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 Mauritania
Catherine Taine-Cheikh

To cite this version:

Catherine Taine-Cheikh. Mauritania. M. Eid, A. Elgibali, K. Versteegh (editor-in-chief), M. Woidich
& A. Zaborski. Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics (EALL), vol. III (Lat-Pu), Brill,
pp.169-176, 2008. <halshs-00564246>

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 Encyclopedia of
Arabic Language
and Linguistics
General Editor
Kees Versteegh

Associate Editors
Mushira Eid
Alaa Elgibali
Manfred Woidich
Andrzej Zaborski

Volume III
Lat-Pu

B R I LL

Référence de l'article publié :

Taine-Cheikh, Catherine (2008), "Arabic of Mauritania", vol. III (Lat-Pu), pp.

169-176, in K. Versteegh (editor-in-chief), Encyclopedia of Arabic Language
and Linguistics (EALL), Leiden : Brill.
 Mauritania
In 1960, Mauritania, a French colony along its linguistic effects were variable. Although
the Atlantic Coast in West Africa, achieved a perfect command of Classical Arabic is
independence under the name of the Islamic strongly recommended for every good Muslim,
Republic of Mauritania. The name ‘Mauritania’, this perfect command was (and still is) often
once used as the name of the Roman colonies of much more limited than expected. The ancient
North Africa (Mauretania), was reintroduced populations of Mauritania were no exception
by the colonial administration to designate to this rule, although a relatively large number
this western part of the Saharo-Sahelian zone, of people apparently became literate. This is
which was called in Arabic literature bilàd probably due to the history of the region and the
”inqì† ‘country of ”inq솒, tràb al-bì:àn ‘land of social organization of the different ethnic groups.
the Whites’ (Taine-Cheikh 1990), or bilàd as- The Islamization of the Saharo-Sahelian part
sayba ‘country of anarchy’. of West Africa was linked with the Almoravid
The borders of the country are as arbitrary movement, initiated in the 11th century by
as its name. Indeed, they do not follow at all the Berber tribes of the region, according to
the territorial limits of the Moorish Arabic- local traditions, somewhere between the Adrar
speaking country, which extended far beyond and the Senegal delta. This movement was
those borders, especially in the north, in to be very successful in Morocco and Spain
the region of the Rio de Oro and of the (Norris 1972, 1986). The name ‘Almoravid’ is
Sagya el-£amra, occupied by the Spanish. supposed to have come, through the Spanish
The Senegal River, chosen as the southern language, from muràbi†ùn; it probably does
border, is inhabited on either side by the same not signify ‘those from the ribà† “fortified
black African populations, which have Pulaar, monastery”’, as has been supposed for a long
Soninke, or Wolof as their mother tongue. time, but rather ‘those who wage a holy war’
Originally, Mauritania was conceived as (participle of the verb ràba†a).
a ‘transition’ country between ‘arabity’ and Nevertheless, the penetration of Islam does
‘africanity’ (Baduel 1990), hence the situation not begin with the armed fighters of Ya™yà
of Arabic is particularly complex but also, as in ibn ±Ibràhìm al-Gdalì. In fact, conversions had
other places, subject to ceaseless change. already taken place since the middle of the 8th
century, especially among the Lemtuna Berbers
1. H i s t o r i c a l b a c k g r o u n d : T h e and the Soninké of the Ghana empire. This
religious ‘Arabization’ peaceful Islamization was linked with trade (in
particular with the Kharijite Mzab) but remained
A variety of Arabic (£assàniyya) is currently the quite superficial. The local sources do not always
mother tongue of a majority (usually estimated distinguish it from the traditions concerning
between 70 and 80 percent of a total of 2.9 the Bafour, the mysterious population from the
million people) of the Mauritanian population. Adrar that is sometimes associated with the
This is the consequence of the abandonment breeding of dogs. The preaching of Ibn Yàsìn,
of the Berber language (Zenaga), at the end spread by the Almoravid troops, was a message
of a very long process of Arabization, which of faith, but it also aimed at eradicating the
seems to have begun at the end of the 14th and strong influence exerted until then by Ibadite
beginning of the 15th century but has not yet Kharijism in the Sahara and on its southern
been completed even today. The first contacts (and northern) borders. Henceforth, the aim
with the Arabic language took place at the was to attain a deeper knowledge of the sacred
end of the 1st millennium, through the Islamic texts and a more orthodox practice of religion,
religion, and concerned all the ethnic groups of in particular through the banishment of the
the region. pleasures of music and dance.
For all societies concerned, Islamization Apart from the Almoravid episode (and, later,
represented a global cultural phenomenon, but some Peul Jihadist movements), the conquests

EALL_Mauritania-b8.indd 1 3/21/2007 6:30:55 PM

 2 mauritania

did not play a very important role in the that time, the Islamic religion had already
diffusion of Islam in sub-Saharan Africa. Yet, the reached an important breakthrough in the
numerous conflicts, between the communities region, paving the way for a certain adaptation to
as much as between the tribes, and even within the Arabic language. The only Arabic-speaking
the tribes, resulted among other things in social communities, though, still seem to have been
fissure and tribal or ‘lineage’ specializations. made up by small groups of traders coming
Some tribes chose to relinquish their arms and from the Maghreb. In all cities with a Berber
dedicate themselves entirely to the study and majority, whose destiny was unquestionably
teaching of the religious sciences, particularly linked to the road taken by the trans-Saharan
at the end of the Surbubba war that in the trade, the Azer language – probably a variety of
17th century opposed two tribal coalitions in Soninke as spoken by Zenaga speakers – may
southwest Mauritania. The ‘learned’ tribes are have played a key role as lingua franca, despite
the zwàya among the Arabic speakers and the the weakening and finally the disappearance of
gu:ayën (literally ‘qadis’) among the Zenaga the Ghana empire.
speakers. In addition, among the neighboring The influence of Arabic-speaking groups only
Pulaar speakers, the influence of the Torobe began to be felt in the Sahara from the 15th
group, representing the majority, relies partially century onward. At the end of the 14th century,
on its religious status. Ibn Xaldùn had pointed out the presence of
In all ethnic groups (including the Soninke the Banù £assàn in the Dra wadi (wàd dar≠a)
and the Wolof), the learned men had at their in the south of Morocco. In constant rivalry
disposal a unified corpus of reference, based with their cousins, the ”banàt, they oppressed
on the triad of Màlikism, Aš≠arism, and Sufi their neighboring Berber tribes (Ould Cheikh
brotherhood, and applied largely similar 1995:43). Ibn Xaldùn traced back the genealogy
methods to transmit knowledge. These methods of their chief, £assàn, to a certain Ma≠qil, but
made a strong demand on memory and used all he did not specify the relationship between
possible memorization techniques: repetitions the latter and the Banù Hilàl. One should be
and recitations (supported by rhythmic move- careful not to take at face value a history of
ment of the body), poetry (even about abstract the Banù Ma≠qil, even if certain authors tend to
topics such as grammar), and copying of texts. present them as a group distinct from both the
Writing was at the center of learning, but Banù Hilàl and the Banù Sulaym.
transmission took place from the master’s voice The testimony of Arabic and Portuguese
to the student’s ear. The performance was travelers provides some information about the
less an oralization, corresponding to a real migration of the Banù £assàn to the south
command of Classical Arabic as a language and their slow penetration into the Sahara.
of oral communication, than an auralization, Nevertheless, there is, unfortunately, a lack of
meaning the recitation of literary Arabic (Taine- data for the reconstruction of the history of this
Cheikh 1998; Ould Cheikh 1998). Over the ‘dark age’, during which the dominance of the
years, however, teaching has diversified and Arabs over (part of) the local Berber populations
deepened thanks to a more frequent recourse was established. Although the traditions and
to the mother tongue in order to explain the the local denominations encourage simplistic
meaning of the text. Altogether, the level of equations – ‘warlike tribes = Arabs’ vs. ‘mara-
Arabo-Islamic culture was significant, especially boutic tribes = Berbers’, or more recently,
but not exclusively in the traditional schools ‘aristocratic = Arabs’ and ‘those who pay
(ma™à:ër) of the desert. tribute = Berbers’ – there is some evidence
that history has given rise to a complex society
2. T h e d i a l e c t a l A r a b i z a t i o n whose culture probably achieved some kind
of symbiosis between ‘arabity’ and ‘berberity’,
The four major Mauritanian caravan cities of even though generally speaking, only the Arabic
the 2nd millennium (Wadàn, ”ingì†i, Tišìt, and part of the heritage is claimed.
Walàta) were founded around the 12th and 13th As regards the language, the name £assàniyya
centuries, as the decline of âwdàÿust (probably (or klàm ™assàn lit. ‘the language of £assàn’),
to be identified with modern Tägdàwëst, in assigned to the spoken Arabic of Mauritania,
southeast Mauritania) was already sealed. At clearly suggests that this dialect is a legacy from

EALL_Mauritania-b8.indd 2 3/21/2007 6:30:56 PM

 mauritania 3
the £assàn tribes. In view of what is known (former) Berber speakers. Between the 17th
about Arabization in the Saharo-Sahelian century and the first half of the 18th century,
zone, this identification is not surprising in four emirates (Trarza, Brakna, Adrar, and
itself. Because all Arabic-speaking groups that Tagant) were established, which corresponded
came to settle in this area claim to be of to the early stages of political concentration,
the same origin, it is not too far-fetched to when a family of warriors (coming from the
think that the fundamental characteristics of Banù £assàn, except in the case of the Tagant)
the Mauritanian dialect were already present in exerted their authority on the tribes of the
the 15th century. This is all the more plausible region. Starting at the end of the 18th century
since even today for £assàniyya speakers and flourishing above all in the 19th century, an
mutual comprehension seems to be easiest with era ensued that seems to have been propitious
the Bedouin in the whole Arabic world, not for the development of culture and literature.
only from the Maghreb but also from the Inscriptions in tifinaÿ characters seem to have
Middle East (especially Jordanians). Besides, ceased around the 15th/16th centuries. Between
the £assàniyya language shows a remarkable the arrival of the Banù £assàn and that of the
homogeneity from east to west and from north European colonizers, virtually all writing was
to south (and even beyond the Mauritanian done in Arabic characters, probably most of it in
borders). This fact would seem to support Classical Arabic because there are few traces in
this theory, although it does not explain one Mauritania of Berber manuscripts written
of the rare important regional differences, the in Arabic characters (did they disappear?),
occlusive or fricative pronunciation of /ÿ/. although there did exist literary productions in
Of course, even if the £assàniyya language Soninke and Pulaar, some of which, such as the
has retained many characteristics from the beytol, were written with an Arabic alphabet.
dialect once spoken by the Banù £assàn, Broadly speaking, the concept of written
this does not mean that it has gone through literature is applicable to all intellectual
the centuries without changes. Even without productions recorded in the familial libraries.
mentioning the most recent evolutions, the These were extremely numerous, even if they
numerous borrowings from local dialects, were often limited to the contents of a trunk.
especially Zenaga, show the lexical enrichment In the case of the literate Moors, the trunk
produced by the contact with the Berber was carried around on camels when the camp
substrate language. was moving. The £assàniyya speakers of the
Various morphosyntactic innovations are western Sahara take a lot of pride in the fact
particularly characteristic of the £assàniyya that they were one of the rare nomadic societies
language, especially the passive voice, the in the Arab world to be strongly attached to the
diminutive, and the elative (¤ £assàniyya book and to the study of Muslim Arabic culture
Arabic). Despite certain similarities with (Bonte and Claudot-Hawad 1998).
Zenaga, the neologisms of the £assàniyya In the last few decades, some collections
language cannot be interpreted as a simple have been institutionalized, for both material
calque but must be regarded as an internal and political reasons. The attention of the
evolution of the Arabic dialect. Although institutional power and the public was focused
it is even harder to understand the general on this small number of libraries, particularly in
uniformity of innovations than the permanency the ancient cities of the Sahara. Such sedentary
of conservatisms, the successful innovations establishments may not have been the general
must have corresponded to particularly rule, but the inventory of their contents gives
important needs of expression for the Moorish an idea of the texts that were bought or copied
society. most frequently.
Between ”ingì†i and Wadàn, for example,
3. W r i t t e n l i t e r a t u r e i n t h e twelve family libraries can be counted. The
classical age contents are variable in size, from several pages
to hundreds of pages, and the 1,106 documents
The dispersal of the Banù £assàn and their are unequally shared between the libraries. The
settlement in Saharan Mauritania led to new library of the ±Ahl £abät from ”ingì†i alone
relations between the Arabic speakers and the contains more than half of these documents,

EALL_Mauritania-b8.indd 3 3/21/2007 6:30:56 PM

 4 mauritania

most of them purchased. Founded by Sìdi in a strictly literary sense, Mauritanian cultural
Mu™ammad wëll £abät in 1845 upon his production was of variable value. Indeed, there
return from his Mecca pilgrimage, the library is not a lot of prose literature, and it is often
is said to have contained up to three thousand badly represented. Globally, works on ±adab
books. As in most libraries, the great majority are rare. The only real prose writer seem to
of the books date from the 19th century, but a have been aš-”ayx Sìdi Mu™ammàd al-Kuntì
considerable number date from the 17th and (d. 1826), who wrote a biography of his father
18th centuries. Some are even more ancient; (the great mystic aš-”ayx Sìd al-Muxtàr) and a
indeed, five copies of manuscripts made prior number of treatises.
to the end of the 15th century are listed, with On the other hand, poetry is both abundant
ten copies realized in the 16th century. The and of high quality, as demonstrated by ±A™mad
oldest document kept in Mauritania can also be ibn al-≠Ayn aš-”ingì†i. In Cairo, he wrote from
found here, a copy (made in 480/1087–1088) memory a book on his country of origin, al-
of a commentary on the Qur±àn written by Wasì† fì taràjim ±udabà± ”inqì† “the best [book]
the Iraqi author ±Abù Hilàl al-≠Askarì (d. 395/ on the work of poets and men of ”inq솔 (Miské
1004–1005). 1970), including no fewer than 4,500 lines of
The books contained in the libraries of ”ingì†i verse. This anthology brings together 82 poets,
and Wadàn are mainly about religion and divided into 18 tribes (all maraboutic), most of
jurisprudence: about 40 percent on theology them from the 19th century, testifying to the
(fiqh, ±ußùl, qawà≠id, nawàzil ) and almost 30 vitality of the classical qaßìda of the Moorish
percent on the Qur±ànic sciences (copies of literate elite and of their high level in literary
the vulgate, the exegesis, the words of the Arabic (Ould Bah 1971:26–48; ¢ulba 2000).
Prophet, and the hagiographical stories) and Since Classical Arabic poetry belongs to the
mysticism (taßawwuf ). Among the remaining domain of written (or ‘auralized’) literature,
30 percent, mathematics (1.70%) and logic presumably the entire oral literature in Arabic
(2.78%) are relatively well represented, more is expressed in dialect. Indeed, despite the
so than history, astronomy, and medicine. But numerous isomorphisms between the written
linguistic topics (na™w, ßarf, luÿa, and ±adab) and the oral spheres, the separation between
are particularly popular (23.77%). The great the two fields coincides almost exactly, at least
lexicographical corpus al-Qàmùs al-mu™ì†, for until the 20th century, with the distinction
instance, gathered by the scholar from ”iràz, between the two varieties of Arabic in use in
Mu™ammad ibn Ya≠qùb al-Fìrùzàbàdì (d. 817/ Mauritania.
1835–1836), was written in calligraphy for the The first resemblance to note is the preemi-
library of the ±Ahl £abät over the course of nence of poetry as literary genre (Martin-
several years (the copy of the two first volumes Granel a.o. 1992; Bariou a.o.1995). Even
dating from 1251/1835–1836 and of the last though Classical Arabic poetry is called ši≠r,
two from 1260/1844). in £assàniyya it has the generic name of ÿnä.
With regard to Mauritanian scholars, no The metrical system of oral poetry (Taine-
writings are known before the 18th century (al- Cheikh 1985) presents many common points
Bartalì 1981; Ould Bah 1981; £àmidun 1990; with the classical meters in its general principles
Rebstock 2001). With the apparent exception (regularity of the number of syllables per meter,
of a Wadanian scholar of the 16th century quantitative distinction between short and long
who left a written commentary on the Qur±àn, syllables, constant presence of a rhyme). More
the most ancient Moorish author known is precisely, there may even be a fundamental
the great faqìh of ”ingì†i, Mu™ammad wëll common opposition between ascending rhythms
al-Muxtàr wëll Billa≠maš (1625–1695). This (with a metrical accent on the long second
major figure of the cultural history of the syllable of the watid majmù≠ ‘rising foot’: short
western Sahara wrote, among other things, a + long) and descending rhythms (with a metrical
commentary on a book about the foundations accent on the long first syllable of the watid
of the dogma and one on astronomy. mafrùq ‘descending foot’: long + short).
It is precisely because the Moorish books are Despite the obvious resemblance between
so recent that the middle of the 18th century the two metrical systems, there are important
appears as the beginning of a new era. However, differences as well. The first of these is the

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 mauritania 5

general tendency to simplify in the ÿnä, through of poetry took place in a context of rhymed
a reduction of the number of syllables per meter exchanges between people of equivalent status,
and through an increase of the proportion of they assumed the form of sparring matches
short syllables compared to the long ones, the (the g†à≠, which imposed certain rules of meters
latter tending to remain only in rhyme. The and rhymes). As these matches often played a
second one is the adaptation of the principle role in the rivalries between the tribes, certain
of quantity to the vocalic system of the dialect. warriors, including the chiefs, distinguished
Open syllables of the CV type having almost themselves in it. However, more generally (and
disappeared in £assàniyya, closed syllables with the exception of the very particular case
CVC or long vowels CV are counted as short in of the mad™ ën-näbi ‘the praise of the Prophet’,
contrast with the ‘extra-long’ syllables CVCC which was composed and sung only by the
(twice closed) or CV:C (closed with a long former slaves and the ™rà†ìn), eulogies as well
vowel). The third difference concerns the use as satire were inseparable from the very closed
of rhyme in a verse unit that seems peculiar to social group of the musician-singers (Norris
the dialect, even if it shows some similarities 1968; Guignard 1975). It was their role not
with other forms of poetry expressed in dialect. only to sing the ÿnä (which is not necessarily
On the one hand, the gav is made up of sung, despite the meaning of its root ÿ-n-y),
four hemistichs with alternating rhymes ab- but to do and undo reputations. According to
ab, and on the other hand, the †al≠a is made certain local traditions (Ould Bah 1971:14),
up of six hemistichs (aa-ab-ab), differing from their ancestors, in the 18th century, were
the quatrain through the two first identical responsible for the most ancient verses known
rhymes. in Moorish poetry. The long poems with epic
Until the 20th century, the great themes of accents that some griots like Säddùm wëll
the ÿnä (Taine-Cheikh 1994) were very close Ndyartu or ≠Alì wëll Mànu composed in honor
to those of the ši≠r, in spite of the difference of their warrior chiefs constitute a particular
in name. Put simply, one might say that there genre (thäydìn) of Moorish poetical heritage,
were eulogies (madì™ or μanà± for the ši≠r, šëkr quite esoteric but also highly regarded.
for the ÿnä) and satire (šatm or hijà± in Classical Nonpoetic genres exist, of course, but not
Arabic, šätm or ≠ayb in £assàniyya), on the one all are represented. In the field of the narrative
hand, and elegies and love poems (respectively forms, there are mainly fairy tales and stories.
nasìb and ÿazal, although these apply mostly Of great variety, they are not limited to wisdom
to ši≠r), on the other. The last two themes, very fairy tales and marvel stories intended for
frequent, were practiced by authors (mÿannyìn) children (Tauzin 1993; Ould Mohamed Baba
who belonged more or less to all social classes. 2000–2001; Ould Ebnou n.d.). In the discursive
Many anonymous poems belong to common field, mainly short forms can be noted. Among
culture, even if they sing about a particular the dialogic, playful, and/or didactic forms,
region, the one of the poet (Sìdi Bràhìm 1992). there is the one, quite common, of the riddle
Others have well-known authors (Ould Zenagui (t™àži) – often around wordplay – and the more
1994), sometimes very famous, including, in specific one of the pastoral enigma (Taine-
certain cases, those known for their knowledge Cheikh 1995) in which the playful rivalry
or for their poetry in Classical Arabic. The between shepherds expresses itself (this is called
verses may be purely elegiac or only about love, zärg, like the riddles students of Classical Arabic
but very often they are both simultaneously. posed to one another). Finally, proverbs and
The expression of feelings of love always respect sayings (±amμàl) are also found in large numbers
the laws of decency (Tauzin 1982, 1990) and (Ould Ebnou n.d.), which demonstrates the
often are limited to mention of places formerly strong fondness of £assàniyya speakers for
frequented by the loved one (always a woman, gnomic speech.
as the men traditionally kept for themselves the
right to compose ÿnä, leaving to women only 4. O r a l l i t e r a t u r e
the minor, and historically more recent, form
of the distich called tëbrà≠). Mauritanian Arabic literature peaked in the
The writing of eulogies and criticism was 19th century, but the seeds of change were
subject to even more constraints. If the recitation already present before that time. The influence

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 6 mauritania

of France began to develop in the south in and the number of students attending them
1857 and soon led to a tight control of the continued to diminish.
whole Senegal River valley. The beginning of The nascent republic was qualified as
the colonial conquest itself took place at the ‘Islamic’, based on the idea that religion
beginning of the 20th century. As of 1920, was the common denominator of the entire
Mauritania was officially regarded as a French population of Mauritania, but the language of
colony, governed from Saint-Louis in Senegal. administration and the education system were
The effects of colonization were felt for a long French, even if at the time this concerned only
time after the granting of independence. a small minority of children. Very soon, this
For several decades, colonization, which official predominance of a foreign language was
was carried out essentially from the strategic denounced by the Moorish community.
perspective of pacifying the region, remained Ever since its creation, Mauritania has
superficial. Its impact was especially weak on belonged to various organizations uniting the
the nomadic world, which only experienced black African countries formerly colonized by
indirect administration (enlistment in the France. Its recognition by the other Arabic
goums, particular groups of military nomads, countries and its entry into the Arab League
taxes imposed on the tribes, etc.). During were less immediate because of the opposition
that time, the sedentary black Africans of the voiced by Morocco. Only by the end of the
earlier colonized valley were already subject to 1960s did the Moroccan claims cease, opening
conscription and scheduled taxes. The Moors the possibility for a readjustment between Arabic
offered a particularly tenacious resistance to and the black world, more in accordance with
the French education system, and the most the wishes of the Moorish community (Ould
aristocratic people did not hesitate to send the Cheikh 1995:32–33). However, the changes
children of their slaves or their dependents to were fought by the black African communities
school instead of their own children, when of Mauritania, who regarded them as harmful
pressure became irresistible. As the back- to their vested benefits, inherited from
wardness of £assàniyya speakers increased, colonization, and perceived them as contrary
the colonial authorities agreed to open special to their elementary political rights.
schools, known as medersas, for the sons from If one considers the education system of
good Moorish families, in which Arabic was Mauritania, which is usually the first stumbling
given an important place. These schools were block in contacts between the ethnic groups, it
abolished in the 1940s, but as compensation becomes clear that the country has never ceased
a few hours of Arabic were introduced in all to Arabize since its independence. The first
schools attended by £assàniyya speakers. This measures were directed at the whole student
measure tended, however, to be withheld from body: Arabic was imposed on all secondary
the black Africans, under the pretext of making school students, at least as a second foreign
a distinction between the Arabic language as a language, and before the primary cycle a first
‘language of culture’ (reserved for speakers of year was added, entirely in Arabic, under the
Arabic) and as a ‘language of religion’ (excluded pretext of introducing Qur±ànic Arabic. Soon,
from the French state school system). the influence of Arabic nationalist movements,
One of the effects of the colonial policy was affected by events in the Middle East, was
that of modifying social relations, weakening reinforced by the massive settlement of
the power of the warriors and supporting the nomadic people. Ruined by years of severe
position of the marabouts (zwàya). It is no drought, Moorish cattle breeders were asking
accident that the first president of Mauritania, for schools for their children and possibilities
Mokhtar Ould Daddah, and most of the of employment in the administration for those
Moorish executives of the young state belonged who were educated in the ma™à:ër. Under these
to the literate tribes, in particular those of circumstances the number of hours of Arabic
the Southwest, who had been schooled before were increased considerably, facilitating the
the others. However, the securing of the integration into the state education system of
latter’s loyalty was realized to the detriment teachers coming from the traditional system.
of traditional education, and, in the course of One of the two curricula put in place – the one
the 20th century, the influence of the ma™à:ër dominated by the Arabic language – was then

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 mauritania 7

invaded by students who were total beginners Guignard, Michel. 1975. Musique, honneur et plaisir
in the French language. In the 1980s, the au Sahara. Paris: Geuthner.
£àmidun (ibn), Muxtàr. 1990. al-£ayàt aμ-μaqàfiyya
contrast deepened between the ‘Arab’ course of fì Mùrìtàniyà. Tunis: ad-Dàr al-≠Arabiyya li-l-Kitàb.
study, compulsory for all £assàniyya speakers Martin-Granel, Nicolas, Idoumou Ould Mohamed
and with a minor place for French, and the Lemine, and Georges Voisset. 1992. Anthologie de
‘bilingual’ one, leading generally only to a la littérature mauritanienne contemporaine. Paris:
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master’s degree in French and attended by a Miské, Ahmed-Bâba. 1970. Al Wasît: Tableau
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Catherine Taine-Cheikh
(LACITO – UMR 7017 of the CNRS)

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