MODULE 46 ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES AND UNITS in describing electric circuits, certain quan- fatjes and units are needed. This module intro- duces you to some of these. eer Tem TE differentiate current, voltage and resistance; describe and correctly use units of current, voltage and resistance; discuss the four factors that affect the amount of resistance; and define resistivity. 46.1 CURRENT Electric current is the movement of charged particles in a specific direction. The charged particle may be an electron, a positive ion or a negative ion, and they are referred to as current carriers. The symbol used for current is I because early scientists thought about the intensity of the electricity in a wire. Current is the measure of how much charge is passed through a given point in a conductor per given amount of time. The unit of current is given in coulomb per second (C/s) and is named ampere (A) after the French physicist Andre Marie Ampere (1775-1836), who discovered that two parallel wires attract each other when currents flow through them in the same direction and repel each other when currents are made to flow in opposite directions. The relationship between time, charge and current is given as current = eae orl=2 time t The unit is 46.1.1 AC and DC If the current continues to flow in the same direction through the conducting wire all the time, it is called direct current (DC). This is the kind of current that we get from flashlight cells and batteries. If the current periodically reverses the direc- tion in which it is moving, itis called alternating current (AC). This is the kind of current we have in our home and in school. 46.2 VOLTAGE Voltage, which is also known as electromotive force emf) ot potential difference (pd), is the electric pressure that causes current to flow. Potential difference is potential energy divided by charge. ‘The potential energy here is the work needed to move a charged body against the electric force, toward or away from another charged body. If the two bodies have the same charge (¢.g., both are positive), work is needed to move them closer. If the two charged bodies are of opposite charge, work is needed to move them apart. Also, the term ‘electromotive force’ could be misleading; it is not a force. The symbol for voltage is V. The unit of voltage is the joule per coulomb which is called the volt (V). The relationship between charge, energy and voltage is voltage = BY oy = W B= ee Vey Theunitis | ' oh J conto YC Voltage can be created by techniques invol- ving the production of excess electrons at one terminal and a deficiency of electrons at another terminal. It can also be produced by a current through a resistor, Devices such as an electric generator, electric cell, thermocouples, crystals and solar cells os eetieteaime se oe"46.3 RESISTANCE Resistance is the opposition a material offers to current. The symbol for resistance is R. All materials offer some resistance to current but the amount of resistance differs from each other. There are high-resistance and low-resistance materials. More energy is required to move elec- trons through high-resistance materials. The unit used to specify the amount of resis tance is the ohm, represented by the symbol Q. The ohm is defined as the amount of resistance that allows 1 A of current to flow when the volt- age is 1 V. It can also be defined as the amount of resistance of a column of mercury 106.3 cm in length, with a cross-sectional area of 1 mm’, and at a temperature of 0°C. Resistance of an object depends on four factors: 1) length, 2) cross-sectional area, 3) re- sistivity of the material and 4) temperature. The amount of resistance of an object is directly pro- portional to its length and inversely proportional Table 46:1 Factors That Affect Resistance Factor Less Resistance Greater Resistance Length => coo ie L Cross- — Com es Cs) iy 4 Te ee > Copper Aluminum Temperature | to its cross-sectional area. There is no simple relationship between resistance and tempera- ture. For most objects, the resistance increases with an increase in temperature. But for some, such as carbon, the resistance decreases with an increase in temperature. Take a look at Table 46.1. The table shows how the different factors affect resistance. 46.3.1 Resistivity The characteristic resistance of a material is given by its resistivity. Resistivity ratings allow comparison of the abilities: of different materials to conduct current, A table of resistivity in Q-m (ohm-meters) of some materials is presented below. It shows that a material with a lower resistivity is a better conductor. The relationship of resistance (R) to length (A), cross-sectional area (A) and resistivity (p) is givenas, ‘Table 46.2 Resistivity of Some Materials Material Resistivity at 20°C ((2-m) Conductors Nichrome 100 x 10# Platinum 10.6 x 10% Von Site ose Tungsten 5.65 x 10% ‘Aluminum 2.65 x10? Gold 2.24 x 10° Copper 1.72 x 10% Silver 1.59 x 10* Insulators Glass 10’ to 108 ‘Quartz 7.5 x 10" Semiconductors Germanium (pure) 5 x10! __Sllicon (pure) 3 x10Let us try to show an application of this re- 4 A=1.77 x10% m? R=4.49x10° 2 Sample Problem 2 Jonell wants to use a glass rod as an insulator. The rod’s diameter is 9 mm and its resistivity at 20°C is 1 x 10° Q-m. How long must the rod be to offer a resistance of 9.1 10" Q? . Given: R = 9.1x10°Q p = 1x10°Q-m d = 9mm (or9x10*m) md? lationship in the sample problems below. = sample Problem 1 (3.14)(9 x10" m)? What is the electric resistance of a silver 4 wire 0.50 m long with a diameter of 1.5 mm _ B.14)(8.1x 10% my if the resistivity of silver is 1.59 x 10° Q-m? ns 4 Given: & = 0.50m A= 6.3610" m? 1m = a Find: € d = 15mmxi9r a 15x 103m Rene p = 159x 10*Q-m A RA Find: R a ‘ P Solution: 1 10” Q)(6.36 x 10% m?) First, find the area (A) pi Oe fs _5.79x10° m 4 emnneI0 _ (3.14)(.5 x 10° m)? £=5.79x 10° m or 5.79 mm DID YOU KNOW? The human body's resistance to current is in the order of 500 000 © when the skin is dry. This resistance decreases when the skin is wet. The body's resistance can 0 as low as 100 £2 when itis soaked with saltwater. This is because ions in saltwater are current carriers and readily conduct electric charge. Biante What is the current carrier in a copper wite? How much current is flowing when 15 C pass a speci- fied point in 5 s? Why is it incorrect to say, “The voltage at point X is 12 volts"? What are the four factors that affect the resistance of ‘a material? An electric motor winding uses 180 m of copper Conductor with a cross-sectional area of 0.26 cm? Find the resistance of the electric winding at 20°C. The resistivity of copper is 1.72 x 10%.2-m.MODULE 47 oHM's LAW Aknowledge of the different electrical quan- tities and units, even the most common ones only, is important in analyzing electrical circuits. This module presents application of Ohm’s law and the devices that are used to relate and mea- sure these different quantities and units. RGM ml list down the essential parts of a simple circuit; state Ohm's law; use Ohm's law to calculate current, voltage and resis- tance in simple electri circuits; determine the current, voltage and resistance using ‘measuring devices; calculate the power of a circuit given any two of the three electrical quantities—current, voltage and resistance; calculate electrical energy and its cost; and list down ways to use electricity wisely. gee ge! 474 ASIMPLECIRCUT An electric circuit is a conducting loop in which a current can transfer electr A protection device such asa fuse, which inter. rupts the circuit in case of a malfunction, can be included but this is often omitted. A simple electric circuit can be drawn using only symbols. Some of the common symbols used are shown in Table 47.1. The drawing, which shows how parts are connected together, is called a schematic diagram. This diagram, how- ever, does not indicate the physical size and mechanical arrangements of the parts Figure 47 The circuit must be complete for electric current to low. Table 47.1. Symbols Used in Schematic DiagramsHere is an example of a schematic diagram. switch actual movement of electrons et flow of positive charge > When the circuit is closed, current I flows. The electrons flow from the negative end of the cell through the closed switch and the lamp back to the positive end of the cell. Some books show aconventional flow of current. It was thought be- fore that electric current, even through solids, is composed of moving positive charges; hence, the direction is from the positive electrode (anode) to the negative electrode (cathode). But now, we know that the electrons are the ones that move through the conductor. three electrical quantities, ‘resistance, are used differ- yn Ohm (1787-1854) While we can calculate the current, voltage and resistance mathematically, there are devices which can give us measurements of these three quantities in a circuit. The three devices are the ammeter which measures current in amperes (or milliamperes), the olmmeter which measures resistance in ohms and the voltmeter which measures voltage in volts. Let us take some examples to show how Ohm’s law is applied to simple circuits. Sample Problem 1 How much current flows through a lamp with resistance 90 Q when it is connected to a 220-V outlet? Given: R = 90 V=220V Find: 1 Solution: Teed R — 220V 902 T=2.44 4 Sample Problem 2 What is the resistance of a lamp which allows 0.8 A current when 110.0 V is applied to it? Given: 1 =0.8A47.3 POWER INA CIRCUIT Power is the rate of energy transfer. It is equal to the product of the current and voltage. In equation form, it is given as P=IV and its unit is the watt (W) when voltage is in volts and current is in amperes. Ifyou express the previous formula in terms of J and V, the formula for current and voltage, respectively, will be 122 andv=". v 1 If we combine Ohm’s law and the power formula, it will result in another variation of the power formula. Let us substitute 1% in P =1V, It will yield ¥ P=|=|V (x) vt pete R ‘On the other hand, if we substitute V =IR in P=IV, it will yield P = IR) P =FR This tells us that given any two of the three quantities (current, resistance and voltage) we can solve for power. Let us take a look at the following exam- ples. Sample Problem 1 What is the power input to an electric Sample Problem 2 The heating element in a clothes dryeris rated at 5 kW and 220 V. How much current does it draw? Find: 1 Solution. P ee Vv _ 5000 W ~ 220V 1=22.73A 47.4 ELECTRICAL ENERGY AND ITS COST You have learned that energy is equal to power times time. From Section 47.3, we know that poweris the product of current and voltage. Therefore, energy can also be expressed using current, voltage and time. In equation form, this is given as W=Pat. As we have said, electric power is the rate of energy transfer. Do you know what power companies charge us for? They charge us for energy, not power. The unit of energy used by companies to calculate our consumption is the kilowatt-hour (kWh). This is the energy deliv- ered in one hour at the constant rate of 1 kW. We are usually billed for a given period. And an electric meter is used to determine how much energy is consumed over a period of time. While the power rating of most of the ap- pliances ths have at home remains constant, the amount of energy used on the number of hours these poeta: operated. le 47.2 shows some home appliances and cost of operation for given rs. But if you try to observe your will notice that there is a fluc- and rate of currencyLet us try to calculate the cost to operate one appliance found in Table 47.2. ‘conditioner (1 hp) ea Sample Problem How much does it cost to operate a see) 20” desk fan for 12 hours if electrical energy ‘irpot costs P4.10/kWh? Bender Given: cost of energy =:4.10/kWh ‘Bread toaster P = 79 W or 0.079 kW Computer with monitor At = 12h vb player Find: cost to operate the fan for 12 hrs ae Pots ae fo eevee cre. {stand; 16") ae ae : E 0.079 kW)(12h) ‘i (standard) 3 8 Ww ).948 kWh eee. : Then, solve for the cost. cost = (0.948 kWh)(4.10/kWh) cost = ?3.89 The cost of electricity is really high. Let us use electricity wisely. Here are some tips on the wise use of electricity. Lighting Use natural light whenever possible. ° Turn off lights when not in use. * Use compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) instead of incandescent bulbs. A 16-W CEL produces the same light as a 60-W incandescent bulb at a quarter of the energy cost. Clean bulbs regularly. Dirt lessens illu- _ mination by as much as 50%. * Use low-wattage light bulbs in areas paeioisithatdo not need strong lighting such as s, foyers and doorways. e sear that provide direct lighting s, beds and other work areas. 2m instead of the higher-watt-Refrigerators * Place the refrigerator at least four inches away from the wall so as not to overwork the motor, * The coils (or condenser) at the back remove heat. Clean them twice a year using a vacuum cleaner or a broom. «Make sure the refrigerator door is sealed tightly to prevent cold air from escaping. ° Defrost before frost builds up to 1/4 inch to keep refrigerator running efficiently. * When buying new refrigerators, be sure to purchase energy-efficient models. Look for a unit with the highest Energy Efficiency Factor (EEF). It is more effi- cient and costs less to operate. Cooking * Prepare all ingredients before cooking to avoid frequent switching of electric stove. Thaw frozen food thoroughly before cooking. * Avoid using a big burner for a small pan to lessen heat wastage. * Cover pots with lids to prevent heat from escaping. ° Use flat-bottomed pots and pans when using an electric stove. They provide faster heat transfer. * Tum off the electric stove during the last minutes of cooking. The remaining heat is enough to make the food simmer. Washing Machines * Wash or dry full loads to maximize use of the washing machine and dryer. * Donotoverwash clothes. Delicate clothes take less time to wash than dirty clothes do. * Keep the lint filter of the dryer clean. A dirty filter re Ironing © Doall the ironing at one time © Iron during cooler hours of the day. This helps lessen the demand for electricity during peak hours. * Dampen clothes moderately. Excessively moistened clothes take longer time to iron. * Switch off the electric iron in the last few minutes of ironing. The remaining heat will be enough to press the last few articles. Other Appliances © . Unplug all electronic appliances when not in use. Ifa transformer or voltage regula- tor is used, unplug it from the outlet and turn it off. A transformer consumes more electricity when it heats up. * Appliances will operate more efficiently and use less energy when they are in good working order. Keep them well maintained. ° When using electric fans, lock the oscil- lator when fan is needed in one direction only, thus, air is blown directly where needed. * Clean fan blades and motor regularly to keep them running efficiently. Source: Meralco What happens to the current in a circuit when the voltage is doubled? What happens to the powerif the resistance connected to a battery is cut in half? How much current would a 10-Q bread toaster draw when connected to a 110-V outlet? An electric heater is operated by applying a potential difference of 60 V across a nichrome wire of total resis- tance 9 ©. What is the power rating of the heater? Calculate the cost of running a 1.5-hp air conditioner straight for one day if energy costs °4.36/kWh.MODULE 48 MULTIPLE-LOAD CIRCUITS Most of the existing electric circuits we see operate on more than one load, Those circuits which have two or more loads are called multiple-load circuits. A discussion on this and of safety regarding electricity make up this module. identify multiple-load circuits; discuss the characteristics of series, parallel and series-parallel circuits; calculate current, voltage and/or resistance for the total circuit or any load in a multiple-toad circuit; and list down ways to avoid accidents due to electric shock. Aseries circuit has two or more loads but cur- rent flows through a single conducting path. Rules for resistances in series: 1. The current that flows through each re- sistance is the same as the total current throughout the circuit. Thatis, I, =1,=1,=4=..-=1,. 2. The sum of all the individual voltage drops is the same as the applied electro- motive force (emf) or voltage. That is, V,=V,+V,+V,+---+V,. 3, The total resistance is equal to the sum_ of the individual resistances. Thatis, R,=R, +R, +R,+...+R, OF In a series circuit, if any part of the circuit is open, current stops flowing and voltage and power are removed from/all loads. One way to determine which load is open is to measure the individual voltages. The voltage drop of the load that is open is equal to the entire source voltage. A good example are of some types of Christmas lights—when one bulb burns out, all the rest go out. 48.2 PARALLEL CIRCUITS A parallel circuit has more than one path for current to flow. Rules for resistances in parallel: 1. The total current that flows through the circuitis equal to the sum of the currentsin the separate resistances. Thatis, 1, =1, +1, +1, 2. The potential drop in each resistor is the same as the magnitude of the applied electromotive force. That is, V,=V,=V,=V,=-+ 3. The reciprocal of the total resistance is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the separate resistances. Thetis eae er ee Ry R, A parallel circuit allows operation of other Toads even ifone load fails. The electriccircuit used in homes consists of many parallel circuits. Also, anautomobileelectricsystem makesuuse of parallel circuits for lights, stereo, heater motor, etc. Fach of them operates independently of the others. +=. 48.3 SIMPLE NETWORK Some resistors are arranged in a combination of both series and parallel circuits, and of differ- ent electromotive forces. These complex circuits are called networks. Examples of networks in- clude the electrical wirings used in big buildings and structures. A simple network is shown in Figure 48.3. In this network, there is one source of electromotive force and one resistor, R,, is in series with the other resistors, R,and R, which are in parallel. The examples below will show how the resis- eee ee epee nel cauentcan be computed for multiple-load circuits. Sample Problem 1. ATV set, ar ees Figure 48,3 A simple network Given: R, = 202 = mo Sotho a80 hm’s law, _ 20V 105.2 T,=210A Since in a series circuit, the amount of current flowing in each device is the same as the total current flowing in the line, then 1, =1,=L=I, = 210A ce. V,=1R, = (2.10 A)(20Q) =42V V, = LR, = (2.10 A)(50 2) = 105 V V,=1R, = (2.10 A)(35 Q) = 735 V ‘The total voltage is about 220 V.sample Problem 2 A refrigerator and a rice cooker are connected in parallel to a 220-V line. The current in the refrigerator is 10 A and in the es rice cooker is 4 A. Find a) the resistance of each device, b) the total tesistance, and c) the current flowing in the line. h n=s0E Given: I, = 10A; I,=4A; V,=220V 7 F Find: a. RyandR,; b. Ry; T Solution: ‘ <_< Sample Problem 3 Given: This network, a. Since the circuit is in parallel, Vy=110V V,=V,=V,. From Ohm’s law, R=, and so, Find: a. The combined resistance for the refrigerator: I b. The total current Solution: 5 a. First, find the combined resistance of R, Ee ee and R, which are in parallel. Let us refer _——— to this as R’. 10A mar R,=220 Pare for the rice cooker: pied St» ae a , “50 32 oH palin 345 8 : Baye 15Q° 152 i ie 340 naar it 3 : sins yoga BPMs cee His Bein Po ERT "is now in series with R,. The stance R, is now,