wind tunnel.
5. Differentiate subsonic, supersonic, transonic and hypersonic wind tunnels.

AE 324 – AERONAUTICAL LABORATORY 24 | P a g e

PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 2: Isentropic, Adiabatic, and other Thermodynamics for High Speed
Processes

LEARNING MODULE 02:

Isentropic, Adiabatic,
and other
Thermodynamics for
High Speed Processes

AE 324 – AERONAUTICAL
LABORATORY II

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 2: Isentropic, Adiabatic, and other Thermodynamics for High Speed
Processes

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Ref. no Page
Classification of Aerodynamic Flows 1 5
Equations Governing Incompressible Flow 1 5
Equations Governing Compressible Flow 1,6 9
Derivation of Speed of Sound 1 12
Derivation of Important Isentropic Relations and Area
1,6 14
Relations for High Speed Flows
Sample Problems 18
Assessment Activity

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 2: Isentropic, Adiabatic, and other Thermodynamics for High Speed
Processes

TABLE OF REFERENCES
References No.
Anderson, Jr., J. D. (1989). Introduction to Flight (3rd Edition) [E-book].
1
McGraw-Hill Book Company
Jones, B. (1939). Elements of Practical Aerodynamics (2nd Edition) [E-
2
book]. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Clancy, L. J. (1975). Aerodynamics [E-book]. Pitman Publishing Limited. 3
Sadraey, M. H. (2013). Aircraft Design A Systems Engineering Approach.
4
John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
FAA. (2016). Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge. 5
Pope, A., & Goin, K. L. (1965). High Speed Wind Tunnel Testing [E-book].
6
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Figures and Tables No.
Figures 2.1-2.3 are taken from the reference above. 1
Note that tables presented are made for organizing purposes only.

TIME COMMITMENT FOR THIS MODULE

Reading Materials Time (min)
Modules
Classification of Aerodynamic Flows 15
Equations Governing Incompressible Flow 15
Equations Governing Compressible Flow 15
Derivation of Speed of Sound 15
Derivation of Important Isentropic Relations and Area
25
Relations for High Speed Flows
References
Anderson, Jr., J. D. (1989). Introduction to Flight (3rd
11.1
Edition) [E-book]. McGraw-Hill Book Company
Pope, A., & Goin, K. L. (1965). High Speed Wind Tunnel
11.1
Testing [E-book]. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Activities Time (min)
Sample Problems 20
Assessment Activity 30
TOTAL 157.2 min (2.62 hrs)
HONESTY CLAUSE
As members of the academic community, students are expected to recognize and uphold
standards of intellectual and academic integrity. The institution assumes as a basic and
minimum standard of conduct in academic matters that students be honest at all times and
that they submit for credit only the products of their own efforts.

3|P a ge
 PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 2: Isentropic, Adiabatic, and other Thermodynamics for High Speed
Processes

LEARNING OUTCOMES
Program Learning Outcomes (PLO)
Course Learning Outcomes (CLO)
PLO 1. Apply knowledge of Module Learning Outcomes (MLO)
mathematics, physical sciences,
CLO 2: Determine flow Topic Learning
engineering sciences to the
properties along surfaces using Outcomes (TLO)
practice of aeronautical MLO 1: Formulate equations
engineering. formulas taken from isentropic,
adiabatic and thermodynamics for high speed processes TLO 6: Review basic
PLO 5.Identify, formulate, and
solve aeronautical engineering for high speed flight. using isentropic, adiabatic thermodynamics using
problems. CLO 7: Commit to the and thermodynamic existing formulas
PLO 6. Understand the scientific process on solving properties. applicable for
professional and ethical problems by producing MLO 2: Solve flow aerodynamics.
responsibility solutions following the basic properties for high speed TLO 7: Explain
community and with society at steps of scientific method. isentropic properties
large
processes using derived
CLO 8: Display professional using formulas from
PLO 8.Understand the impact of working equations.
commitment to ethical practice thermodynamics.
aeronautical engineering solutions TLO 8: Derivation of
in global, economic, by showing sense of
responsibility in complying and working formulas for
environmental, and societal
context compiling academic high speed processes
PLO 9.Recognize the need for, requirement. using isentropic
and engage in life-long learning relations.
PLO 11.Use techniques, skills, TLO 9: Solve
and modern engineering tools problems involving
necessary for aeronautical high speed process
engineering practice through problem sets
PLO 13.Apply acquired and/or module
aeronautical engineering
activities.
knowledge and skills for national
development.

4|P a ge
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 2: Isentropic, Adiabatic, and other Thermodynamics for High Speed
Processes

CONTENT
In reality, all matter is compressible. It will change its volume but its mass will remain
the same. As an example, solids and liquids will change its volume when compressed
and its mass will stay the same but its density will change. For all practical purposes,
this change in density is insignificantly small thus the density is constant. Meanwhile,
for a gas, there will be a change in volume if compressed but the density can be
variable.
I. Classification of Aerodynamic Flows
1. Incompressible Flows
- Flows where the density of the fluid is always constant. In reality,
incompressible flows are a myth. They do not exist in nature but
they are classified as such because at the speeds where this fluid
flows the change in density is significantly small it is assumed
constant for practicality. Speeds classified under incompressible
flows are V < 100 m/s.
2. Compressible Flows
- Flows in which the change in density is not a constant. This
variability of density is particularly important in high speed flows
where the change in density is not small enough to be neglected.
By convention, if the speed exceeds 100 m/s it is considered
compressible.

NOTE: It is important that the student is able to differentiate the two flows
because it will be important for the computation process. If they
interchange the two type of flows, there will be a huge discrepancy in the
final answer.
II. Equations Governing Incompressible Flows
1. Equation of State
- At any point in the flow field, the flow properties such as pressure,
temperature and density are related by the equation of state given
as:
P= ρRT
Where:
P = Pressure
ρ = Density
T = Temperature
R = specific gas constant

2. Continuity Equation
- From the physical principle of conservation of mass which states
that “mass can neither be created nor destroyed.”

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
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AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 2: Isentropic, Adiabatic, and other Thermodynamics for High Speed
Processes

Figure 2.1 Continuity Equation

- From the streamlines shown above, as a gas move along the

stream tube formed by the streamlines from point 1 to point 2, we
see that the cross sectional areas change respectively. However,
as long as the flow is steady (does not vary with time), the total
mass that enters point 1 should equal the total mass leaving at
point 2 corresponding to the change in area. From the diagram we
have the following properties:

Point Property Point 1 Point 2

Area A1 A2
Density ρ1 ρ2
Velocity V1 V2
Distance Covered V1 dt V2 dt
Volume Swept at a
A1 V1 dt A2 V2 dt
time interval dt
Differential mass dm = ρ1 (A1 V1 dt) dm = ρ2 (A2 V2 dt)
𝑑𝑚 𝑑𝑚
𝑚1 = = ρ1 A1 V1 𝑚2 = = ρ2 A2 V2
Mass Flow Formula 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Continuity Equation
and from the
definition that mass 𝑚1 = 𝑚2 = 𝐶
can neither be ρ1 A1 V1 = ρ2 A2 V2
created nor
destroyed.
Continuity Equation A1 V1 = A2 V2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
(Incompressible)

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
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AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 2: Isentropic, Adiabatic, and other Thermodynamics for High Speed
Processes

- In a sense, we could compare it with a water whose ends are

pressed to speed up the flow of water. The speed of the water is
speeding up to “catch up” from the steady input of water and the
area reduction that happened

3. Momentum Equation
- The momentum equation shows the relationship of pressure in the
aerodynamic flow. Indeed, the differences in pressure from one
point to another in the flow creates forces that act on the fluid
elements that cause them to move. Therefore, it is important to
determine the relation between pressure and velocity.

From Newton’s Second Law of Motion: F = mass * acceleration

Figure 2.2 Force Diagram for Momentum Equation

- In order to relate pressure to velocity, we should first observe an

infinitesimally small volume of a fluid element in a streamline. The
question we should first understand is the force acting on this
element. In general, the force is a combination of three phenomena:
1. Pressure acting in a normal direction on all six of the element
2. Frictional shear acting tangentially on all six faces of the element
3. Gravity acting on the mass inside the element

NOTE: For incompressible flows, we can disregard the effects of

item 2 and 3. Since streamlines are assumed to be frictionless and
the effects of gravity provides a small contribution to the total force.

7|P a ge
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 2: Isentropic, Adiabatic, and other Thermodynamics for High Speed
Processes

- From the figure above, we have the following results:

From Newton’s Second Law 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎

F on the left side of the element 𝐹 = 𝑃 (𝐴) = 𝑃(𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧)

with pressure P (positive x
direction)
F on the right side of the element 𝑑𝑃
𝑃1 = ∗ 𝑑𝑥
where there is a small change in 𝑑𝑥
pressure per unit length and a 𝑃2 = 𝑃
𝐴 = 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
pressure P from the left side
𝑑𝑃
(negative x direction) 𝐹 = (𝑃 + ∗ 𝑑𝑥) ∗ (𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑃
𝐹 = −(𝑃 + ∗ 𝑑𝑥) ∗ (𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧)
𝑑𝑥

Total Force on the fluid element 𝑑𝑃

𝐹 = 𝑃(𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧) − (𝑃 + ∗ 𝑑𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
∗ (𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧)
𝑑𝑃
𝐹=− 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝑑𝑥

Taking mass 𝑚 = 𝜌 ∗ 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝜌𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧

𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑥
𝑎= = ( )= ( )
Taking acceleration and rewriting in 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑉
terms of Velocity (V) = 𝑉
𝑑𝑥

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑑𝑃
𝐹=− 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝑑𝑥
𝑚 = 𝜌𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
Going back to Newton’s Second 𝑑𝑉
Law of Motion 𝑎= 𝑉
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑉
− 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 = 𝜌𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 ∗ ( 𝑉)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑃 = −𝜌𝑉𝑑𝑉
Euler’s Equation/Momentum
𝑑𝑃 + 𝜌𝑉𝑑𝑉 = 0
Equation
2 2
Integrating from point 1 to point 2.
∫ 𝑑𝑃 + ∫ 𝜌𝑉𝑑𝑉 = 0
1 1

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 2: Isentropic, Adiabatic, and other Thermodynamics for High Speed
Processes

𝜌
(𝑃2 − 𝑃1 ) + (𝑉22 − 𝑉12 ) = 0
The equation is constant along a 2
𝜌 2 𝜌
streamline. 𝑃2 + (𝑉2 ) = 𝑃1 + (𝑉12 ) = 𝐶
2 2
𝜌 2 𝜌
𝑃2 + (𝑉2 ) = 𝑃1 + (𝑉12 ) = 𝐶
Bernoulli’s Equation 2 2

III. Equations Governing Compressible Flows

1. Equation of State
- At any point in the flow field, the flow properties such as pressure,
temperature and density are related by the equation of state given
as:
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑅𝑇
Where:
P = Pressure
ρ = Density
T = Temperature
R = specific gas constant

2. Momentum Equation
- The momentum equation for compressible flow in a stream tube or
duct with no friction is given by:
𝑃2 + 𝜌2 (𝑉22 ) = 𝑃1 + 𝜌1 (𝑉12 ) = 𝐶
Where:
P = Pressure
ρ = Density
V = Velocity

3. Continuity Equation
- For a continuous flow in a duct or stream tube, the total mass flow
at any two points along the flow is given by:
ρ1 A1 V1 = ρ2 A2 V2
ρ1 ≠ ρ2
Where:
ρ = Density which is not constant along the flow
A = Area
V = Velocity

4. Isentropic Equation
- Defining different process from thermodynamics:

9|P a ge
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 2: Isentropic, Adiabatic, and other Thermodynamics for High Speed
Processes

a. Adiabatic Process – a process where no heat is added or taken

away
b. Reversible Process – a process where no frictional or dissipative
effects occur
c. Isentropic Process – a process which is both adiabatic and
reversible
- Aerodynamic flows are considered isentropic process based on the
fact that no heat is added or taken away as streamlines flow from
one point to another and that using the momentum equation earlier,
the assumption that the flow along a streamline is frictionless
except for the streamlines near the surface.
- It is important to remember that even the flow is adiabatic, the
temperature need not be constant. In fact, it can vary from point to
point in the adiabatic, compressible flow. This is because of the fact
that the changes vary along the flow which in turn creates changes
in volume and does work. This change the internal energy thus the
temperature changes. However, for stagnation conditions,
anywhere along the stream line, the total stagnation temperature
and enthalpy are equal. That is given by, ℎ01 = ℎ02 & 𝑇01 = 𝑇02 . In
addition to this, for an isentropic process, the following relations
hold true: 𝑃01 = 𝑃02 ; 𝜌01 = 𝜌02 & 𝑇01 = 𝑇02 .
- On the other hand, for incompressible flows where the density is
constant there is no change in the fluid element thus no work is
done and no change in temperature occurs. In summary, if the flow
of air around a surface is incompressible then the temperature at
every point along that streamline is constant and for this reason,
temperature is not an important quantity for frictionless,
incompressible flows.

STEPS EQUATIONS
𝛿𝑞 = 𝑑𝑢 + 𝑃𝑑𝜈 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝛿𝑞 = 0
𝑑𝑢 = −𝑃𝑑𝜈 = 𝑐𝑣 𝑑𝑇
Since isentropic flow is an
adiabatic process 𝛿𝑞 = 𝑑ℎ − 𝜈𝑑𝑃 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝛿𝑞 = 0
𝑑ℎ = 𝜈𝑑𝑃 = 𝑐𝑃 𝑑𝑇

𝑑𝑢 = −𝑃𝑑𝜈 = 𝑐𝑣 𝑑𝑇
Dividing du and dh. Note that v 𝑑ℎ = 𝜈𝑑𝑃 = 𝑐𝑃 𝑑𝑇
denotes Volume. 𝑑𝑃 − 𝑐𝑃 𝑑𝜈
=
𝑃 𝐶𝑣 𝜈

10 | P a g e
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AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 2: Isentropic, Adiabatic, and other Thermodynamics for High Speed
Processes

where CP/CV = k = 1.4 for

standard condition air
𝑃2 𝜈2
𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝜈
∫ = −𝑘 ∫
𝑃1 𝑃 𝜈1 𝜈

𝑃2 𝜈2
Integrating at from point 1 to 𝑙𝑛 = −𝑘 ln
𝑃1 𝜈1
point 2 along a streamline 𝑃2 𝜈2 −𝑘
𝑙𝑛 = ln ( )
𝑃1 𝜈1
𝑃2 𝜈2 −𝑘 1
= ( ) 𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝜈 =
𝑃1 𝜈1 𝜌
𝑘
𝑃2 𝜌2 𝑘 𝑇2 𝑘−1
Isentropic Flow Relationships = ( ) =( )
𝑃1 𝜌1 𝑇1

5. Energy Equation
- For high speed, compressible flows the physical principle
goes as follows: Energy can neither be created nor destroyed.
- It was mentioned that for incompressible flows, temperature along
the streamline is constant and therefore temperature is not
considered as an important parameter for equations used in such
flows. On the other hand, the density varies for compressible flows
and therefore, the temperature changes. The temperature changes
despite the process being adiabatic in nature.

STEPS EQUATIONS

First law of thermodynamics in 𝛿𝑞 = 𝑑ℎ − 𝜈𝑑𝑃 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝛿𝑞 = 0

terms of enthalpy. 𝑑ℎ − 𝜈𝑑𝑃 = 0

From Euler’s Equation. 𝑑𝑃 = −𝜌𝑉𝑑𝑉

Substitution 1
𝑑ℎ + 𝜈𝜌𝑉𝑑𝑉 = 0 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝜈 =
NOTE THAT V denotes velocity 𝜌
and v denotes volume. 𝑑ℎ + 𝑉𝑑𝑉 = 0

Integration from point 1 to point 2 ℎ2 𝑉2

∫ 𝑑ℎ + ∫ 𝑉𝑑𝑉 = 0
ℎ1 𝑉1

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AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 2: Isentropic, Adiabatic, and other Thermodynamics for High Speed
Processes

𝑉22 𝑉12
(ℎ2 − ℎ1 ) + ( − )=0; ℎ
2 2
= 𝑐𝑃 𝑇

Energy Equation 𝑉12 𝑉22

𝑐𝑝 𝑇1 + = 𝑐𝑝 𝑇2 + =𝐶
2 2

IV. Derivation of Speed of Sound

Figure 2.3 Diagram for a Sound Wave

As the wave travels from the right side to the left side it imparts changes to
the properties originally ahead of it. Imagine a sound wave travelling the
air which have point properties such as Pressure, Temperature and
Density, as the air passes the wave a slight change occurs. An example is
the air speed a which moves away from the wave with a velocity of a + da.

STEPS EQUATIONS

𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝑉2
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑉1 = 𝑎; 𝑉2 = 𝑎 + 𝑑𝑎; 𝜌2
= 𝜌 + 𝑑𝜌

From the continuity equation 𝜌𝐴1 𝑎 = (𝜌 + 𝑑𝜌)𝐴2 (𝑎 + 𝑑𝑎)

𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝐴 = 𝐶

𝜌𝑎 = (𝜌 + 𝑑𝜌)(𝑎 + 𝑑𝑎)

𝜌𝑎 = (𝜌 + 𝑑𝜌)(𝑎 + 𝑑𝑎)
Simplifying 𝜌𝑎 = (𝜌𝑎 + 𝑎𝑑𝜌) + 𝜌𝑑𝑎 + 𝑑𝜌𝑑𝑎
𝐵𝑈𝑇 𝑑𝜌𝑑𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑦 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙

Get speed of sound (a) 𝑎𝑑𝜌 = −𝜌𝑑𝑎

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Learning Module 2: Isentropic, Adiabatic, and other Thermodynamics for High Speed
Processes

𝜌𝑑𝑎
𝑎= −
𝑑𝜌

𝑑𝑃 = −𝜌𝑉𝑑𝑉 𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑉 = 𝑎
𝑑𝑃 = −𝜌𝑎𝑑𝑎
From Euler’s Equation 𝑑𝑃
𝑑𝑎 = −
𝜌𝑎

𝜌𝑑𝑎
𝑎= −
𝑑𝜌
𝜌𝑑𝑃
Substitute da 𝑎=
𝜌𝑎𝑑𝜌
𝑑𝑃
𝑎2 =
𝑑𝜌

Speed of sound is given by: 𝑑𝑃

Note that the flow of the 𝑎=√
𝑑𝜌
soundwave is isentropic.
𝑃2 𝜌 𝑘 𝑃2 𝑃1
Isentropic Relations = (𝜌2 ) = = =𝐶
𝑃1 1 𝜌2𝑘 𝜌1𝑘

Deriving isentropic relations 𝑃 = 𝐶𝜌𝑘

above 𝑑𝑃 = 𝑐 (𝑘 ∗ 𝜌𝑘−1 )𝑑𝜌

𝑑𝑃 𝑃
= 𝑘 (𝑘 ∗ 𝜌𝑘−1 )
𝑑𝜌 𝜌
Substituting the value of C 𝑑𝑃 𝑘𝑃
=
𝑑𝜌 𝜌

𝑑𝑃
𝑎=√
𝑑𝜌
Speed of sound
𝑘𝑃
𝑎=√ = √𝑘𝑅𝑇
𝜌

Note that speed of sound varies directly with the square root of
temperature, i.e. the speed of sound of a gas depends only on the
temperature of the gas. As defined before, temperature varies directly to
the mean average kinetic energy from the molecular collisions happening
in the gas. As a supporting evidence, the sound waves transfers some of
the molecular kinetic energy to the air and this results in a new average

13 | P a g e
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 2: Isentropic, Adiabatic, and other Thermodynamics for High Speed
Processes

molecular kinetic energy of the air. The temperature is indeed a measure

of the speed of a sound wave transmitted by molecular collisions. It is
important to remember that the speed of sound is also a point property
and can vary from point to point in the flow.
Mach Number (M) is the ratio of the flow velocity (V) to the speed of sound
(a).
𝑉
𝑀=
𝑎
V. Derivation of Important Isentropic Relations and Area Relations for
High Speed Flows

From the energy equation, we have:

𝑉12 𝑉22
𝑐𝑝 𝑇1 + = 𝑐𝑝 𝑇2 +
2 2
Recall that:

𝑉 = 𝑀𝑎

𝑎 = √𝑘𝑅𝑇

𝑘𝑅
𝑐𝑝 =
𝑘−1

𝑘
𝑃2 𝜌2 𝑘 𝑇2 𝑘−1
= ( ) =( )
𝑃1 𝜌1 𝑇1

Applying stagnation conditions on the left hand side of the energy equation
where V = 0.
𝑉12 𝑉22
𝑐𝑝 𝑇1 + = 𝑐𝑝 𝑇2 +
2 2

𝑉12
𝑐𝑝 𝑇1 + = 𝑐𝑝 𝑇0 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑉 = 𝑀𝑎
2

𝑀12 𝑎12
𝑐𝑝 𝑇1 + = 𝑐𝑝 𝑇0 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑎 = √𝑘𝑅𝑇
2

𝑀12 (𝑘𝑅𝑇1 )
𝑐𝑝 𝑇1 + = 𝑐𝑝 𝑇0 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑏𝑦 𝑐𝑝 𝑇0
2

14 | P a g e
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
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Learning Module 2: Isentropic, Adiabatic, and other Thermodynamics for High Speed
Processes

𝑐𝑝 𝑇1 𝑀12 (𝑘𝑅𝑇1 ) 𝑐𝑝 𝑇0
+ =
𝑐𝑝 𝑇0 2 (𝑐𝑝 𝑇0 ) 𝑐𝑝 𝑇0

𝑇1 𝑀12 (𝑘𝑅𝑇1 ) 𝑘𝑅
+ = 1 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑐𝑝 =
𝑇0 2 (𝑐𝑝 𝑇0 ) 𝑘−1

𝑇1 𝑀12 (𝑘𝑅𝑇1 )
+ =1
𝑇0 2 ( 𝑘𝑅 ∗ 𝑇 )
𝑘−1 0

𝑇1 (𝑘 − 1)𝑀12 (𝑇1 )
+ =1
𝑇0 2 (𝑇0 )

𝑇1 (𝑘 − 1)𝑀12
(1 + )=1
𝑇0 2

𝑇1 1
=
𝑇0 (𝑘 − 1)𝑀12
[1 + ]
2
−1
𝑇1 (𝑘 − 1)𝑀12
[1
= + ]
𝑇0 2

Similarly, from the isentropic relations designating point 2 for stagnation

point:
𝑘
𝑃0 𝜌0 𝑘 𝑇0 𝑘−1
= ( ) =( )
𝑃1 𝜌1 𝑇1
𝑘
−1∗
𝑃0 (𝑘 − 1)𝑀12 𝑘−1
= [1 + ]
𝑃1 2

𝑘
𝑃1 (𝑘 − 1)𝑀12 𝑘−1
= [1 + ]
𝑃0 2

𝑘
−1∗
𝜌0 𝑘 (𝑘 − 1)𝑀12 𝑘−1
( ) = [1 + ]
𝜌1 2

𝑘−1
𝜌1 (𝑘 − 1)𝑀12
= [1 + ]
𝜌0 2

15 | P a g e
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 2: Isentropic, Adiabatic, and other Thermodynamics for High Speed
Processes

At another point along the stream line consider point two with similar
isentropic relations:
−1
𝑇2 (𝑘 − 1)𝑀22
= [1 + ]
𝑇0 2

𝑘
𝑃2 (𝑘 − 1)𝑀22 𝑘−1
= [1 + ]
𝑃0 2

𝑘−1
𝜌2 (𝑘 − 1)𝑀22
= [1 + ]
𝜌0 2

Since the total temperature along a streamline of an isentropic process

(adiabatic and reversible) is equal, we have the following relations for any
two points along a streamline:
𝑇01 = 𝑇02

𝑇1
𝑇01 =
(𝑘 − 1)𝑀12
[1 + ]
2

𝑇2
𝑇02 =
(𝑘 − 1)𝑀22
[1 + ]
2

𝑇1 𝑇2
−1 = −1
(𝑘 − 1)𝑀12 (𝑘 − 1)𝑀22
[1 + ] [1 + ]
2 2

(𝑘 − 1)𝑀22
𝑇1 [1 + ]
2
=
𝑇2 (𝑘 − 1)𝑀12
[1 + ]
2

Similarly, for pressure and density:

𝑘
(𝑘 − 1)𝑀22 𝑘−1
𝑃1 [1 + ]
2
={ }
𝑃2 (𝑘 − 1)𝑀12
[1 + ]
2

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 2: Isentropic, Adiabatic, and other Thermodynamics for High Speed
Processes

1
(𝑘 − 1)𝑀22 𝑘−1
𝜌1 [1 + ]
2
={ }
𝜌2 (𝑘 − 1)𝑀12
[1 + ]
2

From the continuity equation:

ρ1 A1 V1 = ρ2 A2 V2

A1 ρ2 V2
=
A2 ρ1 𝑉1

A1 ρ2 M2 𝑎2
=
A2 ρ1 𝑀1 𝑎1

A1 ρ2 M2 √𝑘𝑅𝑇2
=
A2 ρ1 𝑀1 √𝑘𝑅𝑇1

A1 M2 ρ2 𝑇2 1/2
= ( )
A2 𝑀1 ρ1 𝑇1
1
− −1/2
(𝑘 − 1)𝑀22 𝑘−1 (𝑘 − 1)𝑀22
A1 M2 [1 + ] [1 + ]
2 2
= { } ∗{ }
A2 𝑀1 (𝑘 − 1)𝑀12 (𝑘 − 1)𝑀12
[1 + ] [1 + ]
2 2

𝑘+1
−
(𝑘 − 1)𝑀22 2(𝑘−1)
A1 M2 [1 + ]
2
= { }
A2 𝑀1 (𝑘 − 1)𝑀12
[1 + ]
2

For an area where M = 1 characterized by A*:

𝑘+1
−
(𝑘 − 1)𝑀22 2(𝑘−1)
A1 M2 [1 + ]
2
= { }
A2 𝑀1 (𝑘 − 1)𝑀12
[1 + ]
2

𝑘+1
−
(𝑘 − 1) 2(𝑘−1)
A1 1 [1 + ]
2
= { }
A∗ 𝑀1 (𝑘 − 1)𝑀12
[1 + ]
2

17 | P a g e
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 2: Isentropic, Adiabatic, and other Thermodynamics for High Speed
Processes

𝑘+1
(𝑘 − 1)𝑀12 2(𝑘−1)
A1 1 [1 + ]
2
= { }
A∗ 𝑀1 (𝑘 − 1)
[1 + 2 ]

The equation presented are used for supersonic nozzles whose throat
have a Mach = 1.

VI. Sample Problems

1. Consider a convergent duct with an inlet area A1 = 5 m2. Air enters this
duct with a velocity V1 = 10 m/s and leaves the duct exit with a velocity
V2 = 30 m/s. What is the area of the duct exit?
2. Consider an airfoil in a flow of air, where far ahead of the airfoil, the
pressure, velocity, and density are 2116 psf, 100 mph, and 0.002377
slug/ft.3, respectively. At a given point A on the airfoil, the pressure is
2070 psf. What is the velocity at that point?
3. Consider the same convergent duct and conditions as in problem #1. If
the air pressure and temperature at the inlet are 1.2x10 5 Pa and 330 K,
respectively. Calculate the pressure at the exit.
4. An airplane is flying at standard sea level conditions. The temperature
at a point on the wing is 250 K. What is the pressure at this point?
5. A jet transport is flying at a standard altitude of 30,000 ft. with a velocity
of 500 mph. What is its Mach number?
6. In a low speed subsonic wind tunnel, one side of a mercury manometer
is connected to the settling chamber (reservoir) and the other side is
connected to the test section. The contraction ratio of the nozzle A 2/A1
equals 1/15. The reservoir pressure and temperature are 1.1 atm and
300 K, respectively. When the tunnel is running, the height difference
between the two columns of mercury is 10 cm. The density of liquid
mercury is 1.36 x104 kg/m3. Calculate the airflow velocity in the test
section V2.
7. An experimental rocket-powered aircraft is flying with a velocity of 3000
mph at an altitude where the ambient pressure and temperature are
151 psf and 390 ⁰R, respectively. A pitot tube is mounted in the nose of
the aircraft. What is the pressure measured by the Pitot tube?
VII. Assessment Activity
1. Imagine that you have designed a low speed airplane with a maximum
velocity at sea level of 90 m/s. For your airspeed instrument, you plan
to use a venture tube with a 1.3:1 area ratio. Inside the cockpit is an
airspeed indicator- a dial that is connected to a pressure gauge
sensing the venturi tube pressure difference P1 – P2 and properly

18 | P a g e
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Learning Module 2: Isentropic, Adiabatic, and other Thermodynamics for High Speed
Processes

calibrated in terms of velocity. What is the maximum pressure

difference you would expect the gauge to experience?
2. A supersonic nozzle is also a convergent-divergent duct, which is fed
by a large reservoir at the inlet to the nozzle. In the reservoir of the
nozzle, the pressure and temperature are 10 atm and 300 K,
respectively. At the nozzle exit, the pressure is 1 atm. Calculate the
temperature and density of the flow at the exit. Assume the flow is
isentropic and, of course, compressible.
3. You are given a job of designing a supersonic wind tunnel that has a
Mach 2 flow at standard sea level conditions in the test section. What
reservoir pressure and temperature and what area ratio A e/At are
required to obtain these conditions?
4. A supersonic wind tunnel has a reservoir temperature and pressure are
1000 K and 10 atm, respectively. The static temperatures at the throat
and exit are 833 K and 300 K, respectively. The mass flow through the
nozzle is 0.5 kg/s. For air, CP = 1008 J/(kg*K). Calculate
a. Velocity at the throat, V*
b. Velocity at the exit, Ve
c. Area of the throat, V*
d. Area of the exit, Ae
5. In the nozzle flow described in problem #4, calculate the Mach number
of the flow at the throat, M*, and at the exit, Me.

19 | P a g e
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
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AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 2: Isentropic, Adiabatic, and other Thermodynamics for High Speed
Processes

ANSWER KEY:
1. Consider a convergent duct with an inlet area A1 = 5 m2. Air enters this duct
with a velocity V1 = 10 m/s and leaves the duct exit with a velocity V2 = 30
m/s. What is the area of the duct exit?
Solution:
Since the flow velocities are less than 100 m/s, then we can assume that the
flow is incompressible.
From the continuity equation:
𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝑉2 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝜌 = 𝐶
𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2
𝐴1 𝑉1
𝐴2 =
𝑉2
𝑚
5 𝑚2 ∗ 10 𝑠
𝐴2 = 𝑚
30 𝑠

𝐴2 = 1.67 𝑚2

2. Consider an airfoil in a flow of air, where far ahead of the airfoil, the pressure,
velocity, and density are 2116 psf, 100 mph, and 0.002377 slug/ft. 3,
respectively. At a given point A on the airfoil, the pressure is 2070 psf. What is
the velocity at that point?
Solution:
88 𝑓𝑡/𝑠
𝑉1 = 100 𝑚𝑝ℎ ∗ = 146.67 𝑓𝑡/𝑠
60 𝑚𝑝ℎ
Hence, the flow is incompressible.
From the Bernoulli’s equation, we have:
𝜌1 𝑉12 𝜌𝐴 𝑉𝐴2
𝑃1 + = 𝑃𝐴 + 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝜌 = 𝐶
2 2
𝜌
𝑃1 − 𝑃𝐴 = [𝑉𝐴2 − 𝑉12 ]
2
1/2
2 2
[ ]
𝑉𝐴 = { 𝑃1 − 𝑃𝐴 + 𝑉1 }
𝜌
1/2
2
𝑉𝐴 = { [2116 𝑝𝑠𝑓 − 2070 𝑝𝑠𝑓] + (146.67 𝑓𝑡/𝑠)2 }
0.002377

𝑉𝐴 = 245.39 𝑓𝑡/𝑠

20 | P a g e
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
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AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 2: Isentropic, Adiabatic, and other Thermodynamics for High Speed
Processes

3. Consider the same convergent duct and conditions as in problem #1. If the air
pressure and temperature at the inlet are 1.2x10 5 Pa and 330 K, respectively.
Calculate the pressure at the exit.
Solution:
For the inlet conditions, we have the equation of state for the density:
𝑃 1.2 𝑥 105 𝑃𝑎 𝑘𝑔
𝜌= = = 1.27 3
𝑅𝑇 287.08 𝐽 ∗ 330 𝐾 𝑚
𝑘𝑔 𝐾

Since the flow is incompressible where density is constant, from the

Bernoulli’s equation:
𝜌1 𝑉12 𝜌2 𝑉22
𝑃1 + = 𝑃2 +
2 2
𝜌 2
𝑃2 = 𝑃1 + [𝑉1 − 𝑉22 ]
2
𝑘𝑔
1.27 3 𝑚 2 𝑚 2
𝑃2 = (1.2𝑥105 𝑃𝑎) + 𝑚 [(10 ) − (30 ) ]
2 𝑠 𝑠
𝑃2 = 119492 𝑃𝑎

4. An airplane is flying at standard sea level conditions. The temperature at a

point on the wing is 250 K. What is the pressure at this point?
Assuming the flow is compressible and isentropic, the pressure and
temperature up stream of the wing corresponds to standard sea level
conditions. Hence, P1 = 101325 Pa and T1 = 288.16 K.
Solution:
From the isentropic relations, we have:
𝑘
𝑃2 𝑇2 𝑘−1
=( )
𝑃1 𝑇1
𝑘
𝑇2 𝑘−1
𝑃2 = 𝑃1 ( )
𝑇1
1.4
250 𝐾 1.4−1
𝑃2 = 101325 𝑃𝑎 ( )
288.16 𝐾

𝑃2 = 61629.51 𝑃𝑎
5. A jet transport is flying at a standard altitude of 30,000 ft. with a velocity of 550
mph. What is its Mach number?
Solution:
At 30000 ft, we have:
𝑇 = 𝑇𝑜 + 𝑎ℎ

21 | P a g e
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 2: Isentropic, Adiabatic, and other Thermodynamics for High Speed
Processes

𝑅
𝑇 = 519 𝑅 − 0.003566 (30000 𝑓𝑡) = 412.02 𝑅
𝑓𝑡
𝑓𝑡
𝑎 = √𝑘𝑅𝑇 = √1.4 ∗ 1716 ∗ 412.02 = 994.91
𝑠

𝑓𝑡
88 𝑠 𝑓𝑡
𝑉 = 550 𝑚𝑝ℎ ∗ = 806.67
60 𝑚𝑝ℎ 𝑠

𝑓𝑡
𝑉 806.67 𝑠
𝑀= = = 0.811
𝑎 994.91 𝑓𝑡
𝑠
6. In a low speed subsonic wind tunnel, one side of a mercury manometer is
connected to the settling chamber (reservoir) and the other side is connected
to the test section. The contraction ratio of the nozzle A2/A1 equals 1/15. The
reservoir pressure and temperature are 1.1 atm and 300 K, respectively.
When the tunnel is running, the height difference between the two columns of
mercury is 10 cm. The density of liquid mercury is 1.36 x10 4 kg/m3. Calculate
the airflow velocity in the test section V2.
Solution:
𝑃1 – 𝑃2 = 𝜌𝑔∆ℎ
𝑘𝑔 𝑚 1𝑚
𝑃1 – 𝑃2 = 1.36𝑥104 3 ∗ 9.81 2 ∗ (10 𝑐𝑚 ∗ )
𝑚 𝑠 100 𝑐𝑚
𝑃1 – 𝑃2 = 13341.6 𝑃𝑎
From the equation of state for the reservoir:
101325 𝑃𝑎
𝑃1 1.1 atm ∗ 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝜌1 = = = 1.29 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑅𝑇1 (287.08 𝐽 )(300 𝐾)
𝑘𝑔 𝐾

Since we are dealing with low speed subsonic flow, we can assume that it is
an incompressible flow. From the Bernoulli’s Equation, we have: Designating
point 2 as the area corresponding to the test section.
𝜌1 𝑉12 𝜌2 𝑉22
𝑃1 + = 𝑃2 +
2 2
𝜌2 𝑉22 𝜌1 𝑉12
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = −
2 2
𝜌 2
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = [𝑉2 − 𝑉12 ]
2
2
𝑉22 − 𝑉12 = (𝑃1 − 𝑃2 )
𝜌
From the continuity equation, we have:
𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2

22 | P a g e
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 2: Isentropic, Adiabatic, and other Thermodynamics for High Speed
Processes

𝐴2
𝑉1 = 𝑉
𝐴1 2
Substituting, we have:
2
𝑉22 − 𝑉12 = (𝑃 − 𝑃2 )
𝜌 1

2
𝐴2 2
𝑉22 − ( 𝑉2 ) = (𝑃1 − 𝑃2 )
𝐴1 𝜌
2
𝐴2 2
𝑉22 (1 − ( ) ) = (𝑃1 − 𝑃2 )
𝐴1 𝜌
(𝑃1 − 𝑃2 )
𝑉2 =
√ 𝐴 2
𝜌(1 − (𝐴2 ) )
1

(13341.6 𝑃𝑎)
𝑉2 = √
𝑘𝑔 1 2
1.29 3 (1 − (15) )
𝑚
𝑉2 = 144.14 𝑚/𝑠
Note that the answer for velocity is above 100 m/s where we designated that
flow starts to be compressible. Therefore, our assumption for incompressible
flow is inaccurate of about 8%.
7. An experimental rocket-powered aircraft is flying with a velocity of 3000 mph
at an altitude where the ambient pressure and temperature are 151 psf and
390 ⁰R, respectively. A pitot tube is mounted in the nose of the aircraft. What
is the pressure measured by the Pitot tube?
Solution:
Is the flow subsonic or supersonic?
𝑓𝑡
88 𝑠
𝑉 = 3000 𝑚𝑝ℎ ∗ = 4400 𝑓𝑡/𝑠
60 𝑚𝑝ℎ
𝑎 = √𝑘𝑅𝑇 = √1.4 ∗ 1716 ∗ 390 = 967.95 𝑓𝑡/𝑠
𝑓𝑡
𝑉 4400 𝑠
𝑀= = = 4.55
𝑎 967.95 𝑓𝑡
𝑠
For pressure measured by the pitot tube:
𝑘
𝑃𝑂2 (𝑘 + 1)2 𝑀12 𝑘−1 1 − 𝑘 + 2𝑘𝑀 2
1
=[ 2 ] [ ]
𝑃1 4𝑘𝑀1 − 2(𝑘 − 1) 𝑘+1
1.4
𝑃𝑂2 (1.4 + 1)2 𝑀12 1.4−1 1 − 1.4 + (2 ∗ 1.4 ∗ (4.55)2 )
=[ ] [ ]
𝑃1 4 ∗ 1.4 ∗ (4.55)2 − 2(1.4 − 1) 1.4 + 1

23 | P a g e
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 2: Isentropic, Adiabatic, and other Thermodynamics for High Speed
Processes

𝑃𝑂2 = 27(151 𝑝𝑠𝑓) = 4077 𝑝𝑠𝑓

24 | P a g e
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 03: Airflow and Compressible Flow Visualization (Prelim)

LEARNING
MODULE 03:
Airflow and Compressible
Flow Visualization

AE 324
AERONAUTICAL LABORATORY

Presented by:
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

AE 324 – AERONAUTICAL LABORATORY 1|Page

PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 03: Airflow and Compressible Flow Visualization (Prelim)

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE Ref. No. Page No.

Flow Visualization Techniques 1,2,3 5
Boundary Layer Investigation 1,3 7
Basics of Flow 1,4 14
Uses of Flow Visualization 4 16
Special Facilities 1,2 24
Assessment Activity 25
Performing Flow Simulation of an Airfoil 5 26

TABLE OF FIGURES

FIGURE REFERENCE
Akbiyik, Hurrem & Yavuz, Hakan & Akansu, Yahya. (2016). Investigation
of the effect of the plasma actuators vertically placed on the spanwise of
3.1 NACA0015 airfoil. Retrieved from
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/The-schematic-view-of-the-smoke-
wire-flow-visualization-technique_fig3_301899199
Akbiyik, Hurrem & Yavuz, Hakan & Akansu, Yahya. (2016). Investigation
of the effect of the plasma actuators vertically placed on the spanwise of
3.2 NACA0015 airfoil. Retrieved from
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Schematic-view-of-the-experimental-
setup_fig1_301899199
Retrieved from https://broadtechengineering.com/cfd-consultancy/cfd-
3.3 study-of-the-effects-of-boundary-layer-suction-on-transonic-airfoil-
performance/
3.4, 3.6 Pope A., Goin K. High Speed Wind Tunnel Testing. New York: John
3.15-3.22 Wiley & Sons.
Atish Kumar. Flow Visualization Techniques and their use. Lovely
3.5, 3.7- Professional University, India.
3.8 Retrieved from https://www.scribd.com/document/42487468/Flow-
visualization-techniques-and-their-use-RH5001A53-Atish-Kumar-CIV-208
Ueyama, Atsushi (2019). Basics of Flow. Retrieved from
3.9-3.14
https://www.cradle-cfd.com/media/column/a69
Phillip Keane, Tutorial: Performing Flow Simulation of an Aerofoil.
3.15-3.37 Retrieved from https://www.engineersrule.com/tutorial-performing-flow-
simulation-aerofoil/

AE 324 – AERONAUTICAL LABORATORY 2|Page

PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 03: Airflow and Compressible Flow Visualization (Prelim)

TIME ALLOTMENT FOR THIS MODULE

Video Materials Time

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0hQjLteNBSM 10 mins
Reading Materials
Modules
Flow Visualization Techniques 10 mins
Boundary Layer Investigation 10 mins
Basics of Flow 10 mins
Uses of Flow Visualization 10 mins
Special Facilities 10 mins
References
Pope A., Goin K. High Speed Wind Tunnel Testing. New York: John 10 mins
Wiley & Sons.
National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Wind Tunnel Index. 10 mins
Retrieved October 1, 2020 from https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-
12/airplane/shortt.html
Atish Kumar. Flow Visualization Techniques and their use. Lovely 10 mins
Professional University, India.
Retrieved from https://www.scribd.com/document/42487468/Flow-
visualization-techniques-and-their-use-RH5001A53-Atish-Kumar-
CIV-208
Ueyama, Atsushi (2019). Basics of Flow. Retrieved from 10 mins
https://www.cradle-cfd.com/media/column/a69
Activities
Assessment Activity 60 mins

TABLE OF REFERENCES

REFERENCES No.
Pope A., Goin K. High Speed Wind Tunnel Testing. New York: John Wiley &
1
Sons.
National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Wind Tunnel Index.
Retrieved October 1, 2020 from https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k- 2
12/airplane/shortt.html
Atish Kumar. Flow Visualization Techniques and their use. Lovely
Professional University, India.
3
Retrieved from https://www.scribd.com/document/42487468/Flow-
visualization-techniques-and-their-use-RH5001A53-Atish-Kumar-CIV-208
Ueyama, Atsushi (2019). Basics of Flow. Retrieved from https://www.cradle-
4
cfd.com/media/column/a69
Phillip Keane, Tutorial: Performing Flow Simulation of an Aerofoil. Retrieved
from https://www.engineersrule.com/tutorial-performing-flow-simulation- 5
aerofoil/
AE 324 – AERONAUTICAL LABORATORY 3|Page
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 03: Airflow and Compressible Flow Visualization (Prelim)

HONESTY CLAUSE

As members of the academic community, students are expected to recognize and

uphold standards of intellectual and academic integrity. PhilSCA assumes that as a basic and
minimum standard of conduct in academic matters, the students should be honest and that
they submit for credit the products only of their own efforts.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

Course Learning Outcomes [CLO]

CLO 3: Demonstrate familiarity in Module Learning Outcomes [MLO]

airflow visualization for
compressible flow using flow
simulation software. MLO 1: Analyze compressible flow Topic Learning Outcomes [TLO]
visualization through the design
CLO 7: Commit to the scientific parameters of high-speed wind
process on solving problems by tunnel. TLO 10: Comprehend the flow
producing solutions following the patterns in a high-speed wind tunnel
basic steps of scientific method. MLO 2: Identify the different based on the parameters of flow
systems like Shadowgraph system, visualization.
CLO 8: Display professional Schlieren system, and
commitment to ethical practice by Interferometer by its optical method TLO 11: Classify and analyze the
showing sense of responsibility in of visualizing flow. measurement of fluid velocity, total
complying and compiling academic head, static pressure, Mach number
requirement. and airspeed through
concepts and numerical calculations.
TLO 12: Differentiate the flow
visualization systems used in wind
tunnel by its operation and
advantages.

As an introductory activity, you are encouraged to watch a short video entitled

“High-speed Airflow for Airfoils”, using the following YouTube link:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0hQjLteNBSM. This video presents Schlieren
photographs of high-speed air flow over airfoils at various angles of attack in the 24
Inch High-Speed Tunnel (now known as the 6 x 19 Inch Transonic) at NASA Langley
in the 1930s. Now, to get you acquainted with the terms as well as concepts presented
in the video, let us start our discussion with airflow and compressible flow visualization.
In this module we will be describing some of the flow visualization techniques
and devices used for measuring flow properties.

AE 324 – AERONAUTICAL LABORATORY 4|Page

PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 03: Airflow and Compressible Flow Visualization (Prelim)

I. FLOW VISUALIZATION TECHNIQUES

In addition to the measurement of pressures and forces on models

tested in wind tunnels, much useful knowledge of aerodynamic properties and
behavior can be obtained from visually observing the nature of fluid flow,
inside and outside the boundary layer, past wind tunnel models. For this
purpose, various methods have been developed for visualizing such flows. We
shall discuss first the more important techniques used in the visualization of
flows, mostly directed towards an examination of boundary layer properties.

• THE SMOKE TECHNIQUE

This technique simply consists in introducing into the working section of

a wind tunnel a number of fine smoke filaments, usually in the plane of a
section of the model wing under test. As the particles of smoke move
downstream, the filaments define the particle paths which, in steady flow, are
the same as the streamlines. By this means the streamline pattern may be
observed. Many different phenomena may be demonstrated, such as trailing
vortices, or the breakdown of streamline flow in a region of separated flow, or
the unsteady nature of the flow in the wake of a wing or other obstacle.

Figure 3.1 Schematic view of smoke wire flow visualization technique

AE 324 – AERONAUTICAL LABORATORY 5|Page

PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 03: Airflow and Compressible Flow Visualization (Prelim)

The principle requirement of a smoke tunnel is for uniform flow with low
turbulence. If this is not achieved, the smoke will quickly become diffused. The
speed must not be too low, or gravity will affect the paths of the smoke
particles, curving these paths downwards. On the other hand, if the speed is
too high, the smoke filaments may become attenuated, even when large
quantities of smoke are introduced. Good lighting is needed if the smoke
filaments are to be clearly seen, and an open circuit tunnel is required in order
to get rid of the smoke. The main disadvantage is that usually only isolated
spanwise positions can be examined, and not the flow over the whole wing.

• THE HOT WIRE TECHNIQUE

This technique involves using a heated wire inserted into the airstream
to produce a filament of air of different density from the mainstream. The path
of this filament can then be followed by using one of several optical systems,
in the context of their use with high speed wind tunnels.

Similar to the hot wire in principle is the spark technique. Small volumes
of air are heated by the discharge of a series of electric sparks. Again, an
optical system is used to trace paths of such ‘particles.’ Such systems have
been used to photograph velocity distributions in boundary layers.

Figure 3.2 Schematic view of experimental set-up

AE 324 – AERONAUTICAL LABORATORY 6|Page

PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 03: Airflow and Compressible Flow Visualization (Prelim)

II. BOUNDARY LAYER INVESTIGATION

For many studies of fluid flow, the main information required about the
boundary layer consists of a knowledge of the nature of the layer, whether
laminar or turbulent, the position of the transition point and the position of the
separation point, if any. Visual methods are very useful in obtaining this
information, and several such methods are common in use.

One such method involves the use of smoke. A very thin filament of
smoke is introduced very close to the surface of the model. In the laminar
boundary layer, the filament remains clearly defined. If transition occurs, the
filament is broken up suddenly, and behind the transition point there is a region
diffused smoke due to the turbulent layer. If, on the other hand, the laminar
boundary layer separates, the filament is suddenly lifted well clear of the
surface, but remains well defined for some distance downstream, leaving just
a few wisps of smoke in the dead air region. The separation and transition
points are thus easily and accurately located and distinguished from one
another. The main difficulty is to ensure that there are no disturbances at the
point where the smoke is introduced into the boundary layer. Good lighting is
essential. Again, the investigation is confined to isolated spanwise stations.

Another possible method is known as the gas filament method. The

model is coated with mercurous chloride, which stains black, if it comes into
contact with ammonia. A filament of ammonia is introduced into the laminar
part of the boundary layer, where it reacts with the coating to give a visible
stain. Beyond the transition point, in the turbulent boundary layer, the gas is
diffused and there is no appreciable staining. Higher speeds are possible than
with smoke, because even an attenuated filament produces some noticeable
stain. No special lighting arrangements are required, and the results can be
viewed at leisure after completion of the test.

Perhaps the most widely used method for locating transition is the china
clay method. The surface of the model is thinly sprayed with kaolin (china
clay). When dry, this is a white, crystalline solid, which can be rubbed down to
a high degree of smoothness. This deposit is then sprayed with a volatile
liquid, whose refractive index is approximately the same as that of the kaolin,
so that the resultant deposit, while wet, is transparent. The model is then
placed in an airstream. In the turbulent boundary layer, the rate of evaporation
is higher than in the laminar region, so that the surface dries first behind the
transition point. When it does so, the kaolin again appears as a white, opaque
deposit, and the transition point is located. The fluids commonly used for this
purpose are ethyl and methyl salicylate. There are two special advantages of
AE 324 – AERONAUTICAL LABORATORY 7|Page
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 03: Airflow and Compressible Flow Visualization (Prelim)

this technique. After one test run, the model can be re-sprayed with fluid and
used again; the kaolin coating lasts for a considerable time. Also, the
investigation covers the whole surface of the model, and not just a few isolated
spanwise positions.
A simpler alternative to the china clay method is the liquid film method.
The model is simply sprayed with a volatile oil, and when it is placed in an
airstream, the region in which the boundary layer is turbulent dries more
quickly than the laminar region. A comparison of the wet and dry regions then
enables the transition point to be located. However, the visual contrast
between the laminar and turbulent regions is less good than with the china
clay method, and it does not last as long.

Another simple method of visualizing boundary layer behavior consists

in the use of wool tufts, which are attached to the ends of short wires which
are fixed normally on to the surface of a wing or model. When placed in an
airstream, the tufts stream outwards in the wind direction. If they are in a region
of laminar flow, they remain steady; in turbulent regions they flutter
appreciably. In regions of separated flow, they tend to point in various
directions other than the wind direction, demonstrating the existence of flow
reversal. They may be used in low speed and high-speed wind tunnels, and
in full scale flight testing. They are a useful indication, for instance, of the start
and spread of the stall on an aircraft wing It is necessary, however, to ensure
that the tufts themselves have no appreciable effect, such as causing
transition.

Figure 3.3 Boundary Layer Suction on Transonic Airfoil

Retrieved from https://broadtechengineering.com/cfd-consultancy/cfd-study-of-the-effects-of-boundary-layer-
suction-on-transonic-airfoil-performance/

AE 324 – AERONAUTICAL LABORATORY 8|Page

PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 03: Airflow and Compressible Flow Visualization (Prelim)

a. OPTICAL METHODS

Several methods of flow visualization consist in utilizing the changes in

the refractive index of air caused by changes in density. They may be used to
investigate the flow in boundary layers, but their main application is to the
visualization of high-speed flow.

When light passes through a region of a gas in which the density varies,
the changes in the refractive index of the gas associated with these density
changes cause the direction of the rays to be altered. The amount of the
deflection is proportional to the density gradient, and the sense of the
deflection is determined by the sign of this gradient. In a high-speed flow, the
density of the fluid changes throughout the field of flow, and the above
principle may be utilized in order to show up these variations. There are three
commonly used methods of doing so, the shadowgraph, schlieren and
interferometer systems. They are all based on the same principle, but,
whereas the first two are mainly useful simply for flow visualization, the third
may also be used for quantitative measurement, though it is much more
difficult to interpret than the other two. The shadowgraph system is the
simplest, but the schlieren system is more effective, and is the most commonly
used of all three methods.

• The Shadowgraph System

A shadowgraph installation is depicted diagrammatically in Fig. 3.4.

Light from a point source is collimated by a lens (or alter natively a mirror may
be used), so that a parallel beam passes through the working section of the
wind tunnel on to a screen, where an image of the working section then
appears. If there is no model in the tunnel, the screen will be uniformly
illuminated. If a model is introduced, its shadow will appear on the screen. If
the tunnel is run, there will be density changes in the air in the working section
associated with the flow past the model. If light passes through a region of
increasing density gradient, the rays will diverge more and more, and the
corresponding region on the screen will be lightened. Conversely, the area on
the screen corresponding to regions of reducing density gradient in the
working section will be darkened. The sensitivity of the system is low, since
the variations in intensity of illumination clearly depend on the second
derivative of the density. However, the system is adequate to show up the
location of shock waves as dark lines on the screen, and it is cheap and easy
to construct.

AE 324 – AERONAUTICAL LABORATORY 9|Page

PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 03: Airflow and Compressible Flow Visualization (Prelim)

Figure 3.4 Shadowgraph System

Figure 3.5 Shadowgraph

• The Schlieren System

A schlieren installation is depicted diagrammatically in Fig. 3.6. Light

from a source, 4, is collimated by a lens, so that a parallel beam passes
through the working section of the wind tunnel, is collected by another lens
and brought to a focus at B, then passes through yet another lens to project
an image of the working section on to a screen. At the focus position, B, a
knife edge is introduced, which can be moved into or out of the beam to cut
out some or all of the light. When the tunnel is empty, the intensity of
illumination on the screen may be varied by moving the knife edge, but it
remains uniform over the whole image area.

AE 324 – AERONAUTICAL LABORATORY 10 | P a g e

PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 03: Airflow and Compressible Flow Visualization (Prelim)

When a model is introduced into the working section, its shadow

appears on the screen, and if the tunnel is now run, variations in density
produce refraction of the light rays. Light passing through regions of positive
density gradient normal to the knife edge are deflected towards the knife edge,
say. Some of these rays are then cut off by the knife edge, and the
corresponding area on the screen is darkened. Rays passing through regions
of negative density gradient in the working section are then deflected away
from the knife edge, so that more of these rays pass through the focus
position, B, and the corresponding areas on the screen are lightened. Thus
shock waves appear as dark lines, expansion regions as light regions, on the
screen. If the knife edge were introduced into the beam from the opposite side,
this situation would be reversed, and the shock waves would appear as lighter
lines. By moving the knife edge further into or out of the beam, the contrast,
and the general intensity of illumination, may be varied until an optimum
condition is achieved. Instead of being projected on to a screen, the light beam
may be projected directly on to a photographic plate, and a photographic
record made of the flow.

Figure 3.6 Schlieren System

Since this system is such that the intensity of illumination is a function

of the first derivative of the gradient, it is more sensitive than the shadowgraph.
Because of this, by turning the knife edge through a right angle, the same
system may be used to show up the much smaller density variations normal
to the flow direction, and this is very useful for boundary layer investigations.
Again, mirrors may be used instead of lenses. In fact, since high quality optical
components are essential, and it is easier and cheaper to achieve good optical
performance with mirrors than with lenses, mirrors are much more commonly
used.

AE 324 – AERONAUTICAL LABORATORY 11 | P a g e

PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 03: Airflow and Compressible Flow Visualization (Prelim)

There are various systems by means of which the regions of varying

density are shown up not simply as dark or light areas, but in contrasting
colors. One such system consists in replacing the knife edge by a
transparency in which two regions of different colors, say red and blue, are
separated by a white slit. All the light normally passes through the slit, so that,
in the absence of density changes, the picture on the screen appears only in
black and white. When density changes occur, the light passing through
regions of increasing density is deflected so that it passes through one of the
colored regions of the transparency, so that the shock waves show up as, say,
red lines. Light passing through the expansion regions is deflected the other
way, so that such regions show up in blue on the screen.

Figure 3.7 Schlieren Effect

Other systems may employ optical means, e.g., prisms, of splitting light
from a white source into different colors. Color schlieren systems give
attractive and easily interpreted pictures, but the definition and contrast are
usually not so good, nor so easily controlled, as in black and white.

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Learning Module 03: Airflow and Compressible Flow Visualization (Prelim)

• The Interferometer

Light from a source, S. is split into two beams by a semi permeable

mirror at A, so that some light travels on to a totally reflecting mirror at B, while
the rest is reflected to another totally reflecting mirror at C. Both these beams
are then reflected to another semi-permeable mirror at D, and subsequently
impinge together on a screen. One of the two beams have passed through the
working section and has had its speed changed by virtue of the changes in
refractive index associated with the density changes in the tunnel. As a result
it arrives out of phase with the other beam, and so interference fringes appear
on the screen. These fringes may be photo graphed and then measured to
give detailed and quantitative information concerning the density distribution
in the working section. However, the interpretation of this information is
difficult.

As a visualization of the flow, the pictures obtained are much harder to

assimilate than are schlieren pictures. Further, the system is very sensitive to
even slight mechanical vibrations, and it is essential to mount the optical
components on a rigid frame independent of the tunnel mounting.

A modification of the system is the so-called schlieren interferometer,

in which the splitting up of the initial beam is achieved, not by the use of semi-
permeable mirrors, but by means of a Woolaston prism, which polarizes the
beam into an ordinary and an extra ordinary ray. This system is not so
sensitive to external vibrations, but it gives pictures which are equally difficult
to interpret.

Figure 3.8 Mach Zehnder Interferometer - Hologram

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III. BASICS OF FLOW

Visualizing flow using streamlines, streaklines, or pathlines makes it

more intuitively understandable.
• A streamline is a line which smoothly connects velocity vectors at an instance
in time. In other words, an image of the flow characterized by streamlines is like
a snapshot of the flow at one moment in time.

Figure 3.9 Streamline

• A streakline is a curved line formed by a string of fluid particles which have

passed through a certain point. An example of a streakline is the trail of smoke
from a chimney.

Figure 3.10 Streakline

• A pathline is a path which a fluid particle traces. One example of a pathline is

the path defined by a balloon floating in the air.

Figure 3.11 Pathline

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For a flow which does not change with time, the streamline, streakline,
and pathline are the same line. A flow which does not change with time is
called a steady-state flow . On the other hand, a flow which varies with time is
called a transient flow. For transient flows, the streamline, streakline, and
pathline are all different lines.

Figure 3.12 Example of streamlines

A streakline represents all the points that have passed through a certain
location. For this situation, where the streakline can be likened to represent
the smoke trail from a chimney, the streakline goes to the south during the first
10 seconds because all the smoke is going south. Then, when the wind shifts
to the east, all the smoke particles that were initially heading south (emitted
for Time < 10 seconds) start to be offset to the east. The newer smoke
particles (emitted for Time > 10 seconds) head directly east. After 20 seconds
the streakline is at a right angle as shown on the right in Figure 3.13.

Figure 3.13 Example of a streakline

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A pathline goes to the south during the first 10 seconds just as the
streakline. The pathline can be thought of as the path traced by a balloon
floating in the air. When the wind shifts to the east, the balloon starts moving
east. The pathline goes to the east from the point where the wind direction has
been changed. As a result, after 20 seconds the pathline bends at a right angle
as shown on the right in Figure 3.14.

Figure 3.14 Example of a pathline

As can be seen in this chapter, the analysis results for transient flows
will be different depending on the method used to visualize the flow.
Understanding this difference is important when visualizing analysis and
experimental results.

IV. USES OF FLOW VISUALIZATION

In computational fluid dynamics the numerical solution of the governing

equations can yield all the fluid properties in space and time. This
overwhelming amount of information must be displayed in a meaningful form.
Thus, flow visualization is equally important in computational as in
experimental fluid dynamics.
• Understanding flow phenomenon

• Verifying model or theory results

• Easier measurements for designing

• To get a priori knowledge of solution

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AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 03: Airflow and Compressible Flow Visualization (Prelim)

• MEASUREMENT OF FLUID VELOCITY

It is essential, both in wind tunnel experiments and on an aircraft in flight,

to have instruments which are capable of accurate determination of the speed
of an airflow and, at high speeds, of its Mach number. The most common
methods depend on pressure measurements. At low speeds, a simple pitot-
static tube is most convenient, though, as we have seen, it may be subject to a
variety of errors. These errors can be determined and allowed for.

In the following paragraphs, we shall discuss, among other things, the

effects of high-speed operation on the accuracy of pitot and static tube readings
and particular devices which are necessary for the measurement of airspeed
and Mach number at supersonic speeds. We shall also discuss some effects of
compressibility at high subsonic speeds, and the effects of yaw on pressure
measurements. Instruments for the determination of flow direction, i.e.,
yawmeters, will also be briefly described in this context.

• TOTAL HEAD MEASUREMENT

We have already seen that total head is measured by means of an open-

ended tube called a pitot tube, and that such a tube gives an erroneous reading
if its axis does not point directly into the air stream, i.e., if the tube is yawed.
The effect of yaw is to reduce the pressure recorded by the pitot tube. The
magnitude of this effect depends on the nature of the flow into the mouth of the
tube, and, at given angles of yaw, this is governed by the ratio of the bore, d, to
the external diameter, D, as depicted in Fig. 3.15. The smaller the bore, the
bigger the effect of yaw.

Figure 3.15 Total Head Diameter

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Learning Module 03: Airflow and Compressible Flow Visualization (Prelim)

The curves sketched in Fig. 3.16 illustrate this dependence. In these

graphs, H, represents the actual total head, H is the pressure recorded in the
pitot tube, and ½ρU 2 is the dynamic pressure, in low speed flow. The curve
for d/D = 1 is a theoretical curve only, since it implies that the shell of the tube
is of zero thickness; it therefore represents simply a limiting condition. If the
pitot tube is enclosed in a venturi, the reading becomes independent of yaw
over a considerable range of angles of yaw.

In the case of an unyawed pitot tube, there is no error in total head

reading with changes in Mach number, up to a Mach number of about 0-95,
and even up to M=1 there is no appreciable error. However, if the tube is
yawed, then the effects of yaw as outlined above will be intensified with
increasing Mach number at high sub sonic speeds. At supersonic speeds,
there will be an appreciable error in total head reading, even if the pitot tube
is unyawed. This is because there will always be a normal shock wave ahead
of the tube and this results in loss of total head. The tube records the total
head behind the normal shock, which is different from the free stream value.
However, if the Mach number is known, the necessary correction is easily
applied, since the ratio of total pressures across a normal shock is a function
of Mach number only.

Figure 3.16 Bore vs Yaw effect

• MEASUREMENT OF STATIC PRESSURE

Static pressure is measured by means of a static tube, which has holes

drilled in its surface to allow equalization of pressures inside and outside the
tube. If the tube is yawed, there may be flow into some of the holes in some
conditions, so that the pressure recorded may be increased. In this case, the
tube could be more sensitive to yaw than a pitot tube, and to reduce this
sensitivity it is necessary to ensure that there are several static holes in several
different radial planes. The positioning of the holes relative to the nose of the

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Learning Module 03: Airflow and Compressible Flow Visualization (Prelim)

tube is also crucial. The flow speeds up round the nose, and if the holes are
too far forward, we may get reduced pressure readings as a result. The holes
are therefore placed some distance back from the nose, where the effect of
the stem or mounting helps to compensate for this effect.

As the Mach number increases, the local accelerations in the flow may
give rise to regions of supersonic flow with shock waves and Consequent
errors in reading. To minimize these effects, we need to use a very thin and
fairly pointed tube. At supersonic speeds, it is necessary to have a sharp nose
to ensure shock attachment, but, in the absence of special design, there will
still be errors resulting from the presence of the shock. There are various
possible designs for a static tube for use at supersonic speeds. These include:

(a) A very thin, single-sided wedge, such as that shown in Fig. 3.7. In
the design attitude, there is no flow deviation on to the lower surface, and the
pressure recorded there is the free stream pressure. Such a device is very
sensitive to incidence changes, because they give rise to shock or expansion
waves whose intensity does vary with incidence.

Figure 3.17 Single-sided wedge

(b) A long, thin cone, with four holes located well behind the shoulder,
as shown in Fig. 3.8. This device records values of the pressure which are
practically the same as the free stream values, because the expansion round
the shoulder is equal and opposite to the compression at the nose. It is less
sensitive to incidence changes than the wedge described above.

Figure 3.18 Thin Cone

(c) A shorter, thin cone, with the four holes located forward of the
shoulder. This instrument records an average pressure, and its reading is not
sensitive to yaw. However, it is less accurate than the longer cone, and it may
be necessary to apply a correction for nose angle.

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Learning Module 03: Airflow and Compressible Flow Visualization (Prelim)

• MEASUREMENT OF MACH NUMBER

Like the airspeed, the Mach number can be determined, either in wind
tunnel experiments or in an aircraft in flight, from pitot and static tube readings.

Considering first the measurement of subsonic Mach numbers, we

know that, in isentropic flow,
𝑘
𝑝𝑇 𝑘 − 1 2 𝑘−1
= (1 + 𝑀 )
𝑝 2

Where 𝑝𝑇 is the total head, and p is the static pressure. Thus

𝑘
𝑝𝑇 − 𝑝 𝑘 − 1 2 𝑘−1
= (1 + 𝑀 ) − 1 = 𝑓1 (𝑀)
𝑝 2

A Machmeter uses the pressures taken from a pitot and a static tube to
record the ratio of total pressure minus static pressure to static pressure, and
this ratio determines the Mach number uniquely. In supersonic flow, however,
the total head is necessarily measured behind a normal shock, so that its value
is less than the free stream value. Nevertheless, for given conditions upstream
of the shock, the total head behind it is determined, and, if 𝑝𝑇 , is the total head
behind the shock, i.e., the total head recorded by the pitot tube, and H, is the
free stream total head, then we may write 𝑝𝑇2 /𝑝𝑇1 , as a function of Mach
number. Also, 𝑝𝑇1 /p1, is a function of Mach number, where p1, is the free
stream static pressure, so that we may write 𝑝𝑇2 /p1, as a function of Mach
number. Therefore,

𝑝𝑇2 − 𝑝1
= 𝑓2 (𝑀)
𝑝1

Thus, the same pressure ratio as in the case of subsonic flow again
determines the Mach number uniquely, though the functional relationship is
not the same.

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To determine the Mach number, then, it is only necessary to interpret

the pressure ratio (pT - p)/p in each case. It is a simple matter, in wind tunnel
work, to calculate the Mach number from these measured pressures. In flight,
however, an instrument is needed to convert the measured pressures into dial
reading which is governed by the pressure ratio. This is done in a Machmeter,
by means of a system of mechanical linkages much more complicated than
those of an airspeed indicator, whose reading depends on pressure difference
not pressure ratio.

The dial of the Machmeter needs to be calibrated and, because of the

different functional relationships outlined above, the basis of the calibration is
different for the high subsonic and supersonic ranges of operation.
Nevertheless, it is the same instrument which is used for both flow regimes,
and the calibration is continuous through the transonic regime.

An alternative and very simple method of determining Mach number in

a supersonic wind tunnel consists in inserting into the flow a wedge whose
angle is known. If the resulting flow is photo graphed, using an optical system,
the shock inclination can be measured. Knowing this and the wedge angle,
the Mach number may be immediately found from shock wave tables.

• MEASUREMENT OF AIRSPEED

In the case of supersonic flow, the problems are a little more difficult.
The same airspeed indicator is used, which consists of pitot and static tubes
which now ideally record the pressure difference 𝑝𝑇 -P, where 𝑝𝑇 , is the total
head behind the shock, and p, the static pressure ahead of it, and the airspeed
indicator reading, as always, is based on this pressure difference. However,
we have seen above that (𝑝𝑇𝑎 – p)/p, is a function of Mach number, so that
(𝑝𝑇 - P) is a function of Mach number and p. Thus, a correction for Mach
number will have to be applied to the airspeed indicator reading, so that the
instrument will always need to be read in con junction with the Machmeter.
Further, the correction will vary with altitude, since p, depends on altitude.

If there is a combined pitot-static tube, then the static pressure reading

will also be taken behind the bow shock, and the airspeed indicator reading
will be based on a pressure difference equal to (𝑝𝑇2 - 𝑝2 ). However, p2/p1, is
again a function of Mach number, so that (𝑝𝑇2 - 𝑝2 )) is also a function of Mach
number, and a correction will again be required which is a function of Mach
number and altitude, though it will be a different correction from the previous
one.
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Learning Module 03: Airflow and Compressible Flow Visualization (Prelim)

a. HOT WIRE ANEMOMETER

A method of measuring airspeed which does not depend on pressure

measurements involves the use of a hot wire anemometer. A small wire is
heated by an electric current. If it is placed in an airflow, cooling takes place,
and the rate of cooling is a function of the speed of the airflow. The current
which is required to maintain the wire at a constant temperature is then a
measure of the airspeed. It is the resistance of the wire, which is actually kept
constant, since this is a function of temperature. This instrument is particularly
suitable for use at low speeds, since its sensitivity is high at low speeds, or in a
flow in which fluctuations are present, since its response time is very short. It
requires calibration-by comparison with readings from a pitot-static tube for
speeds which are not too low, or by mounting on a whirling arm.

b. YAWMETERS

The function of a yawmeter is to determine the direction of flow, or to

determine the angle between the flow direction and some other direction, as in
the measurement of incidence. An ordinary pitot or static tube is to some extent
sensitive to yaw but is designed to have the smallest possible sensitivity. A
yawmeter is expressly designed to have high sensitivity to yaw.

Figure 3.19 Bent tube Yawmeters

Figure 3.19 depicts two examples of bent tube yawmeters. The arms
are pitot tubes inclined at 45̊ to the axis of the instrument, since pitot tubes are
very sensitive to yaw at an angle of 45 ̊. When the pressure difference between
the two arms is zero, the flow is parallel to the axis. As the inclination of the
flow to the axis of the yawmeter increases, so also does the pressure
difference between the two arms.
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It is most commonly used, however, as a null reading instrument.

Another possible device, used in the same way, is the sawn-off tube yawmeter
illustrated in Fig. 3.20. These instruments give the flow direction in a given
plane. In three dimensions, to find the absolute direction of the flow, it is
necessary to rotate the plane of the yaw meter through 90° and repeat the
process of measurement. However, there are other instruments specifically
designed for use in three dimensions. One is again a bent tube type, but
incorporates four bent tubes in two perpendicular planes, as depicted in Fig.
3.21.

Figure 3.20 Sawn-off Tube Yawmeter

Figure 3.21 Two-perpendicular planes yawmeter

Figure 3.22 shows another three-dimensional yawmeter which consists
of a tube with a hemispherical head, with four pressure holes connected to
manometer tubes. Yet another type is the hot wire yawmeter, which consists
of two wires at right angles, fed with the same current. The instrument is
rotated until the resistances of the two wires are the same. This implies that
their temperatures are the same, and the null position has been found. This
instrument has very high sensitivity.

Figure 3.22 Yawmeter with hemispherical head

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V. SPECIAL FACILITIES

It is appropriate here to refer to two experimental techniques which

make use of the analogies between fluid flow and other physical phenomena
to determine solutions to some special aerodynamic problems. The first of
these is known as the electrical analogy.

Water is placed as an electrolyte to a depth of some two or three

centimeters in a vessel which has a large, flat, horizontal bed of non-
conducting material. Plane electrodes are placed at the two ends of the tank,
and a potential difference is applied between them. This establishes a
potential field in the tank. The whole device is known as a potential flow tank.
If a model is now placed in the tank, the electric field which is established is
analogous to the hydrodynamic flow field past a similar model, and solutions
to the hydrodynamic problem may be obtained by measurement of the
electrical potential in the region close to the model. The model may be of a
conducting material, in which case its surface is, in the electrical field, an
equipotential surface. Thus, equipotential lines in the electric field correspond
to streamlines in the fluid flow field. Conversely, if a non-conducting model is
used, it is the current lines which correspond to streamlines, and varying
potentials may be applied at various positions on the model to simulate
different fluid flows. The technique is quite difficult to use, and it is limited to
the solution of potential flow problems, which generally precludes problems
involving boundary layer or other viscous effects. However, it is sometimes
useful in the theoretical solution of potential flow problems which are not
amenable to mathematical solution, and it is possible to use it to solve some
problems involving vortices, e.g., the flow past a delta wing with leading edge
separation, by imposing an electrical potential field which simulates the effects
of these vortices.

The second technique referred to above involves the use of a hydraulic

analogy. Here a similar tank is used, but instead of establishing a potential
field in static water, the water is set in motion past a model. This is usually
done by covering the floor of the tank with a moving belt and maintaining
steady flow with the aid of a circulating pump. Measurements of the depth of
the water then yield information about the pressure and velocity distribution
round a similar model in ordinary aerodynamic flow. In particular, there are
regions where the depth increases very suddenly. Such a region is known as
a hydraulic jump, and this gravity effect is analogous to a shock wave in high
speed flow. The technique is again very difficult to use, but it has some value
in its application to transonic flow problems which do not respond to
mathematical analysis.

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Learning Module 03: Airflow and Compressible Flow Visualization (Prelim)

• FLIGHT TESTS

In this context of experimental methods, we must make a brief

reference to testing on an altogether larger scale than is possible in wind
tunnel laboratory, It is possible to test very much larger models in flight, either
by dropping them from an aircraft and Observing their subsequent free light,
or by mounting them on the outside of an airplane in flight. The object of such
tests is to achieve large scale and relatively high Reynolds number.

The final stage of aerodynamic testing consists in the actual testing of

the completed aircraft in flight. This flight testing covers the whole range of
aerodynamic behavior and performance of the aircraft, and only when this has
been done will it be known whether the predictions based on theory and wind
tunnel testing have been accurate. Every new aircraft type is subjected to such
tests on an extensive scale, and any necessary modifications to its design are
made at this stage.

Assessment Activity
Answer the following questions in your notebook.
1. Differentiate the different flow patterns in visualizing flow.
2. Enumerate the various systems used in flow visualization. Explain how each of
the operates.
3. Explain the importance of visualizing the flow in aerodynamics; in aviation.
4. Classify and analyze the measurement of fluid velocity, total head, static
pressure, Mach number and airspeed
5. In your own words, how do we visualize flow?

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Learning Module 03: Airflow and Compressible Flow Visualization (Prelim)

PERFORMING FLOW SIMULATION OF AN AIRFOIL

I. AIRFOIL MODELLING

Before we can start simulating however, we need to design our airfoil.

This is relatively straightforward, as there is a wealth of airfoil coordinate data
libraries online, and we can import those coordinates into SOLIDWORKS by
using the Curve Through XYZ function. For this module, we will be using a
NACA 4415 airfoil.

a. Airfoil Coordinates (Microsoft Excel)

1) The raw coordinates need cleaning up a little before we can import them into
SOLIDWORKS.
2) Open up Microsoft Excel and copy/paste them into the first cell. You will
notice that both X and Y coordinates have been copied into a single column,
so in order to make them usable we need to separate them into individual
columns.
3) Highlight Column A in Excel, click on Data, and select Text to Columns.
4) On the first page of the Text to Columns Wizard, we want to select Delimited,
if it isn’t already selected by default. Then click Next.
5) On the second page of the Wizard, check the Tab and the Space delimiter
boxes. This should separate the X and Y coordinates into two columns. Then
click Finish.
6) Now that we have two columns with separated X and Y coordinates, we are
going to need to create a third column full of zeros so that SOLIDWORKS
can import it. These zeros represent the Z coordinate, but as this is a two-
dimensional curve, we have no need for a Z coordinate, and, hence, we set
them to zero. Type “0” into the top cell in the third column and click the little
box at the bottom of the cell or drag the box to the bottom of the data set in
order to populate the third column with zeros.

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Figure 3.15 NACA 4415 Coordinates

7) Now we have our X, Y and Z coordinates in three columns. We can click

File>Save As and select Text (Tab Delimited) from the drop-down menu.
Select a location to save the file to, pick a name for your file and click Save.
8) If an Excel warning appears, just click Yes to ignore it.
9) You can now close Excel and open SOLIDWORKS.

b. Loading the Airfoil Coordinates

1) Open SOLIDWORKS, open a new part file and on top of the screen select:
2) Insert> Curve > Curve Through XYZ Points
3) This will open the Curve File pane. Click Browse, and then locate the text file
containing the cleaned-up coordinate data that you exported from Excel. It
will load the coordinates into the pane, as seen below.

Figure 3.16 Export Coordinates from Excel to SOLIDWORKS

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4) Click OK, and you will see the airfoil curve appear in the design window, as
seen in the image below.

Figure 3.17 NACA 4415

5) Of course, being a curve, it is still not useful for creating geometry, so select
the Front Plane from the design tree and click Sketch from the Sketch tab.
6) Now click Convert Entities from the Sketch tab, and in the Convert Entities
panel, select the airfoil curve from the design window.

Figure 3.18 Convert Entities

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7) Next, we want to make a centerline from the trailing edge to just beneath the
leading edge. This will represent the chord length of the airfoil, and once we
have constrained it we can alter the chord length at will.

Figure 3.19 Airfoil Chord Length

8) After the chord line is sketched, we need to put another line connected to the
last line near the leading edge. This new line needs to be tangential to the
airfoil, as shown below.

Figure 3.20

9) Then, we can select both the chord line and the tangent line and constrain them
so that they are perpendicular to each other. Why? Because when we rotate
the sketch or extend the chord length, we want it to retain shape, and the
perpendicular constraint will ensure that the whole thing remains airfoil-shaped.

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10) Now that the sketch is constrained, we can just double-click on the chord
line and enter a value for how long we want the chord to be. In this case, let’s
set it to 1.6 meters.

Figure 3.21

11) Congrats! You have now converted your airfoil curve into a sketch entity.
Now we can model our solid airfoil.

c. Airfoil 2D to 3D
1) This part is easy. Simply select the airfoil sketch and extrude it to 4 meters.
This will provide us with a basic constant-chord (i.e., non-tapered),
rectangular wing. This type of wing, incidentally, is referred to colloquially as
a “Hershey Bar”.

Figure 3.22

2) And there it is. Our Hershey Bar wing is now ready for some flow simulation!

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 03: Airflow and Compressible Flow Visualization (Prelim)

II. FLOW SIMULATION

a. Loading Flow Simulation

1) Load up the Flow Simulation add-in by clicking Tools > Add-ins and checking
the SOLIDWORKS Flow Simulation box. Once it is loaded, select the Flow
Simulation tab and click the Wizard button to start the Flow Simulation
Wizard.

Figure 3.23

2) On the first page of the wizard (Project Name), name your project and click
Next.
3) On the second page (Unit System), select your preferred unit system. For
consistency, we will select SI units here (m-kg-s). Then click Next.
4) On page three (Analysis Type), we can select Internal or External study.
Internal studies are for simulating flows that are constrained by some kind of
vessel, such as a pipe, and external studies are for simulating flows around
the outside of a body such as a truck or an airfoil. So, we click External, and
then press Next to advance to the next page.
5) The next page (Default Fluid) allows us to select the fluid in our study. This
is an aerodynamic study, so we select Air from the top list and click Add.
Once the default fluid has been added, we can click Next.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 03: Airflow and Compressible Flow Visualization (Prelim)

Figure 3.24

6) We can skip over the next page (Wall Conditions) by clicking Next.
7) The final page that we need to deal with in the wizard is the Initial and
Ambient Conditions page. This is where we set the temperature and
pressure of the environment and the velocity of the flow in the x-direction.
We have set the temperature and pressure to SSL (standard sea level)
values and the velocity in x-direction to 55m/s (about 200km/h).

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 03: Airflow and Compressible Flow Visualization (Prelim)

Figure 3.25

8) That’s all we need to worry about with the wizard. Click Finish and the wizard
will close.

Figure 3.26

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 03: Airflow and Compressible Flow Visualization (Prelim)

9) You will notice that the wizard has created a box around the wing. This is our
Computational Domain, where all the magic happens. Think of it as the inside
of a wind tunnel. Everything inside it is part of the simulation, and everything
outside it is irrelevant.
10) Note that a larger Computational Domain requires more processing.
11) Click on Computational Domain on the left-hand panel (as seen below) and
you will notice six handles appear on the box. Drag these handles until the
domain box fits just around the wing model. Be sure to leave enough room at
the fore and aft of the wing so we can get some sweet visualization of the fluid
flow as it passes around the wing.

Figure 3.27

Next up, we want to set our goals.

The Goals in SOLIDWORKS Flow Simulation serve three purposes:

1. Defines Design Goals and/or other important criteria

2. Used for Convergence Control

3. Finish the calculation

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 03: Airflow and Compressible Flow Visualization (Prelim)

Being an aerodynamic simulation, we want to set goals that are relevant

to this domain. So, go into the left-hand project simulation panel again, right click
on Goals, and select Surface Goals. This will bring up a list of parameters that
we wish to measure and visualize, and we can select the minimum, maximum
and average for each goal.

b. Loading Flow Data Parameters

1) First, we want to select the faces of the wing that we want included in the
study. In the Surface Goals panel, click the blue Selection area to activate it and
click all of the faces of the wing model.

Figure 3.28

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 03: Airflow and Compressible Flow Visualization (Prelim)

2) Next, go down the list and check the minimum, maximum and average for
the following parameters:

Static Pressure Velocity (X)

Total Pressure Turbulence Time
Dynamic Pressure Turbulence Length
Density (Fluid) Turbulence Intensity
Mach Number Turbulence Energy
Velocity Turbulence Dissipation

Note that we have selected Velocity (X), because this is the direction
that the flow will be travelling in.

3) Click the green check mark to exit Surface Goals.

4) Next, we want to go into the study panel on the left, right click Input Data and
select Calculation Control Options.

Figure 3.29

5) Check the iterations box and ensure it is set to 100 iterations. It may be that
your simulation requires less, or even more. But for now, 100 iterations is

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 03: Airflow and Compressible Flow Visualization (Prelim)

fine. This should be enough for the goals to reach convergence. More
iterations will generally give a better result, but after a point, the trade-off
between accuracy and time-taken simply isn’t worth it. You can run the
simulation all day long and the gains to accuracy will become very modest.
So, 100 is fine in this case. Click OK to exit.
6) Now that our simulation is set up, we can run it. You can find the Run button
in the top ribbon (as seen below). Click it and you will see the solver screen
appear, informing you of how many iterations are left.

Figure 3.30

c. Displaying the Results

1) Now the calculations have finished, we can go into the study panel on the
left and expand the Results section to show us a selection of graphs and
plots. Right clicking any of these plots will allow you to insert the plot into the
main window.

Figure 3.31

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 03: Airflow and Compressible Flow Visualization (Prelim)

d. Cut Plots
1) The first plots we will look at are cut plots. This type of plot will display a 2D
slice (a plane) of the model, and you can drag the green arrow to move the
slice along any part of the 3D model.
2) Right click Cut Plot and select Insert.
3) In this instance, I select Front Plane, then I select Contours to show a
contour plot. In the Contours section, you can see that the default parameter
should be Velocity (X). We would like to see the pressure contours here, so
we can click the parameters box and select Pressure.

Figure 3.32

4) Click the green check mark and you will see your plot appear in the main
design window. You can move the slice along the length of the wing by using
the green drag handle and you can rotate the plot as you would do your 3D
model. The image below shows an isometric view and a side view. The color
code shows how the colors relate to differences in pressure.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 03: Airflow and Compressible Flow Visualization (Prelim)

Figure 3.33

5) Because the results are already loaded into your computer, you can easily
switch between data types by clicking the parameter name just beneath the
colour scale and selecting new results to display.

Figure 3.34

6) So, if I want to change from a pressure contour plot to a velocity contour plot,
I simply click Pressure beneath the colored scale (as seen above) and switch
it to velocity. The main plot will change accordingly.Note, if you want to see
the slice scan along the entire length of the wing, you can right click on Cut
Plot and select Play for a little animation.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 03: Airflow and Compressible Flow Visualization (Prelim)

Figure 3.35

e. Flow Trajectories
1) Cut plots are nice, but they don’t show the holistic view of what is going on;
they simply show a 2D slice of the 3D whole. The trajectory plot is more
useful for showing behavior over the full length of the wing at any given time.
This is more like a wind tunnel with smoke injected into the chamber, which
you may be more familiar with from university.
2) Right click on the Flow Trajectory option in the study pane and select Insert.
This will open the Flow Trajectories pane.
3) In this pane, select the faces that we want to be a part of the study as we did
for the Cut Plot.
4) In the Number of Points box, type 15 and set the Spacing to 0.03m.
5) In the Appearance section, we select Static option, and then we select the
appearance of the trajectory. In this instance we select Pipes, but feel free to
play around here and experiment with different appearances.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 03: Airflow and Compressible Flow Visualization (Prelim)

Figure 3.36

6) Again, in this plot we will be looking at Pressure, so select that from the
Appearance section, and then click the green check icon. The plot will appear
in the main window, as you can see below.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 03: Airflow and Compressible Flow Visualization (Prelim)

Figure 3.37

7) Here we can see the variations of pressure as the air flows over the aerofoil,
and also we can get some idea of the turbulence/vortices created by the wing
tip.

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