Chapter 5 : Digital Communication Systems
5.1 Overview of Digital Communication SystemsTransmission
schemes, communication link, Adv vs. Disadv5.2 Digital
Transmission – Pulse ModulationPulse modulation method PWM, PAM,
PPM, PCM5.3 Pulse Code ModulationPCM operation, sampling,
quantization5.4 Information Capacity, Bits, Bit Rate, Baud, M-
ary encoding5.5 Digital ModulationASK, FSK. PSK5.6 Applications
of Digital Communication SystemsBENG 2413 Communication
Principles Faculty of Electrical EngineeringChapter 5 : Digital
Communication System
5.1 OverviewDigital communications is the transfer of
information (voice, data etc) in digital form.Basic diagram of
digital/data communicationsBENG 2413 Communication Principles
Faculty of Electrical EngineeringChapter 5 : Digital
Communication System
5.1 OverviewIf the information is in the analog form, it is
converted to a digital form for transmission. At the receiver,
it is re-converted to its analog form.In some case, data needs
to be changed to analog form to suit the transmission line (ex :
internet/point-to-point data communication through the public
switching telephone network) – the use of modemModem (from
modulator-demodulator) is a device that modulates an analog
carrier signal to encode digital information, and also
demodulates such a carrier signal to decode the transmitted
informationFunction of modem at transmitter – converts digital
data to analog signal that are compatible to the transmission
line characteristics.BENG 2413 Communication Principles Faculty
of Electrical EngineeringChapter 5 : Digital Communication
System
5.1 Overview Transmission schemes for analog and digital
signals
BENG 2413 Communication Principles Faculty of Electrical
EngineeringChapter 5 : Digital Communication System
5.1.1 Communication links in digital transmission
Basic protocol of transmission : simplex, half-duplex, full
duplexClassification of communication linkSynchronous Channel –
the transmitted and received data clocks are locked together.
This requires that the data contains clocking information (self-
clocking data).Asynchronous Channel – the clocks on the
transmitter and the receiver are not locked together. The data
do not contain clocking information and typically contains start
and stop bits to lock the systems together temporarily.BENG 2413
Communication Principles Faculty of Electrical
EngineeringChapter 5 : Digital Communication System
5.1.2 Digital vs Analog Communication Systems
AdvantagesNoise immunityDigital signals are less susceptible
than analog signals to interference caused by noiseSimple
determination is made whether the pulse is above or below the
prescribed reference levelSignal processing capabilityDigital
signals are better suited than analog signals for processing and
combining for multiplexing purpose.Much simpler to store digital
signals compare to analog signalsTransmission rate of digital
signals can be easily changed to suit different environments and
to interface with different types of equipment.Can also be
sample instead of continuously monitoredA regenerative repeater
along the transmission path prevent accumulation of noise along
the path. It can detect a distorted digital signal and transmit
a new clean signalBENG 2413 Communication Principles Faculty of
Electrical EngineeringChapter 5 : Digital Communication System
5.1.2 Digital vs Analog Communication Systems
AdvantagesSimpler to measure and evaluate than analog
signalsEasier to compare the error performance of one digital
system to another digital system.Transmission error can be
detected and corrected more easily and more accurately (error
bit check). This gives very low error rate and high
fidelity.Digital hardware implementation is flexible and permits
the use of microprocessors and digital switching.Ability to
carry a combination of traffics, e.g. telephone signals, data,
coded video and teletext, if the medium has enough capacity.BENG
2413 Communication Principles Faculty of Electrical
EngineeringChapter 5 : Digital Communication System
5.1.2 Digital vs Analog Communication Systems
DisadvantagesBandwidthTransmission of digitally encoded analog
signals requires significantly more bandwidth than simply
transmitting the original analog signal.Circuit complexityAnalog
signals must be converted to digital pulses prior to
transmission and converted back to their original analog form at
the receiver – additional encoding/decoding circuitry.Requires
precise time synchronization between the clocks in the
transmitter and receiver.BENG 2413 Communication Principles
Faculty of Electrical EngineeringChapter 5 : Digital
Communication System
5.2 Digital Transmission – Pulse Modulation
Mostly used modulation technique in digital transmissionConsists
of several processes:Sampling analog information
signalsConverting those samples into discrete pulseTransporting
the pulses from a source to a destination over a physical
transmission mediumPredominant method of pulse modulation –
pulse width modulation (PWM), pulse position modulation (PPM),
pulse amplitude modulation (PAM), pulse code modulation
(PCM)Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)The width (active portion of
the duty cycle) of a constant amplitude pulse is varied
proportional to the amplitude to the amplitude of the analog
signal at the time the signal is sampled.Maximum analog signal
amplitude produces the widest pulse, and the minimum analog
signal amplitude produces the narrowest pulse.All pulses have
the same amplitude.BENG 2413 Communication Principles Faculty of
Electrical EngineeringChapter 5 : Digital Communication System
5.2 Digital Transmission – Pulse Modulation
Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)The position of a constant-width
pulse within a prescribed time slot is varied according to the
amplitude of the sample of the analog signal.The higher the
amplitude of the sample, the farther to the right the pulse is
positioned within the prescribed time slot.The highest amplitude
sample produces a pulse to the far right, and the lowest
amplitude sample produces a pulse to the far left.Pulse
Amplitude Modulation (PAM)the amplitude of a constant-width
constant-position pulse is varied according to the amplitude of
the sample of the analog signal.The amplitude of a pulse
coincides with the amplitude of the analog signalPAM wave
resemble the original analog signal more than the waveforms for
PWM or PPM.BENG 2413 Communication Principles Faculty of
Electrical EngineeringChapter 5 : Digital Communication System
5.2 Digital Transmission – Pulse Modulation
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)Analog signal is sampled and then
converted to a serial n-bit binary code for transmission.Each
code has the same number of bits and requires the same length of
time for transmission.BENG 2413 Communication Principles Faculty
of Electrical EngineeringChapter 5 : Digital Communication
System
5.2 Digital Transmission – Pulse Modulation
Figure : Comparing between Pulse modulations: (a) analog signal;
(b) sample pulse; (c) PWM; (d) PPM; (e) PAM; (f) PCMBENG 2413
Communication Principles Faculty of Electrical
EngineeringChapter 5 : Digital Communication System
5.3 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
Preferred method of communication within the public switched
telephone network (PSTN).with PCM it is easy to combine
digitized voice and digital data into a single, high-speed
digital signal and propagate it over either metallic or optical
fiber cables.Refer to figure of simplified block diagram of PCM
system.At the transmitterThe bandpass filter limits the
frequency of the analog input signal to the standard voice-band
frequency range of 300 Hz ~ 3000 Hz.The sample-and-hold circuit
periodically samples the analog input signal and converts those
samples to a multilevel PAM signal.The analog-to-digital
converter (ADC) converts the PAM samples to parallel PCM codes,
which are converted to serial binary data in the parallel-to-
serial converter. The output to the transmission line is a
serial digital pulses.The transmission line repeaters are placed
at prescribed distances to regenerate the digital pulses.BENG
2413 Communication Principles Faculty of Electrical
EngineeringChapter 5 : Digital Communication System
5.3 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
At the receiverThe serial-to parallel converter converts serial
pulses received from the transmission line to parallel PCM
codes.The digital-to-analog converter (DAC) converts the
parallel PCM codes to multilevel PAM signals.The hold circuit is
basically a low pass filter that converts the PAM signals back
to its original analog formAn integrated circuit that performs
the PCM encoding and decoding is called a codec
(coder/decoder)BENG 2413 Communication Principles Faculty of
Electrical EngineeringChapter 5 : Digital Communication System
5.3 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
Block diagram of a single channel, simplex PCM transmission
channel :BENG 2413 Communication Principles Faculty of
Electrical EngineeringChapter 5 : Digital Communication System
5.3.1 PCM Sampling The function of the sampling circuit :
to periodically sampled the continually changing analog input
and convert those samples to a series of constant-amplitude
pulse that easily be converted to binary PCM code2 basic
techniques for the sampling function :1) Natural samplingTops of
the sample pulses retain their natural shape during the sample
interval.Difficult for an ADC to convert the sample to a PCM
code due to un-constant voltage.2) Flat-top samplingMost common
method, used in the sample-and-hold circuit – periodically
sample the continually changing analog input voltage and
converts those samples to a series of constant-amplitude PAM
voltage levels.BENG 2413 Communication Principles Faculty of
Electrical EngineeringChapter 5 : Digital Communication System
5.3.1 PCM Sampling Natural sampling Flat-top sampling
BENG 2413 Communication Principles Faculty of Electrical
EngineeringChapter 5 : Digital Communication System
5.3.2 Sampling RateSampling is a process of taking samples of
information signal at a rate based on the Nyquist Sampling
Theorem.Nyquist Sampling Theorem – the original information
signal can be reconstructed at the receiver with minimal
distortion if the sampling rate in the pulse modulation signal
is equal or greater than twice the maximum information signal
frequency.where fs = minimum Nyquist sampling
rate/frequencyfm(max) = maximum information signal frequencyBENG
2413 Communication Principles Faculty of Electrical
EngineeringChapter 5 : Digital Communication System
5.3.2 Sampling RateIf fs is less than 2 times fm(max) an
impairment called as alias or fold-over distortion occurs.BENG
2413 Communication Principles Faculty of Electrical
EngineeringChapter 5 : Digital Communication System
5.3.3 QuantizationQuantization – process of assigning the analog
signal samples to a pre-determined discrete level.The number of
quantization levels, L depends on the number of bits per sample,
n wherewhere L = number of quantization leveln = number of bits
in binary to represent the value of the samplesThe quantization
levels are separated by a value of ΔV that can be defined asΔV
is the resolution or step size of the quantization level.BENG
2413 Communication Principles Faculty of Electrical
EngineeringChapter 5 : Digital Communication System
5.3.3 QuantizationEx :BENG 2413 Communication Principles Faculty
of Electrical EngineeringChapter 5 : Digital Communication
System
5.3.3 Quantization Ex (continue) :
BENG 2413 Communication Principles Faculty of Electrical
EngineeringChapter 5 : Digital Communication System
5.3.3 QuantizationQuantization error/Quantization noise – error
that is produced during the quantization process due to the
difference between the original signal and quantized signal
magnitudes.Since a sample value is approximated by the midpoint
of the sub-internal of height ΔV, in which the sample value
falls, the maximum quantization error is ± ΔV/2.Thus, the
quantization error lies in the range (- ΔV/2, + ΔV/2).BENG 2413
Communication Principles Faculty of Electrical
EngineeringChapter 5 : Digital Communication System
5.3.4 Dynamic Rangethe number of PCM bits transmitted per sample
determined by determined by several factors – maximum allowable
input amplitude, resolution and dynamic range.Dynamic range (DR)
– the ratio of the largest possible magnitude to the smallest
possible magnitude (other than 0 V) that can be decoded by the
DAC converter in the receiver.mathematically expressedwhere DR =
dynamic range (unitless ratio)Vmin = the quantum value
(resolution)Vmax = the maximum voltage magnitude that can be
discerned by theDAC’s in the receiverBENG 2413 Communication
Principles Faculty of Electrical EngineeringChapter 5 : Digital
Communication System
5.3.4 Dynamic Range Dynamic range is generally expressed as a dB
value
where DR = dynamic range (unitless ratio)Vmin = the quantum
value (resolution)Vmax = the maximum voltage magnitude that can
be discerned by theDAC’s in the receiverthe number of bits used
for a PCM code depends on the dynamic range. The relationship
between dynamic range and the number of bits in a PCM code isand
for a minimum number of bits 2n – 1 = DRBENG 2413 Communication
Principles Faculty of Electrical EngineeringChapter 5 : Digital
Communication System
5.3.4 Dynamic RangeEx : For a PCM system with the following
parameters, determine (a) minimum sample rate (b) minimum number
of bits used in the PCM code (c) resolution (d) quantization
errorMaximum analog input frequency = 4 kHzMaximum decode
voltage at the receiver = ±2.55VMinimum dynamic range = 46
dBBENG 2413 Communication Principles Faculty of Electrical
EngineeringChapter 5 : Digital Communication System
5.3.4 Coding EfficiencyCoding efficiency – ratio of the minimum
number of bits required to achieve a certain dynamic range to
the actual number of PCM bits used.number of bits should include
the sign bit !BENG 2413 Communication Principles Faculty of
Electrical EngineeringChapter 5 : Digital Communication System
5.3.5 Signal-to-Quantization Noise Ratio
Generally, the quantization error or distortion caused by
digitizing an analog sample expressed as an average signal
power-to-average noise power ratio.For a linear PCM codes (all
quantization intervals have equal magnitudes), the signal power-
to-quantizing noise power ratio is determined bywhere R =
resistance (ohms)v = rms signal voltage (volts)q = quantization
intervals (volts)v2/R = average signal power (watts)(q2/12)/R =
average quantization noise power (watts)if R is assume to be
equalBENG 2413 Communication Principles Faculty of Electrical
EngineeringChapter 5 : Digital Communication System
5.3.6 CompandingCompanding is the process of compressing and
expanding to improve the dynamic range of a communication
system.a companding process is done by firstly compressing
signal samples and then using a uniform quantization. The input-
output characteristics of the compressor are shown below.the
compressor maps input signalincrements Δx into larger
incrementsΔy for a large input signals.2 compression laws
recognized byCCITT :μLaw : North America & JapanA-Law : Europe &
othersBENG 2413 Communication Principles Faculty of Electrical
EngineeringChapter 5 : Digital Communication System
5.3.7 Line speed / Transmission bit rate
Line speed is the transmission bit rate at which serial PCM bits
are clocked out of the PCM encoder onto the transmission
line.Line speed/transmission bit rate can be expressed asLine
speed = samples/seconds x bits/sampleline speed = transmission
rate (bps)samples/second = sampling rate fsbits/sample = no of
bits in the compressed PCM codeBENG 2413 Communication
Principles Faculty of Electrical EngineeringChapter 5 : Digital
Communication System
5.4 Parameters in Digital Modulation 5.4.1 Information Capacity
Information capacity – a measure of how much information can be
propagated through a communication systems and is a function of
bandwidth and transmission time.represents the number of
independent symbols that can be carried through a system in a
given unit of timethe most basic digital symbol used to
represent information is the binary digit, or bit.Bit rate – the
number of bits transmission during one second and is expressed
in bits per second (bps).Bit rate is used to express the
information capacity of a system.mathematically expressed,
information capacity Irefer to slides of chapter 1 !BENG 2413
Communication Principles Faculty of Electrical
EngineeringChapter 5 : Digital Communication System
5.4.2 M-ary encodingin an M-ary encoding, M represents a digit
that corresponds to the number of conditions, levels, or
combination possible for a given number of binary variables.the
number of bits necessary to produce a given number of conditions
is expressed mathematically aswhere N = number of bits
necessaryM = number of conditions, levels, or combination
possible with N bitsfrom above, the number of conditions
possible with N bits can be expressed asEx : with 1 bit → 21 = 2
conditions2 bits → 22 = 4 conditions3 bits → 23 = 8
conditionsBENG 2413 Communication Principles Faculty of
Electrical EngineeringChapter 5 : Digital Communication System
5.4.3 Baud and Minimum Bandwidth
Bit rate – refers to the rate of change of digital information,
which is usually binary.Baud – refers to the rate of change of a
signal on a transmission medium after encoding and modulation
have occurred.Baud can be expressed aswhere Baud = symbol rate
(baud per second)ts = time of one signaling element
(seconds)signaling element = symbolfor a given bandwidth B, the
highest theoretical bit rate is 2B. Using the multilevel
signaling, the Nyquist formulation for channel capacity isBENG
2413 Communication Principles Faculty of Electrical
EngineeringChapter 5 : Digital Communication System
5.4.3 Baud and Minimum Bandwidth
where fb = channel capacity (bps)B = minimum Nyquist bandwidth
(Hertz)M = number of discrete signal or voltage levelsabove
formula can be rearranged to solve for the minimum bandwidth
necessary to pass M-ary digitally modulated carrier as
followsince N = log2M above formula can be expressed aswhere N
is the number of bits encoded into each signaling element
(symbol).BENG 2413 Communication Principles Faculty of
Electrical EngineeringChapter 5 : Digital Communication System
5.5 Digital ModulationGiven an information signal which is
digital and a carrier signal represented as follow :A digitally
modulated signal is produced as follow :If the amplitude (V) of
the carrier is varied proportional to the information signal,
ASK (Amplitude Shift Keying) is produced.If the frequency (f) of
the carrier is varied proportional to the information signal,
FSK (Frequency Shift Keying) is produced.If the phase (θ) of the
carrier is varied proportional to the information signal, PSK
(Phase Shift Keying) is produced.If both amplitude and phase are
varied proportional to the information signal, QAM (Quadrature
Amplitude Modulation) is produced.BENG 2413 Communication
Principles Faculty of Electrical EngineeringChapter 5 : Digital
Communication System
5.5.1 Amplitude Shift Keying
digital information signal directly modulates the amplitude of
the analog carrier.mathematically, the modulated carrier signal
is expressed as follow :(5.5-1)where vask(t) = amplitude-shift
keying wavevm(t) = digital information (modulating) signal
(volts)A/2 = unmodulated carrier amplitude (volts)ωc = analog
carrier radian frequencyin the above (5.5-1), modulating signal
vm(t) is a normalized binary waveform, where +1V = logic 1 and -
1V = logic 0.BENG 2413 Communication Principles Faculty of
Electrical EngineeringChapter 5 : Digital Communication System
5.5.1 Amplitude Shift Keying
for a logic 1 input, vm(t) = +1V, and (5.5-1) reduces toand for
logic 0 input, vm(t) = -1V, and (5.5-1) reduces toso the
modulated wave vask(t), is either Acos(ωct) or 0, means the
carrier is either “on” or “off”. ASK is sometimes referred as
on-off keying (OOK).BENG 2413 Communication Principles Faculty
of Electrical EngineeringChapter 5 : Digital Communication
System
5.5.1 Amplitude Shift Keying
BENG 2413 Communication Principles Faculty of Electrical
EngineeringChapter 5 : Digital Communication System
5.5.2 Frequency Shift Keying
general expression for FSK :(5.5-2)where vfsk(t) = binary FSK
waveformVc = peak analog carrier amplitudefc = analog carrier
center frequency (Hz)vm(t) = binary input (modulating signal)Δf
= peak change (shift) in the analog carrier frequencyfrom (5.5-
2), the peak shift in the carrier frequency (Δf) is proportional
to the amplitude of the binary input signal vm(t).the direction
of the shift is determined by the polarity of signal ( 1 or 0
).the modulating signal vm(t) is a normalized binary waveform
where a logic 1 = +1V and a logic 0 = -1V.BENG 2413
Communication Principles Faculty of Electrical
EngineeringChapter 5 : Digital Communication System
5.5.2 Frequency Shift Keying
for logic 1 input, vm(t) = +1, equation (5.5-2) becomesfor logic
0 input, vm(t) = -1, equation (5.5-2) becomesthe carrier center
frequency fc is shifted (deviated) up and down in the frequency
domain by the binary input signal as shown below.BENG 2413
Communication Principles Faculty of Electrical
EngineeringChapter 5 : Digital Communication System
5.5.2 Frequency Shift Keying
BENG 2413 Communication Principles Faculty of Electrical
EngineeringChapter 5 : Digital Communication System
5.5.2 Frequency Shift Keying
mark (fm) = logic 1 frequencyspace (fs) = logic 0 frequencyBENG
2413 Communication Principles Faculty of Electrical
EngineeringChapter 5 : Digital Communication System
5.5.3 Phase Shift Keyingmodulation technique that alters the
phase of the carrier.in a binary phase-shift keying (BPSK),
where N (number of bits) = 1, M (number of output phases) = 2,
one phase represents a logic 1 and another phase represents a
logic 0.as the input digital signal changes state (i.e. from 1
to 0 or 0 to 1), the phase of the output carrier shifts between
two angles that are separated by 180º.BENG 2413 Communication
Principles Faculty of Electrical EngineeringChapter 5 : Digital
Communication System
5.5.3 Phase Shift KeyingBENG 2413 Communication Principles
Faculty of Electrical EngineeringChapter 5 : Digital
Communication System
Chapter 5 : Digital Communication Systems
1. RZ encoding involves _______ levels of signal amplitude.
a. 1
b. 3
c. 4
d. 5
2. If the transmission rate of a digital communication system of
10 Mbps modulation scheme used in 16-QAM, determined the
bandwidth efficiency.
a. 16 bits/cycle
b. 4 bits/cycle
c. 8 bits/cycle
d. 2 bits/cycle
3. In _________ transmission, bits are transmitted
simultaneously, each across its own channel .
a. Asynchronous serial
b. Synchronous serial
c. Parallel
d. A and B
4. If you have two close, compatible DTEs that can communicate
data that do not need to be modulated. A good interface would be
________.
a. A null modem
b. An EIA-RS-232 modem
c. A DB-45 connector
d. A transceiver
5. For digital communications, determine the signal to noise
ratio in dB which would be required for an ideal channel with a
bandwidth of 2500 Hz.
a. 5
b. 9.54 dB
c. 4.77 dB
d. 3.4
6. Determine the bandwidth efficiency for QPSK modulation scheme
at a transmission rate of 10 Mbps.
a. 2 bits/cycle
b. 4 bits/cycle
c. 8 bits/cycle
d. 16 bits/cycle
7. Which of the following words has the correct parity bit?
Assume odd parity. The last bit is the parity bit.
A. 1111111 1
B. 1100110 1
C. 0011010 1
D. 0000000 0
8. The digital-to-analog converter in a synchronous modem sends
signals to the
a. Modulator
b. Transmission line
c. Terminal
d. Equalizer
9. Communications protocols always have a
a. Set of symbols
b. Start of header
c. Special flag symbol
d. BCC
10. The Baudot code uses how many bits per symbol?
a. 9
b. 7
c. 5
d. 8
11. PCM is an example of __________ encoding.
a. Digital-to-digital
b. Digital-to-analog
c. Analog-to –analog
d. Analog-to-digital
12. In QAM, both phase and ________ of a carrier frequency are
varied.
a. Amplitude
b. Frequency
c. Bit rate
d. Baud rate
13. If the baud rate is 400 for a 4-PSK, the bit rate is ______
bps.
a. 100
b. 400
c. 800
d. 1600
14. If the frequency spectrum of a signal has a bandwidth of 500
Hz with the highest frequency at 600 Hz, what should be the
sampling rate according to the Nyquist theorem?
a. 200 samples/sec
b. 500 samples/sec
c. 1000 samples/sec
d. 1200 samples/sec
15. Which encoding method uses alternating positive and negative
values for 1’s?
a. NRZ-I
b. RZ
c. Manchester
d. AMI
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