Statistical Tools and

Techniques in Research
SHERWIN E. BALBUENA
Statistics
• a branch of mathematics
dealing with the collection,
analysis, interpretation, and
presentation of masses of
numerical data (Merriam-
Webster, n.d.)

• Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Statistics. In Merriam-

Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved May 27, 2021, from
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/statistics

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 the practice or science of
collecting and analyzing
numerical data in large
Statistics quantities, especially for
the purpose of inferring
proportions in a whole
from those in a
representative sample.

6/2/2021 Statistical Tools and Techniques in Research 3

 Statistical tools involved in
carrying out a study
include planning,
Statistical designing, collecting
data, analyzing, drawing
Tools meaningful
interpretation and
reporting of the research
findings.

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 • statistical methods
Statistical
• quantitative methods
Techniques

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 Statistical
Techniques
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 • either graphical,
numerical, or tabular
Statistical
Techniques

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 • either parametric
or nonparametric
methods
Statistical
Techniques

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Research and
Statistics
How are they related?
 The Scientific
Method

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 Research
Designs

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 Levels of
Measurement of
Data Gathered
from Research

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 Level of Measurement:
Example (Grade)
•Nominal: passed/failed
•Ordinal: 1.0, 1.25, 2.0,
3.0, 5.0
•Interval: Z-score = 1.96
•Ratio: 95%

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 Are Likert Scales Ordinal?

Individual Likert item responses are ordinal

The sum of ordinal responses can be treated as interval if

the test or questionnaire is unidimensional or reliable

Reliable Likert-type instruments have at least 0.70

Cronbach’s alpha coefficients

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Variables Used
in Research

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Probability
Sampling
Techniques
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 1. Add a new column within the
spreadsheet and name it
Random_number
2. In the first cell underneath your
heading row, type “= RAND()”
3. Press “Enter,” and a random
Random number will appear in the cell
Sampling in 4. Copy and paste the first cell into
the other cells in this column
Excel 5. Once each row contains a random
number, sort the records by
Random_number column
6. Choose the top n entries. Those
will be the random n out of N
entries
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Nonprobability
Sampling
Techniques
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 Sample Size
Determination

Cochran’s
Formula
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Distributions
of Data

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 Statistical
Significance
If the statistic exceeds the critical
value at a certain level of
significance (5%, 1%) and
degree of freedom.

If the p-value is less than the set

level of significance (* p < 0.05,
** p < 0.01)

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 Five Steps in Hypothesis
Testing:
• Specify the Null Hypothesis.
Hypothesis • Specify the Alternative
Testing Hypothesis.
• Set the Significance Level (α)
• Calculate the Test Statistic and
Corresponding P-Value.
• Drawing a Conclusion.
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 Two-Sample t-Test
• H0: μ1 = μ2.
Hypothesis
• H1: μ1 ≠ μ2.
Testing:
• α = 0.05
Example
• t = -2.5, p = 0.0254
• Reject H0 in favor of H1.

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 • Measures of Central
Tendency (or
Location, Position)
Descriptive
• Measures of
Statistics Dispersion (or
Variation, Spread)
• Measures of Shape

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 Mean
Measures of
Central Median
Tendency

Mode
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 The Mean • Referred to as average
• Add all entries; divide
the sum by no. of
entries
• Excel formula:
=AVERAGE
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 • When data distribution is
continuous and
symmetric
• When data are normally
distributed
• No outliers
When to Use
the Mean?

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 Outliers

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 • Arrange the data from
lowest to highest; Find
The Median the middle of the data
• Excel formula:
=MEDIAN

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 • When your data set is
skewed
• When you are dealing
When to Use with ordinal data
the Median?

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 • The most frequently
occurring categories or
values
• Excel formula (for
The Mode unimodal): =MODE.SNGL
• Excel formula (for
multimodal):
=MODE.MULT

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 • When dealing with
nominal data
When to Use
the Mode?

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 • Frequency = ∑xi
Other Stats • Percentage = 100*∑xi/n
• Proportion = ∑xi/n
1 if present
x=
 0 if absent

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 Bar graphs

Pie charts

Histograms
Graphical Line graphs
Techniques
Boxplots

Stem-and-leaf plots

Scatterplots

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 • Used when data are
nominal or ordinal
• The heights or lengths are
Bar Charts frequencies/percentages

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 • Used when
you are
trying to
compare
parts of a
whole
Pie Charts
• When the
data are
nominal or
ordinal

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 • Used when you want to see
the shape of the data's
distribution
• When the data are
interval/ratio

Histograms

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 • Used to track changes over short and
long periods of time
• Also used to compare changes over
the same period of time for more
than one group

Line Graphs

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 • Used to show the shape of
the distribution, its central
value, and its variability
Boxplots • Used when the data is at
(Box-and-Whisker least interval level
Plots)

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 • Used to classify either
discrete or continuous
variables.
• Looks something like a bar
graph

Stem-and-Leaf
Plot

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 • When you have two
variables (X and Y)
that pair well
together
• X and Y variables
are at least in
interval/ratio level

Scatterplots

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 Range

Interquartile Range
Measures of
Dispersion
Variance

Standard Deviation
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 Dispersion,
Variability,
Spread

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 • Range(X) = Max(X) – Min(X)
The Range • Difference between the
highest score and the
lowest score

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 The
Interquartile
Range

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 Variance
and
Standard
Deviation
Excel formulas:
=STDEV.P
=STDEV.S
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 • In conjunction with a
mean
When to use • To summarize
continuous data
SD? • When data is normal
• When data has no
outliers

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 Skewness
Measures of
Shape
Kurtosis

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 Skewness
(Symmetry)

Excel function:
=SKEW
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 Kurtosis
(Peakedness)

Excel function:
=KURT
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 Properties:

Normal 1. Mean=Median=Mode
2. Symmetric at the center
3. Area below the mean =
Distribution Area above the mean
4. Total area under the curve
=1

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 Kolmogorov-Smirnov

Tests of Shapiro-Wilk

Normality Normal QQ-plots

Boxplots

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Kolmogorov-
Smirnov Test
H0: There is no difference between
the observed and theoretical
distribution.

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Kolmogorov-
Smirnov Test
Examples of outputs

Higher p-values (>0.05)

indicate normally
distributed data.

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Shapiro-Wilk
Test
H0: The data are normally
distributed.

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Shapiro-Wilk
Test
Examples of outputs

Higher p-values (>0.05)

indicate normally
distributed data.

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GRAPHICAL TECHNIQUE

Normal
QQ-plots
If the points seem to fall
about a straight line the
distribution is normal.

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GRAPHICAL TECHNIQUE

Boxplot
When the median is in the
middle of the box, and the
whiskers are about the
same on both sides of the
box, then the distribution is
symmetric.

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 Tests of
Homogeneity
of Variances

Levene’s Test

Bartlett’s Test
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 Null hypothesis:
The variances are equal
across all samples. In more
formal terms, that's written as:
Levene’s Test H0: σ12 = σ22 = … = σk2.

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Levene’s Test
Sample
Outputs

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Bartlett’s
Test

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Bartlett’s Test
Sample
Outputs

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 Independent samples t-test

Paired samples t-test

Some
Parametric Analysis of variance

Statistics Pearson product-moment

correlation

Linear regression

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 • Compares the means of two
independent groups in order to
determine whether there is
Independent statistical evidence that the
associated population means are
Samples t- significantly different.
Test

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 • One independent, categorical
variable that has two levels/groups.
Independent • One continuous dependent
variable.
Samples t- • Normality of data within each group
Test: • No significant outliers in the two
Assumptions groups
• Random sampling from the
population
• Homogeneity of group variances

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 • Comparing the math
Independent abilities of male and female
Samples t- students
Test: • Comparing the reading
Applications performances of the control
group and the
experimental group

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 Independent
Samples t-
Test:
Sample
Outputs
• H0: μ1 = μ2
• t= -1.99, p-value = 0.055
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 Paired t-Test
Compares the means of two
measurements taken from the
same individual, object, or
related units

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 • Your dependent variable should be
measured on a continuous scale.
• Your independent variable should
consist of two categorical, "related
groups" or "matched pairs".
Paired t-Test: • There should be no significant
Assumptions outliers in the differences between
the two related groups.
• The distribution of the differences
in the dependent variable between
the two related groups should be
approximately normally
distributed.
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 • Comparing the pretest and
posttest scores after using
Paired t-Test: an intervention
Applications • Comparing the math
anxiety scores before and
after conducting a non-
traditional teaching strategy

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 Paired t-Test:
Sample
Outputs
• H0: µd = 0
• t= -6.53, p-value = 0.000
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 • Compares three or more
than three categorical
groups to establish
whether there is a
difference between them.
Analysis of
Variance
(ANOVA)

• H0: μ1 = μ2 = μ3 = . . . = μk
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 • Interval/ratio level dependent
variable
• Independent variable should
consist of two or more
categorical, independent
Assumptions groups
of ANOVA • Independence of observations
• No significant outliers
• Normally distributed data in
each group
• Homogeneity of variances

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 • Data may be transformed
using any of the following
techniques:
• Logarithmic (=LN or =LOG)
What if • Square root (=SQRT)
• Cube root (=[cell]^1/3)
normality is
violated?

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 • Determining the effect of a
nominal/ordinal-level variable
on an interval/ratio-level
variable
Applications • In experiments involving two or
of ANOVA more experimental groups and
one or more factors
• Comparing the average NAT
scores of 5 schools in the
division

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 One-Way ANOVA: • H0: μA = μB = μC
Sample Output • F(2,41)=1.11, p = 0.34
Anova: Single Factor

SUMMARY
Groups Count Sum Average Variance
Method A 16 172 10.75 10.6
Method B 13 143 11 4.666667
Method C 15 181 12.06667 4.066667

ANOVA
Source of Variation SS df MS F P-value F crit
Between Groups 14.79394 2 7.39697 1.115258 0.337571 3.225684
Within Groups 271.9333 41 6.63252

Total 286.7273 43

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 • If the p-value is significant at a
specified alpha, proceed to
post-hoc tests.
What to do • Examples of post-hoc tests:
if ANOVA is • Fisher’s Least Significant
Difference (LSD)
significant? • Tukey’s Honestly Significant
Difference (HSD)
• Scheffe’s Test
• Duncan’s new multiple range test
(DMRT)
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 Pearson Product-Moment
Correlation (r)
is a measure of the strength of a linear association between two
variables

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 • The two variables, X and Y, are
of interval/ratio level
• X and Y are paired
Assumptions • Linear relationship between X
of Pearson’s r and Y
• Bivariate normal distribution
• Homoscedasticity
• No univariate or multivariate
outliers

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 LINEAR
BIVARIATE
NORMAL

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 Strength of
Linear
Correlation

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 • Negative: As X increases,
Y decreases. Or as X
decreases, Y increases.
What does a
• Positive: As X increases,
correlation so does Y. Or as X
coefficient decreases, Y also
decreases.
mean? • But it does not mean that
X affects Y, nor that Y
affects X.

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 Significance
of Pearson’s r

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 Pearson’s r in
Excel

Excel function:
=CORREL
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 Mann-Whitney U Test

Wilcoxon Signed-Rank
Test
Nonparametric
Alternatives Kruskal-Wallis H Test

Spearman’s Rank
Correlation

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 • Used when the assumptions
of independent samples t-
test are not met
Mann-
Whitney U
Test

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 Mann-
Whitney U
Test Sample
Outputs

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 Wilcoxon
Signed-Rank
Test
Used when the
assumptions of paired t-
test are not met

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 Wilcoxon
Signed-Rank
Test Sample
Outputs

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 • Used when the
assumptions of ANOVA
Kruskal- are not met
Wallis H Test

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 Kruskal-
Wallis H Test
Sample
Outputs

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 • Used when assumptions of
Pearson’s r are not met by
Spearman’s the data
Rank
Correlation
(Rho)

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 Spearman’s
Rho Sample
Outputs

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 Statistical
Tests
Appropriate
to Your
Research
Design

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 • Wilcoxon signed-rank test
https://www.socscistatistics.com/tests/s
ignedranks/default2.aspx
• Mann-Whitney U test
https://www.socscistatistics.com/tests/
mannwhitney/default2.aspx
• Kruskall-Wallis test
Online https://www.socscistatistics.com/tests/k
ruskal/default.aspx
Calculators • Levene’s test (Homogeneity of variance
test)
https://www.socscistatistics.com/tests/l
evene/default.aspx
• Shapiro-Wilk (Normality test)
http://www.statskingdom.com/320Sha
piroWilk.html

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 • https://www.rstudio.com/p
roducts/rstudio/download/

Open-source • https://www.jamovi.org/do
wnload.html
Software
• https://www.blueskystatisti
cs.com/Articles.asp?ID=30
1

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 “Facts are stubborn
things, but statistics
are pliable.”
Mark Twain

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 Sherwin E. Balbuena
Thank you [email protected]

Phone: +63 909 522 6069

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