Ores
An ore is metalliferous mineral or an aggregate of metalliferous minerals mixed
with gangue from which the metallic values can be extracted economically. Various
rocks contain one or more minerals, either metallic or non-metallic. Any rock which can
be processed economically for recovery of one or more metals can be categorized as ore.
The gangue from which the metal is extracted is mostly silica. The process of recovery
the mineral(s) of interest is purely a physical process called ore dressing or beneficiation
of ore which leaves the physical and chemical properties of the individual ores
unchanged. Ores are generally marketed worldwide as ore concentrate.
The most common process of beneficiation of ore is the froth flotation.
A typical ore dressing process of copper ore in an ore processing plant is
described below.
The average feed concentration of copper in the mined ore is 1.2%
1. Primary crushing: ore from mine in the form of big rocks of stones up to size
1200mm is subjected to one crusher and crushed to 150mm size. The coarse
ore is reclaimed by three apron feeder located in a tunnel and discharged on a
belt conveyor provided with a tramp iron magnet and metal detector.
2. Secondary and tertiary crushing: the coarse ore passes through a double beck
vibrating screen. The -40mm fraction is taken to a urge bin located above the
tertiary crusher, while the coarse size fractions are crushed in a secondary
crusher then taken to a surge bin also. The ore is then drawn by belt feeders
and fed to three single deck screens (12mm opening). The screen oversize is
fed to three tertiary con crushers. The undersize is sent to the fine ore bin. The
tertiary crusher product is also taken to the surge bin stick.
3. Grinding: the 12mm crushed ore is charged into feed conveyors feeding the
ore to ball mill for final wet grinding, ball mills operate in close circuit with
hydrocyclones for classification. The cyclone overflow containing about 30%
solids and 60%-200 fraction gravitates to sump and is pumped to flotation
section through a distributor. The cyclone underflow containing about 70%
solids gravitates back to the mills for regrinding.
4. Flotation:the cyclone overflow is distributed through a distributor to rougher
and scavenger flotation cells. Methyl isobutyl carbinol is used as frother and
sodium isopropyl xanthate as collector.
5. Thickening and filtration: the final concentration slurry from the flotation cell
is pumped into a thickener. The thickener overflow is pumped to disc filters
for filtration. The filter concentrate cakes containing moisture are piled up in
roofed yard and after natural drying are dispatched for transportation.
Some common ores and minerals and their characteristics
S/No Name of Chemical Important Theoretical Specifi Colour
metal composition minerals percentage c
metal gravity
1. Aluminium Gibbsite Al(OH)3 Al2O3- 65.4 2.4 White
Boehmite AlO(OH) Al2O3- 85.0 3.0 White grey
Diaspore AlO(OH) Al2O3- 85.0 3.3 White grey
2. Copper Chalcopyrite CuFeS2 Cu- 34.6 4.1 Brass yellow
Bornite CuFeS4 Cu-63.6 5.1 Reddish
Chalcocite Cu2S Cu-79.8 5.7 Black grey
Cuprite CuO Cu- 88.8 6.0 Red
Malachite CuCO2.Cu(OH)2 Cu- 57.5 4.0 Green
3. Iron Hematite Fe2O3 Fe- 70.0 5.0 Black
Magnetite FeO. Fe2O3 Fe- 72.0 5.2 Reddish yellow
Goethite FeO(OH) Fe- 63.0 4.2 Yellow
4. Tin Cassiterite SnO2 Sn- 78.6 7.0 Brownish-
black
5. Zinc Sphalerite ZnS Zn- 67 4.0 Yellow brown
Smithsonite ZnCO3 ZnO- 64.8 4.4 White
6. Silver Native Ag Ag -90 10.0 Silver white
Argentite Ag2S Ag- 87.1 7.3 Blackish grey
Cerargyrite AgCl Ag- 75.3 5.5
7. Lead Galena PbS Pb- 86.6 7.5 Yellow
Cerussite PbCO3 Pb- 77.5 6.5 White grey
Anglesite PbSO4 Pb- 68.3 6.1 Yellow
8. Magnesium Magnesite MgCO3
Dolomite CaMg(CO3)2
Aluminium ores
The most important ore of aluminium is bauxite. It is non-crystalline earthy-white to reddish
mineral, massive or in grains, having composition Al2O3.2H2O containing theoretically 74%
alumina (Al2O3). Other forms of bauxite are gibbsite Al 2O3.3H2O and diaspora Al2O3.H2O.
Generally, the bauxite ore is a mixture of bauxite, diaspora and gibbsite.
Aluminium is extracted/ produced mainly from the bauxite ore. The ore is used for making
aluminium oxide abrasives, for refractories, white cement and for decolourizing and filtering.
Bauxite is graded on the basis of alumina (Al2O3) content. High grade bauxite contains a
minimum of 55% alumina and a maximum of 8% silica. Bauxite has a high melting point of
1820ºC and can be used directly as a refractory.
Filter bauxite or activated bauxite is bauxite that has been crushed, screened and calcined and is
usually 20-60 and 30-60 mesh grades. It is preferred to fuller’s earth for oil refinery filtering
because it can be revivified independently by calcining. Calcined bauxite for thee abrasive
industry is burned bauxite and contains 78-84% alumina.
Calcium and Magnesium Minerals
The minerals of calcium and Magnesium such as limestone, dolomite calcite are classified as
calcareous rock. They occur in combined state such as carbonate, sulphate, and often associated
with other elements such as aluminium, silicon, iron, boron, sodium, potassium titanium etc.
Some of the minerals of commercial importance are:
Limestone CaCO3
Calcite CaCO3
Gypsum CaSO4.2H2O
Dolomite CaCO3.MgCO3
Aragonite CaCO3
Marble CaCO3
Magnesite MgCO3
The chemical structure of limestone and marble is same but differs in crystalanity and grain size.
The marble has more compact crystal structure and hence harder and can be polished. The grains
of various colours in marble are due to inclusion of other coloured minerals. The mineral when
associated with sulphite is termed gypsum. The Iceland spar or calc spar is the name for perfectly
crystallized, water- clear, flawless calcite crystals of optical grade used for manufacture of Nicol
prisms for polarizing microscopes, colorimeters, photometers and polarizers. The common black
calcite contains manganese dioxide.
Copper Ores
Copper is the earliest metal recognised and used by man. It occurs in free state as well as in
combined state as sulphides, oxides and carbonates. It occurs less commonly as antimonides,
arsenates, phosphates, silicates and sulphates. Some commonly known ores are given below:
Sulphides:
Bornite Cu5FeS4
Chalcopyrite CuFeS2
Tetrahedrite Cu12Sb4S13
Chalcocite Cu2S
Covellite CuS
Oxides:
Cuprite Cu2O
Tenorite CuO
Carbonates:
Malachite CuCO3.Cu(OH)2
Azurite CuCO3.Cu(OH)2
Sulphates:
Antlerite Cu3(SO4)(OH)4
Bronchantite CuSO4.3Cu(OH)2
Chlorides:
Atacamite Cu2Cl(OH)3
Silicates
Chrysocolla CuSiO3.2H2O
Complex Ores
Bournonite PbCuSbS3
Enargite 3Cu2S.As2S3
Famatinite Cu3(As,Sb)S4
Olivenite Cu2(AsO4)(OH)
Of the sulphide ores, bornite, chalcopyrite and enargrite are considered to be the “primary”
minerals which are formed by igneous processes deep in the earth’s crust. Minerals such as
covellite and chalcocite are considered to be formed as “secondary” deposits of copper leached
from the sulphides close to the surface and precipitated near the water level. The oxide minerals
are formed through the oxidation of the sulphides.
Iron Ores
Iron is widely abundant and constitutes about 4% of the earth’s crust iron is found in nature as
oxide, carbonate, sulphides, silicates etc. Iron is found associated with numerous minerals of
different elements such as in chrome, manganese, copper, arsenic ores etc. the commercially
important ores of iron are given below:
Oxides
Haematite Fe2O3
Limonite FeO(OH).nH2O
Magnetite Fe3O4
Carbonates
Siderite FeCO3
Sulphides
FeS2 (white pyrite)
Pyrite FeS2
Pyrrhotite FeS (Magnetic pyrite)
Tin Ores
Cassiterite SnO2, is the only tin ore of commercial importance. Over 80% of the world’s tin ore
occurs in low grade alluvial or eluvial placer deposits. In these deposits, the concentration of tin
can be as low as 0.015%. The other sulphide minerals of tin are stannite Cu2S.FeS.SnS2; tealite,
PbSnS2; cylinderite, PbSn4FeSb2S14; and canfieldite, Ag8SnS6. These are found associated with
cassiterite and granitic rock. Tin is often found associated with tungsten minerals.
