_h` ]`rl`nt Jdsw`r

S`vbsbid Aubo` _i…
 Cbifiay
@o`xn`f BAN^@
2-:
 _rbpf` Jwjro
:st @obtbid
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Nidt`dts

:. _h` djtur` jdo vjrb`ty il fbvbda irajdbses....................................................... >

j. Nhjrjnt`rbstbns il fbvbda irajdbses ................................................................................ >
c. \jrb`ty il fbvbda irajdbses............................................................................................. >
3. ^truntur` jdo ludntbids bd fbvbda irajdbses..................................................... 0
j. F`v`f il irajdbsjtbid ..................................................................................................... 0
c. N`ff struntur` ................................................................................................................. 0
n. Cbifiabnjf eif`nuf`s ...................................................................................................... <
o. Eiv`e`dt il sucstjdn`s bdti jdo iut il n`ffs .............................................................. 8
`. Dutrbtbid ......................................................................................................................... 2
]fjdts ......................................................................................................................................... 2
Huejds .................................................................................................................................... :=
l. S`spbrjtbid ................................................................................................................... :3
a. Ajs `xnhjda` ............................................................................................................. :>
]fjdts ....................................................................................................................................... :>
Huejds .................................................................................................................................... :>
h. _rjdspirt ..................................................................................................................... :?
]fjdts ....................................................................................................................................... :?
Huejds .................................................................................................................................... :0

b. @xnr`tbid ....................................................................................................................... :8
]fjdts ....................................................................................................................................... :8
Huejds .................................................................................................................................... :8
 k. Ni-irobdjtbid jdo r`spids` ......................................................................................... :2
]fjdts ....................................................................................................................................... :2
Huejds .................................................................................................................................... 3=
>. S`priountbid jdo bdh`rbtjdn` .......................................................................... 3>
j. S`priountbid ............................................................................................................... 3>
]fjdts ....................................................................................................................................... 3>
Huejds .................................................................................................................................... 3?
c. Bdh`rbtjdn` ................................................................................................................... 30
?. @nifiay jdo th` `dvbride`dt........................................................................... >=
j. _h` irajdbse bd th` `dvbride`dt ................................................................................ >=

c. L``obda r`fjtbidshbps .................................................................................................. >=

n. Nynf`s wbthbd `nisyst`es............................................................................................ >:
o. Huejd bdffiu`dn`s id th` `dvbride`dt ........................................................................ >:
0. Ps` il cbifiabnjf r`siurn`s .............................................................................. >>
j. Liio priountbid .......................................................................................................... >>
c. ^`f`ntbv` cr``obda ....................................................................................................... >?
n. A`d`tbn eiob﬊njtbid (a`d`tbn `dabd``rbda) ................................................................. >?
o. Nfidbda ........................................................................................................................ ><

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Dit`; Nidt`dt bd btjfbns wbff dit c` `xjebd`o id ]jp`r :

:. _h` djtur` jdo vjrb`ty il fbvbda irajdbses

j. Nhjrjnt`rbstbns il fbvbda irajdbses

_h` liffiwbda nhjrjnt`rbstbns jff fbvbda irajdbses shjr`;

- Eiv`e`dt
S`spbrjtbid
- ^`dsbtbvbty (r`spido ti surriudobdas)
- Nidtrif bdt`rdjf nidobtbids
- Dutrbtbid
- @xnr`tbid
- S`prioun`
- Ariw
c. \jrb`ty il fbvbda irajdbses

Qhjt oi`s `ugjryitbn e`jd9

- Hjs e`ecrjd` ciudo irajd`ff`s `.a. Jdbejf n`ff hjs ebtinhidorbj, rbcisie`s jdo j dunf`us
Qhjt oi`s prigjryitbn e`jd9
- Di e`ecrjd` ciudo irajd`ff`s
- @.a. cjnt`rbj jdo vbrus`s
Cith jdbejf jdo pfjdt n`ffs nidtjbd;
- Dunf`us - nidtrifs th` jntbvbtb`s il th` n`ff
- N`ff e`ecrjd` - nidtrifs `dtry jdo `xbt il sucstjdn`s bdti th` n`ff
- Nytipfjse - wh`r` nh`ebnjf r`jntbids tjg` pfjn`
- Ebtinhidorbj - wh`r` j`ricbn r`spbrjtbid tjg`s pfjn` - r`f`js` `d`ray
- Sbcisie`s - prit`bd sydth`sbs
]fjdt n`ff idfy;
- \jnuif` - ﬊ff`o wbth n`ff sjp nidtjbds obssifv`o suajrs, jdo ebd`rjf bids
- Nhfiripfjsts - njrry iut phitisydth`sbs
- N`ff wjff - prit`nts jdo suppirts th` n`ff, ejo` iut il n`ffufis`

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 \brus Cjnt`rbj ]ritintbst Ludab

- N`ff wjff ejo` il

- N`ff wjff # nhbtbd#
- Di obstbdnt - \jrbjcf`# - Nidtjbd usujf
- ]rit`bd nijt
dunf`us - bdst`jo - Njd c` sbebfjr ti irajd`ff`s -
surriudos ODJ
^truntur` hjv` j nbrnufjr jdbejf n`ffs nytipfjse, n`ff
ir SDJ #
nhrieisie`s (pritjzij) ir e`ecrjd` `tn.#
- Did-fbvbda
(dunf`ibo) jdo pfjdt n`ffs (jfaj`) - Hyphj` lire j
ilt`d pfjsebo d`twirg njff`o
eyn`fbue

Pdbn`ffufjr ir
- Njd c` `bth`r
- Pdbn`ffufjr - Pdbn`ffufjr (eist jr` - Njd c` `bth`r
euftbn`ffufjr
udbn`ffufjr)
]jthia`dbn9 -  Jfwjys - ^ie`tbe`s - ^ie`tbe`s - ^ie`tbe`s

- HB\ (njus`s
 JBO^) #
- Nhir`ffj (hjv`
- Bdffiu`dzj # - ]d`ueininnus
nhfiripfjsts,
- Nifo vbrus# (njus`s
pfjdt-fbg`), #
- E`jsf`s, eueps, pd`ueidbj)#
- ]fjseiobue - Eushriies #
@xjepf`s ruc`ffj # - Fjnticjnnbfus
(njus`s ejfjrbj)# - Eunir
- _icjnni eisjbn cufajrbnus (us`o
- jfaj`#
vbrus (pr`v`dts bd yiahurt
nhfiripfjst ejgbda) - jei`cj (eir`
jdbejf-fbg`)
priountbid -
obsnifiurs f`jv`s)
- Njd idfy
r`prioun` bdsbo`
- Ps`s
jdith`r fbvbda n`ff#
@xtrj dit`s sjpritriphbn
- Did-fbvbda - oid‒t dutrbtbid
`xnr`t`, r`spbr`,
eiv`, ariw `tn

Qhjt jr` th` 0 gbdaoies9

- ]fjdts
- Jdbejfs
- Ludab
-- ]ritintbsts
Cjnt`rbj

Qhjt oi`s euftbn`ffufjr e`jd9

- Nidtjbds ejdy n`ffs
Hiw bs njrcihyorjt` stir`o bd j) jdbejfs jdo c) pfjdts n) ludab9
j) Js afynia`d
c) Js stjrnh
n) Js afynia`d

O`﬊d` sjpritriphbn dutrbtbid
-  _h` us` il oba`stbv` `dzye`s ti `xtrjn`ffufjrfy cr`jg oiwd o`jo ejtt`r
-  Ludab (`.a eunir) hjv` hyphj` whbnh lire j d`twirg njff`o eyn`fbue
O`﬊d` pjthia`d
- j ebnri-irajdbse whbnh njus`s obs`js`#
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3. ^truntur` jdo ludntbids bd fbvbda irajdbses

j. F`v`f il irajdbsjtbid

Qhjt bs j n`ff9
- Ariup il irajd`ff`s wirgbda tia`th`r ti p`rlire th` sje` ludntbid
Qhjt bs j tbssu`9
Ariup il n`ffs wirgbda tia`th`r ti p`rlire th` sje` ludntbid
-
Qhjt bs jd irajd9
- Ariup il tbssu`s wirgbda tia`th`r ti p`rlire th` sje` ludntbid
Qhjt bs jd irajd syst`e9
- Ariup il irajds wirgbda tia`th`r ti p`rlire th` sje` ludntbid
Qhjt jr` th` ejbd irajds bd pfjdts9
- F`jv`s
- Siits
- ^t`es
- Lfiw`rs
Qhjt jr` th` 1 ejbd irajd syst`es liudo bd huejds9
- S`priountbv` syst`e
- Nbrnufjtiry syst`e
- Oba`stbv` syst`e
- Ajs `xnhjda` syst`e
- D`rvius syst`e
- @xnr`tiry syst`e
- @doinrbd` syst`e
Fbst sie` irajds liudo bd th` oba`stbv` syst`e
- I`siphjaus
- ^tiejnh
- ^ejff bdt`stbd`
- Fjra` bdt`stbd`

c. N`ff struntur`
Qhjt bs j zyait`9
- ^bdaf` n`ff lire`o jlt`r l`rtbfbsjtbid innurs
Hiw bs j :< n`ff `ecryi lire`o9
- Cy ebtisbs (n`ff obvbsbid)
- 3 n`ffs ‟4 ? n`ffs ‟4 8 n`ffs ‟4 :< n`ffs
Qhjt bs obll`r`dtbjtbid9 
- ]rin`ss wh`r`cy n`ffs c`nie` sp`nbjfbs`o `.a. d`rv` n`ffs 
Qhjt bs j st`e n`ff9 
- J n`ff whbnh hjs th` pit`dtbjf ti obvbo` ejdy tbe`s whbfst r`ejbdbda udobll`r`dtbjt`o
(udsp`nbjfbs`o)

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Qhjt jr` th` 3 typ`s il st`e n`ff9 
- @ecryidbn 
- Jouft 
Qhjt jr` `ecryidbn st`e n`ffs9 
- Liudo bd `jrfy stja` o`v`fipe`dt il `ecryis
- Njd obll`r`dtbjt` bdti JDR  typ`
 typ` il n`ff

Qhjt jr` jouft st`e n`ffs9 

- Liudo bd pjrtbnufjr tbssu`s
- @.a. cid` ejrriw, fbdbda il sejff bdt`stbd`, sgbd 
- Pdjcf`  ti
 ti obll`r`dtbjt` bdti jdy typ` il n`ff 

Qhjt bs st`e n`ff th`rjpy9 

- Ps` il st`e n`ffs ti tr`jt obs`js` 
- @.a. cid` ejrriw trjdspfjdts 
O`snrbc` th` us` il st`e n`ff th`rjpy bd th` tr`jte`dt il f`ugj`ebj
- F`ugj`ebj - typ` il cfiio njdn`r 
- Nh`eith`rjpy o`striys cith h`jfthy JDO njdn`rius n`ffs 
- ^t`e n`ff th`rjpy suppfb`s st`e n`ffs thjt njd obvbo` jdo obll`r`dtbjt` jdo th`r`lir` r`pfjn`
n`ffs fist bd nh`eith`rjpy

Jovjdtja`s jdo obsjovjdtja`s il `ecryidbn st`e n`ff th`rjpy 

- Jcbfbty ti obll`r`dtbjt` bdti JDR typ` il n`ff
- Niufo c` us`o ti tr`jt ]jrgbdsid‒s obs`js`, objc`t`s `tn 
- CP_   `thbnjf
`thbnjf bssu`s wbth th`br us` js th`y nie` lrie udcird li`tus`s  

n. Cbifiabnjf eif`nuf`s

Qhjt `f`e`dts jr` liudo bd njrcihyorjt`s9

- Njrcid, hyoria`d jdo ixya`d
Qhjt `f`e`dts jr` liudo bd prit`bds9
- Njrcid, hyoria`d, ixya`d, dbtria`d (jdo sie`tbe`s suflur)
Qhjt `f`e`dts jr` liudo bd fbpbos (ljts)9

- Njrcid, hyoria`d, ixya`d

Qhjt bs th` struntur` il j fbpbo9
- > ljtty jnbos
- : afyn`rif eif`nuf`
Qhjt jr` ibfs9
- ]fjdt fbpbos
- Fbqubos jt riie t`ep`rjtur`
Qhjt jr` prit`bds ejo` up il9
- Fida nhjbds il jebdi jnbos
- _h`r` jr` 3= obll`r`dt jebdi jnbos
Qhjt jr` stjrnh jdo afynia`d ejo` up il9
- ^bepf` suajrs kibd`o tia`th`r

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Abv` sie` `xjepf`s il prit`bds liudo bd th` huejd cioy
- Niffja`d jdo g`rjtbd liudo bd sgbd jdo djbfs
- Jff `dzye`s
- Hj`eiaficbd
Qhjt bs th` liio t`st lir stjrnh9
- Joo biobd`
- ]isbtbv` r`suft; turds cfu`/cfjng
Qhjt bs th` t`st lir afunis`9
- H`jt wbth wjt`r jdo C`d`obnt‒s sifutbid
- Cfu` sifutbid turds crbng r`o bd th` pr`s`dn` il afunis`
Qhjt bs th` t`st lir prit`bd9
- Joo Cbur`t r`ja`dt
- ]isbtbv` r`suft; purpf`
Qhjt bs th` t`st lir ljt9
- Joo `thjdif
- Joo wjt`r
- ]isbtbv` r`suft; ebfgy whbt` `eufsbid
Qhjt bs th` rif` il a`d`s9
- Nidtrif th` jntbvbtb`s il th` n`ff
- O`t`rebd` whbnh prit`bds jr` ejo`

O`﬊d` `dzye`
- Cbifiabnjf njtjfyst
- ^p``os up j r`jntbid
- Qbthiut c`bda us`o up
O`﬊d` e`tjcifbse
- Sjt` jt whbnh nh`ebnjf r`jntbids tjg` pfjn` bd th` cioy
G`y `dzye` t`res;
- ^ucstrjt` - eif`nuf` jd `dzye` jnts upid
- Jntbv` sbt` - jr`j id jd `dzye` wh`r` sucstrjt` jttjnh`s
O`snrbc` jdo `xpfjbd th` `ll`nt il tii hbah t`ep`rjtur` id `dzye` jntbvbty
- O`nr`js`s jntbvbty
- @dzye` o`djtur`s jdo sucstrjt` njd di fida`r ﬊t th` jntbv` sbt`
Qhy oi`s o`nr`jsbda th` t`ep`rjtur` o`nr`js` `dzye` jntbvbty9
- Fiw`r gbd`tbn `d`ray
- L`w`r niffbsbids c`tw``d `dzye`s jdo sucstrjt`s
Qhy bs bt bepirtjdt thjt w` nidtrif iur bdt`rdjf t`ep`rjtur`9
- _ii hbah - `dzye`s o`djtur`
- _ii fiw - `dzye`s wirg tii sfiwfy (fbttf` gbd`tbn `d`ray) jd
jdoo njd‒t njtjfys` nh`ebnjf r`jntbids
ljst `diuah

O`snrbc` jdo `xpfjbd th` `ll`nt il tii hbah ir tii fiw pH id `dzye` jntbvbty
- o`nr`js`s jntbvbty
- `dzye` o`djtur`s jdo sucstrjt` njd di fida`r ﬊t th` jntbv` sbt`

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o. Eiv`e`dt il sucstjdn`s bdti jdo iut il n`ffs

O`﬊d` obllusbid
- D`t eiv`e`dt il pjrtbnf`s lrie jd jr`j il hbah nidn`dtrjtbid ti jd jr`j il fiw nidn`dtrjtbid
- Oiwd j nidn`dtrjtbid arjob`dt
Qhjt ljntirs jll`nt th` rjt` il obllusbid9
- Nidn`dtrjtbid arjob`dt
^urljn` jr`j ti vifue` rjtbi
- Obllusbid obstjdn`
- _`ep`rjtur`
Qhjt ljntirs bdnr`js` th` rjt` il obllusbid9
- ^t``p nidn`dtrjtbid arjob`dt
- Hbah surljn` jr`j ti vifue` rjtbi
- ^hirt`r obllusbid obstjdn`
- Hbah`r t`ep`rjtur` ou` ti bdnr`js`o gbd`tbn `d`ray il pjrtbnf`s
O`﬊d` jntbv` trjdspirt
- D`t eiv`e`dt il pjrtbnf`s lrie jd jr`j il fiw nidn`dtrjtbid ti jd jr`j il hbah nidn`dtrjtbid
- S`qubr`s `d`ray lrie J_]
J_]

Abv` `xjepf`s il jntbv` trjdspirt

- Siit hjbr n`ffs jcsircbda ebd`rjf bids
- Eiv`e`dt il afunis` thriuah th` fbdbda il th` sejff bdt`stbd`

O`﬊d` iseisbs
- D`t eiv`e`dt il wjt`r
- Lrie jd jr`j il hbah wjt`r pit`dtbjf ti fiw wjt`r pit`dtbjf
- _hriuah pjrtbjffy p`re`jcf` e`ecrjd`
Qhjt hjpp`ds ti j pfjdt n`ff pfjn`o bd sjfty sifutbid jdo why9
- ^hrbdgs (ffijnnbo)
- N`ff e`ecrjd` puffs jwjy lrie n`ff wjff (pfjseifysbs)
- C`njus` hbah`r wjt`r pit`dtbjf bd n`ff niepjr`o wbth surriudobda sifutbid si wjt`r f`jv`s th`
n`ff cy iseisbs

Qhjt hjpp`ds ti j pfjdt n`ff pfjn`o bd pur` wjt`r jdo why9

- ^w`ffs (turabo)
- C`njus` hbah`r wjt`r pit`dtbjf bd surriudobda sifutbid niepjr`o wbth bdsbo` th` n`ff si wjt`r
`dt`rs th` n`ff cy iseisbs
- N`ff wjff pr`v`dts curstbda
Qhjt hjpp`ds ti jd jdbejf n`ff pfjn`o bd pur` wjt`r jdo why9
- Cursts
- C`njus` hbah`r wjt`r pit`dtbjf bd surriudobda sifutbid niepjr`o wbth bdsbo` th` n`ff si wjt`r
`dt`rs th` n`ff cy iseisbs
- Di n`ff wjff si cursts
@xjepf`s il fjra` surljn` jr`j ti vifue` rjtbis lir eiv`e`dt il sucstjdn`s
- Jfv`ifb bd fudas lir jcsirptbid il ixya`d
\bffb bd sejff bdt`stbd` lir jcsirptbid il sifucf` priounts il oba`stbid
- Siit hjbr n`ffs lir jcsirptbid il ebd`rjf bids

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`. Dutrbtbid

]fjdts

Qhjt bs th` wiro `qujtbid lir phitisydth`sbs9

- Qjt`r + njrcid obixbo` (+ fbaht `d`ray) ‟4 afunis` + ixya`d
Qhjt bs th` cjfjdn`o syecif `qujtbid lir phitisydth`sbs9
<NI3 + <H3I ‟4 <I3 + N<H:3I<
-
Qhjt bs j fbebtbda ljntir9
- Ljntir bd j r`jntbid whbnh bs bd shirt`st suppfy
- Fjng il thbs ljntir bs th` r`jsid why th` rjt` il r`jntbid di fida`r bdnr`js`s
Qhjt jr` th` fbebtbda ljntirs il phitisydth`sbs9
- Njrcid obixbo`
- Fbaht bdt`dsbty
- _`ep`rjtur`
- Bdnr`jsbda jdy il th` jciv` wbff bdnr`js` th` rjt` il phitisydth`sbs udtbf jdith`r ljntir
c`nie`s fbebtbda

Qhy bs th` rjt` il phitisydth`sbs fiw bd th` eirdbda9

- _`ep`rjtur` bs th` fbebtbda ljntir
- Fiw t`ep`rjtur`s bdhbcbt `dzye` jntbvbty
- Njrcid obixbo` f`v`fs jr` hbah

Qhy bs th` rjt` il phitisydth`sbs hbah jt eboojy9

- Hbah t`ep`rjtur` ejxbebs`s `dzye` jntbvbty
- Njrcid obixbo` bs th` fbebtbda ljntir js bt‒s bd th` shirt`st suppfy
Hiw bs th` f`jl jojpt`o lir bts rif`9
- Qjxy nutbnf` - pr`v`dts `vjpirjtbid il wjt`r jdo stips pjthia`d `dtry
- Ppp`r `pbo`rebs - trjdspjr`dt ti jffiw fbaht ti `dt`r th` f`jl
- ]jfbsjo` e`siphyff - nidtjbds fits  il nhfiripfjsts lir phitisydth`sbs
fits il
- Jbr spjn`s bd spiday e`siphyff - jffiw ajs`s ti obllus`
- Xyf`e - jffiws `dtry il wjt`r jdo ebd`rjf bids cy trjdspbrjtbid str`je
- Aujro n`ffs - nidtrif ip`dbda jdo nfisur` il stiejtj
-- ^tiejtj
_hbd jdo -crijo
jffiw (fjra`
njrcidsurljn`
obixbo`jr`j)
ti `dt`r, ixya`d jdo wjt`r ti f`jv`

Qhjt oi`s th` pfjdt us` afunis` lir9

- Ejgbda n`ffufis` n`ff wjffs
- Ejgbda prit`bds jdo ODJ
- Ejgbda stjrnh lir stirja`
- Ejgbda sunris` lir trjdspirt

Ebd`rjf bid Ps` O`﬊nb`dny syeptie

Dbtrjt` Ejgbda jebdi jnbos jdo prit`bds ^tudt`o ariwth

Ejad`sbue Ejgbda nhfiriphyff R`ffiw f`jv`s

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Huejds

Dutrb`dt Sif` Liio rbnh bd dutrb`dt O`﬊nb`dny obs`js`

]rit`bd - Ariwth jdo r`pjbr il - E`jt, ﬊sh, `aas,

- Gwjshbirgir
eusnf`s nh``s`
- Afunis` - lrubts jdo
v`a`tjcf`s#
#
- Fjntis` -- tjcf`
^unris` ebfg
Njrcihyorjt`s @d`ray stir` suajr#
- ^tjrnh (bdsifucf`) -
-
pitjti, rbn`, wh`jt#
- Afynia`d - e`jt#
- N`ffufis` - pfjdt n`ff
wjffs

Fbpbos - Bdsufjtbid jdo fida- - Cutt`r, nh``s`

t`re `d`ray stir`

- ^uppirts nh`ebnjf
Qjt`r
r`jntbids bdsbo` n`ffs

Lbcr` - ]r`v`dts
- \`a`tjcf`s
nidstbpjtbid
^trida t``th jdo
Njfnbue - cid`s - Ebfg, nh``s`
Brid - H`jfthy cfiio - S`o e`jt -  Jdj`ebj

 \btjebd J  - Aiio vbsbid - Lbsh fbv`r ibfs, cutt`r, - Dbaht cfbdod`ss

njrrits

 \btjebd N - ^tbngs tia`th`r n`ffs - F`eids, irjda`s - ^nurvy - cf``obda

fbdbda th` eiuth aues

 \btjebd O - ^trida cid`s - Lbsh fbv`r ibfs, ejo` - Sbng`ts

cy sgbd bd sudfbaht

Hiw oi `d`ray r`qubr`e`dts vjry wbth jntbvbty f`v`fs9

- Ja` - ifo`r p`ipf` d``o f`ss liio thjd yiuda p`ipf` js jntbvbty f`v`fs jr` fiw`r
- ]r`adjdt wie`d d``o eir` liio, brid, jdo njfnbue ti suppirt ariwbda cjcy
Qhy bs liio d``o`o9
- Lir ariwth jdo r`pjbr il tbssu`s
- Lbaht obs`js`
- ^uppfy lu`f d``o`o ti r`f`js` `d`ray
Qhjt bs oba`stbid9
- _h` cr`jg oiwd il fjra`, bdsifucf` eif`nuf`s bdti sejff, sifucf` id`s
- Lir jcsirptbid thriuah th` wjff il th` sejff bdt`stbd`
Qhjt bs e`nhjdbnjf oba`stbid9
- ]hysbnjf cr`jgoiwd il liio
- @.a. _``th
_``th nh`w liio, eusnf`s bd stiejnh nhurd liio

Qhjt bs nh`ebnjf oba`stbid9

- @dzye`s jnt js cbifiabnjf njtjfysts jdo cr`jg oiwd fjra`, bdsifucf` eif`nuf`s bdti sejff,
sifucf` id`s

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Qh`r` bs cbf` ejo`, stir`o, jdo r`f`js`o bdti9
- Fbv`r, ajff cfjoo`r, sejff bdt`stbd`
Qhjt bs th` rif` il cbf`9
- @eufsb﬊`s - cr`jgs oiwd fjra` fbpbo oripf`ts bdti sejff id`s ti bdnr`js` th` surljn` jr`j
- D`utrjfbs`s hyorinhfirbn jnbo
Qhjt bs th` rif` il hyorinhfirbn jnbo (HNf)9
Gbffs pjthia`ds
-
Qhjt bs th` rif` il th` stiejnh9
- ^`nr`t`s HNf ti gbff pjthia`ds
- Eusnufjr wjffs nhurd liio (e`nhjdbnjf oba`stbid)
Hiw oi`s oba`stbid stjrt bd th` eiuth9
- E`nhjdbnjf cr`jgoiwd il liio cy t``th
- Jeyfjs` r`f`js`o - oba`sts stjrnh bdti afunis`
Qhjt bs p`rbstjfsbs9
- Nidtrjntbid jdo r`fjxjtbid il nbrnufjr jdo fidabtuobdjf eusnf`s whbnh push liio jfida th` aut
Qhjt bs th` rif` il ejftjs`9
- _i oba`st ejftis` bdti afunis`
Qhjt bs rif` il jeyfjs`9
- _i oba`st stjrnh bdti ejftis`
Qhjt bs th` rif` il fbpjs`9
- _i oba`st fbpbos bdti ljtty
ljt ty jnbos jdo afyn`rif

Qhjt bs th` rif` il prit`js`9

- _i oba`st prit`bds
p rit`bds bdti jebdi jnbos

Qh`r` bs jeyfjs` ejo`9

- ^jfbvjry afjdos, sejff bdt`stbd`, pjdnr`js
Qh`r` bs fbpjs` ejo`9

- ]jdnr`js, sejff bdt`stbd`

Qh`r` bs prit`js` ejo`9
- ]jdnr`js, sejff bdt`stbd`, stiejnh
Hiw bs th` sejff bdt`stbd` jojpt`o lir bts ludntbid9
- Fjra` surljn` jr`j privbo`o cy vbffb jdo ebnrivbffb
- Fits il njpbffjrb`s
- _hbd wjff - shirt obllusbid obstjdn`
- Fjnt`jfs - jcsirptbid il ljts
Qhjt bs bda`stbid9
- Qh`d liio `dt`rs th` eiuth
Qhjt bs `xnr`tbid9
- _h` r`eivjf il wjst` priounts il e`tjcifbse

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Qhjt bs jcsirptbid9
- _h` eiv`e`dt il sifucf` liio thriuah th` wjff il th` sejff bdt`stbd` bdti th` cfiio str`je
Qhjt bs `a`stbid9
- _h` r`eivjf il lj`n`s lrie th` jdus
Qhjt bs jssbebfjtbid9
- Qh`d sejff liio eif`nuf`s jr` us`o ti cubfo fjra` id`s
l. S`spbrjtbid

Qhjt bs r`spbrjtbid9
- Ejg`s J_]
J_] (`d`ray stir`)
- S`f`js`s `d`ray
Qhjt bs th` `d`ray bd J_]
J_] us`o lir9
- Nidtrjntbid il eusnf`s
- N`ff obvbsbid
- Cubfobda fjra` eif`nuf`s lrie sejff id`s
- Jntbv` trjdspirt
Qhjt bs th` `qujtbid lir r`spbrjtbid9
- Ixya`d + afunis` ‟4 njrcid obixbo` + wjt`r + (`d`ray)
Qhjt bs th` syecif `qujtbid lir r`spbrjtbid9
- N<H:3I< + <I3 ‟4 <H3I + <NI3
Qhjt bs j`ricbn r`spbrjtbid9
- S`f`js` il `d`ray usbda ixya`d
Qhjt bs jdj`ricbn r`spbrjtbid9
- S`spbrjtbid wbthiut th` us` il ixya`d
- Afunis` bdniepf`t`fy crig`d oiwd
Abv` 3 `xjepf`s il jdj`ricbn r`spbrjtbid
- R`jst
- Eusnf`s n`ffs ourbda str`duius `x`rnbs`
^ueejry il jdj`ricbn r`spbrjtbid bd y`jst;
- Afunis` ‟4 `thjdif + njrcid obixbo` (+ fbttf` `d`ray)
- @thjdif - c``r-ejgbda
- Njrcid obixbo` - h`fps cr`jo oiuah rbs`
^ueejry il jdj`ricbn r`spbrjtbid bd eusnf` n`ffs;
- Ou` ti bdsul﬊nb`dt ixya`d o`fbv`ry ti eusnf`s `.a. wh`d sprbdtbda
- Afunis` ‟4 fjntjt` (+ fbttf` `d`ray)
- Ixya`d o`ct cubfos up
Qhjt bs jd ixya`d o`ct9
- \ifue` il ixya`d d``o`o ti niepf`t`fy cr`jgoiwd th` fjntjt`
Qhjt sucstjdn` njd c` us`o ti r`eiv` njrcid obixbo`9
- ^ioj fbe`

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Hyoria`d njrcidjt` bdobnjtir nifiurs;
- Jteisph`rbn njrcid obixbo` (=.=?%) 5 r`o/irjda`
- Hbah f`v`fs il njrcid obixbo` 5 y`ffiw
- Fiw f`v`fs il njrcid obixbo` 5 purpf`
a. Ajs `xnhjda`

]fjdts

Qhjt bs th` rif` il th` stiejtj9 

- Jffiws njrcid obixbo` bdti th` f`jl jdo ixya`d iut
Qhjt bs th` rif` il obllusbid bd ajs `xnhjda` bd pfjdts9 
- ]fjdts d``o ixya`d lir r`spbrjtbid jdo njrcid obixbo` lir phitisydth`sbs 
- _h`s` ajs`s obllus` bdti th` f`jl thriuah th` stiejtj 
- S`spbrjtbid prioun`s njrcid obixbo`, whbnh njd c` us`o cy th` f`jl lir phitisydth`sbs 
- Ourbda th` ojy, phitisydth`sbs innurs eunh ljst`r thjd r`spbrjtbid, si `xn`ss ixya`d obllus`s
iut il f`jv`s bdti jteisph`r` 

Hiw bs th` f`jl jojpt`o lir ajs `xnhjda`9 

- fjra` surljn` jr`j ti jcsirc fbaht jdo njrcid obixbo` 
- _hbd jdo ffijt si shirt obllusbid obstjdn` lir njrcid obixbo` jdo ixya`d 
- Fits il nhfiripfjsts nidtjbdbda nhfiriphyff lir phitisydth`sbs 
Hiw bs th` bdt`rdjf struntur` il th` f`jl jojpt`o lir ajs `xnhjda`9 
- wjxy nutbnf` r`oun`s `vjpirjtbid il wjt`r 
- ^tiejtj njd ip`d ti jffiw eir` njrcid obixbo` ti obllus` bd, jdo ixya`d ti obllus` iut 
- ^piday e`siphyff fjy`r nidtjbds jbr spjn`s ti jffiw ajs `xnhjda` bd jdo iut il th` e`siphyff 
Qh`d oi`s r`spbrjtbid innur bd pfjdts9 
- cith bd th` ojy jdo jt dbaht 
Huejds

Hiw jr` th` jbrwjys g`pt nf`jd9

- Aicf`t n`ffs s`nr`t` eunus
- Eunus trjps th` obrt/cjnt`rbj
- Nbfbj (n`ffs wbth
swjffiw`o hjbrfbg` struntur`s)
jdo o`striy`o cy HNf bdwjlt th` fjo`d`o eunus up ti th` eiuth wh`r` bt bs
th` stiejnh

Qhjt bs v`dtbfjtbid9
- Eiv`e`dt il jbr bdti jdo iut il th` fudas
O`snrbc` th` prin`ss il cr`jthbda bd (bdhjfjtbid)
- @xt`rdjf bdt`rnistjf eusnf`s nidtrjnt
- Sbcs eiv` up jdo iut
- Objphrjae nidtrjnts jdo ffijtt`ds
- \ifue` bdsbo` thirjx bdnr`js`s
- ]r`ssur` o`nr`js`s
- Jbr bs sung`o bdti th` fudas

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O`snrbc` th` prin`ss il cr`jthbda iut
- Bdt`rdjf bdt`rnistjf eusnf`s nidtrjnt
- Sbcs eiv` oiwd jdo bd
- Objphrjae r`fjx`s jdo c`nie` oie` shjp`o
- \ifue` bdsbo` thirjx o`nr`js`s
- ]r`ssur` bdnr`js`s
- Jbr bs lirn`o iut il th` fudas
Niepjr` bdhjf`o jdo `xhjf`o jbr
- Bdhjf`o jbr nidtjbds eir` ixya`d jdo f`ss njrcid obixbo` thjd `xhjf`o jbr
Hiw jr` th` jfv`ifb jojpt`o lir ajs `xnhjda`9
- Fjra` surljn` jr`j
- Aiio cfiio suppfy
- _hbd wjffs - shirt obllusbid pjthwjy
- Eibst - obssifv` ajs`s
O`snrbc` th` `ll`nts il seigbda id th` cioy
- Nbfbj jr` pjrjfys`o - cubfo up il eunus - seig`r‒s niuah - bdl`ntbid - cridnhbtbs
- ^eig` ojeja`s jfv`ifjr wjffs - wjffs cr`jg oiwd - o`nr`js`o surljn` jr`j lir ajs `xnhjda` -
`ephys`ej
- Njrnbdia`ds - tueiur ariwth - fuda njdn`r
- Njrcid eidixbo` niecbd`s brr`v`rsbcfy wbth hj`eiaficbd bd r`o cfiio n`ffs -
Njrcixyhj`eiaficbd - f`ss ixya`d trjdspirt`o

h. _rjdspirt

Qhy njd jei`cj r`fy id obllusbid lir eiv`e`dt il sucstjdn`s bdti jdo iut il th` n`ff9
- Fjra` surljn` jr`j ti vifue` rjtbi
- ^hirt obllusbid obstjdn`
Qhy oi jdbejfs d``o nbrnufjtiry syst`es9
- ^urljn` jr`j ti vifue` rjtbi bs tii sejff
- Obllusbid bs tii sfiw
- Nbrnufjtiry syst`e d``o`o ti trjdspirt ixya`d
]fjdts

Qhjt bs th` rif` il th` xyf`e9

- _rjdspirts ebd`rjf bids jdo wjt`r lrie riits ti ffiiw`rs b.`. Pp th` shiit idfy
O`snrbc` th` struntur` il xyf`e
- Hiffiw lirebda j nidtbduius nifued - di nytipfjse
- Fbadbd abv`s th` xyf`e str`dath jdo suppirt
Qhjt bs th` rif` il th` phfi`e9
- _rjdspirts suajrs lrie f`jv`s ti ariwbda r`abids/riits lir stirja` b.`. Cith up jdo oiwd th`
shiit

O`snrbc` th` struntur` il phfi`e

- ^b`v` tuc`s wbth sb`v` pfjt`s bd c`tw``d
Niepjdbid n`ffs nidtjbds fits il ebtinhidorbj lir r`f`js` il `d`ray
-

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Hiw oi ebd`rjf sjfts `dt`r th` pfjdt9 
- Jntbv` trjdspirt 
- Lrie jd jr`j il fiw nidn`dtrjtbid (sibf) ti jd jr`j il hbah nidn`dtrjtbid (bd th` riit hjbr)
- S`qubr`s `d`ray 
Hiw bs wjt`r jcsirc`o cy riit hjbr n`ffs9 
- Iseisbs 
- Lrie jd jr`j il hbah wjt`r pit`dtbjf (th` sibf)
_i jd jr`j il fiw wjt`r pit`dtbjf (riit hjbr n`ff)
-
O`snrbc` th` trjdspirt il wjt`r bd j pfjdt 
- @dt`rs riit hjbr n`ff cy iseisbs 
- Qjt`r eif`nuf`s jr` jttrjnt`o ti `jnh ith`r
- _rjdspbrjtbid str`je bd xyf`e 
- _rjdspbrjtbid iut il th` stiejtj
Qhjt bs trjdspbrjtbid str`je9 
- _h` nidtbduius nifued il wjt`r eivbda up th` xyf`e lrie th` riits ti th` f`jv`s 
Qhjt bs th` rif` il th` trjdspbrjtbid str`je9 
- _rjdspirts ebd`rjf bids
- G``ps pfjdt n`ffs turabo 
- Niifs th` pfjdt 
- ^uppfb`s wjt`r lir th` f`jv`s lir phitisydth`sbs 

O`﬊d` trjdspbrjtbid 
- _h` fiss il wjt`r vjpiur lrie th` surljn` il th` f`jl (stiej)
O`snrbc` jdo `xpfjbd hiw rjt`s il trjdspbrjtbid ejy c` bdnr`js`o 
- Hit - wjt`r `vjpirjt`s ljst`r 
- Ory - bdnr`js`s th` nidn`dtrjtbid arjob`dt c`tw``d th` f`jl jdo th` surriudobda jbr 
- Qbdoy - wjt`r bs cfiwd ill th` f`jl bdnr`jsbda nidn`dtrjtbid arjob`dt
O`snrbc` jdo `xpfjbd hiw rjt`s il trjdspbrjtbid ejy c` o`nr`js`o 
- Nifo - wjt`r `vjpirjt`s sfiw`r 
- Huebo - sejff nidn`dtrjtbid arjob`dt c`tw``d th` f`jl jdo th` surriudobda jbr 
- ^tbff jbr - wjt`r bs dit r`eiv`o lrie th` surljn` il th` f`jl 
Huejds

Fbst th` niepid`dts il th` cfiio

- ]fjsej
- Qhbt` cfiio n`ffs (phjainyt`s jdo fyephinyt`s)
- S`o cfiio n`ffs
- ]fjt`f`ts
Qhjt oi`s th` cfiio trjdspirt9
- Ixya`d lrie th` fudas ti ith`r pjrts il th` cioy
- Njrcid obixbo` lrie ith`r pjrts il th` cioy ti th` fudas
- Dutrb`dts lrie th` aut ti jff pjrts il th` cioy
- Pr`j lrie fbv`r ti gbod`ys

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Fbst sucstjdn`s trjdspirt`o bd th` pfjsej
- Njrcid obixbo`
- Pr`j
- Afunis`
- Jebdi jnbos
- Hireid`s
Hiw jr` r`o cfiio n`ffs jojpt`o lir th`br ludntbid9
Cbnidnjv` obsn shjp` - fjra` surljn` jr`j lir trjdspirt il ixya`d
- Hj`eiaficbd cbdos ti ixya`d lirebda ixyh`eiaficbd
- Di dunf`us - eir` spjn` lir hj`eiaficbd
Hiw oi`s th` cioy pr`v`dt pjthia`d `dtry9
- ^gbd jnts js j cjrrb`r
- HNf bd stiejnh o`striys pjthia`ds
- Hjbrs pr`v`dt `dtry
- ]fjt`f`ts nfit th` cfiio jt th` sbt` il j wiudo
Hiw oi whbt` cfiio n`ffs jttjng bdvjobda pjthia`ds9
- ]hjainyt`s `daufl pjthia`ds
- Fyephinyt`s r`niadbs` jdtba`ds jdo prioun` jdtbciob`s whbnh o`striy pjthia`ds
- Jdtbtixbds ejo`
Hiw oi fyephinyt`s o`striy pjthia`ds9
- S`niadbs` jdtba`ds
- Ejg` jdtbciob`s whbnh o`striy pjthia`ds cy;
- Njusbda cjnt`rbj ti stbng tia`th`r
- Fjc`f pjthia`d si bt‒s `jsbfy r`niadbsjcf` cy phjainyt`s
- ]rioun` jdtbtixbds
- Njus` cjnt`rbj ti curst
Hiw oi`s j vjnnbd` wirg9 
- O`jo ir w`jg`d`o pjthia`d bdk`nt`o 
- Fyephinyt`s r`niadbs` jdtba`ds jdo prioun` jdtbciob`s
- E`eiry n`ffs ejo` 
- ]rioun` jdtbciob`s eunh ljst`r d`xt tbe`

]rivbo` sie` `xjepf`s il vjnnbd`s jdo th`br eio` il jntbid 

- O`jo pjthia`ds `.a. whiipbda niuah 
- Q`jg`d`o pjthia`ds `.a. _C, e`jsf`s 
- Jdtba`ds `.a. bdffiu`dzj 
Qhjt bs th` rif` il pfjt`f`ts9 
- ]fjt`f`ts nfit th` cfiio jt th` sbt` il j wiudo 
- ^ifucf` ﬊crbdia`d bs nidd`nt`o ti bdsifucf` ﬊crbd 
O`snrbc` th` eiv`e`dt il th` cfiio jriudo th` cioy stjrtbda jt th` rbaht jtrbue
- O`ixya`djt`o cfiio `dt`rs th` rbaht jtrbue vbj th` v`dj njvj
- Sbaht jtrbue nidtrjnts lirnbda cfiio thriuah trbnuspbo vjfv` bdti rbaht v`dtrbnf`
- Cfiio `dt`rs th` rbaht v`dtrbnf` jdo f`jv`s vbj th` pufeidjry jrt`ry
- Cfiio ffiiws ti th` fudas jdo c`nie`s ixya`djt`o
Cfiio r`turds ti th` h`jrt jdo `dt`rs th` f`lt jtrbue vbj th` pufeidjry v`bd
- F`lt jtrbue nidtrjnts lirnbda cfiio thriuah cbnuspbo vjfv` bdti th` f`lt v`dtrbnf`
- F`lt v`dtrbnf`s nidtrjnts lirnbda cfiio bdti th` jirtj
- Ixya`djt`o ffiiws jriudo th` cioy jdo bs us`o bd r`spbrjtbid #
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Hiw bs iur h`jrt rjt` bdnr`js`o9
- Jor`djfbd` bdnr`js`s h`jrt rjt`
- Qh`d w` `x`rnbs`, eusnf`s prioun` njrcid obixbo`
- S`n`ptirs bd jirtj jdo njritbo jrt`ry o`t`nt thbs bdnr`js` bd njrcid obixbo`
- @f`ntrbnjf bepufs`s s`dt ti e`ouffj
- Jnn`f`rjtir d`rv` rjbs`s h`jrt rjt`
Qhjt oi`s sbdaf` nbrnufjtbid e`jd9
Cfiio bs puep`o lrie th` h`jrt ti th` fudas jdo th`d ti r`st il th` cioy
-
Qhjt oi`s oiucf` nbrnufjtbid e`jd9
- Cfiio ffiiws twbn` bdti th` h`jrt lir `v`ry idn` jriudo th` cioy
Qhjt oi`s th` nbrnufjtiry syst`e nidsbst il9
- H`jrt
- Jrt`rb`s, v`bds jdo njpbffjrb`s
- Cfiio
Qhy bs th` wjff il th` v`dtrbnf`s thbng`r thjd thjt il th` jtrbj9
- _h` v`dtrbnf`s hjv` ti puep th` cfiio lurth`r
Qhy jr` th` jrt`ry wjffs si thbng9
- _i wbthstjdo th` hbah pr`ssur` il th` cfiio ffiiwbda bdsbo`
Qhy bs th` wjff il th` f`lt v`dtrbnf` thbng`r thjd thjt il th` rbaht v`dtrbnf`9
- Cfiio lrie th` rbaht v`dtrbnf` bs idfy puep`o ti th` fudas
- Cfiio lrie th` f`lt v`dtrbnf` bs puep`o eunh lurth`r - jriudo th` whif` cioy
Qhjt bs th` niridjry jrt`ry9
- Cfiio v`ss`f thjt suppfb`s th` h`jrt wbth ixya`d
O`snrbc` th` struntur` il jrt`rb`s
- _hbng eusnf` jdo `fjstbn ﬊cr` wjffs
- Djrriw fue`d
- Hbah cfiio pr`ssur`
O`snrbc` th` struntur` il th` v`bds

-- _hbd eusnf` jdo `fjstbn ﬊cr` wjffs

Fjra` fue`d
- Fiw`r cfiio pr`ssur`
- ^`eb-fudjr vjfv`s pr`v`dt th` cjng ffiiw il cfiio

O`snrbc` th` struntur` il th` njpbffjrb`s

- _hbd wjffs - id` n`ff thbng
- ^hirt obllusbid obstjdn`
- Djrriw fue`d
Qhjt ljntirs nidtrbcut` ti niridjry h`jrt obs`js`9
- H`r`obty
- Hbah cfiio pr`ssur`
- Ob`t - hbah f`v`fs il sjturjt`o ljt jdo nhif`st`rif
^eigbda
- ^tr`ss
- Fjng il `x`rnbs`

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@xpfjbd why r`ounbda th` cfiio suppfy ti th` h`jrt eusnf`s n`ffs njd njus` j h`jrt jttjng
- F`ss ixya`d
- F`ss j`ricbn r`spbrjtbid
- Jdj`ricbn r`spbrjtbid
- Fjntbn jnbo
- Fiw pH
b. @xnr`tbid

]fjdts

O`﬊d` `xnr`tbid
- S`eivjf il wjst` priounts il e`tjcifbse
Qhjt jr` th` wjst` ajs priounts lrie r`spbrjtbid jdo phitisydth`sbs9
- S`spbrjtbid; Njrcid Obixbo`
- ]hitisydth`sbs; Ixya`d
Hiw jr` wjst` ajs priounts `xpirt`o lrie th` f`jl9
- _h` stiejtj jffiw obllusbid il ajs`s iut il th` f`jl lrie j hbah nidn`dtrjtbid arjob`dt ti j fiw
nidn`dtrjtbid arjob`dt

Huejds

Qhjt sucstjdn`s jr` `xnr`t`o lrie th` cioy9

- Pr`j lrie gbod`ys
- Njrcid obixbo` lrie fudas
- ^w`jt lrie sgbd
- Dit`; lj`n`s bs DI_ `xnr`t`o, bt bs `a`st`o
O`﬊d` iseir`aufjtbid
- Nidtrif il wjt`r f`v`fs bd th` cioy
@xpfjbd hiw th` struntur` il th` cfiio v`ss`fs `dt`rbda jdo f`jvbda th` afie`rufus h`fp ti eiv`
afunis` bdti th` Ciwejd‒s njpsuf`.
- \`ss`f `dt`rbda bs wbo`r 
- Bdnr`js`o pr`ssur` 
- Pftrj﬊ftrjtbid
Qhjt bs uftrj﬊ftrjtbid9 
- _h` ﬊ft`rbda il sejff eif`nuf`s lrie th` afie`rufus bdti th` Ciwejd‒s njpsuf` 
- Afunis`, bids, jdo ur`j (th` afie`rufjr ﬊ftrjt`) `dt`r, prit`bd stjys c`hbdo js bt‒s tii fjra` ti
pjss thriuah th` cjs`e`dt e`ecrjd`

Qhjt bs s`f`ntbv` r`jcsirptbid9 

- ]rixbejf nidvifut`o tucuf` r`jcsircs sejff eif`nuf`s cjng bdti th` cfiio 
- Jff il th` afunis` (cy jntbv` trjdspirt)
- ^ie` bids 
- ^ie` wjt`r 
- Di ur`j 
Qhjt bs th` niepisbtbid il urbd`9 
- Bids 
- Qjt`r 
- Pr`j  
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O`snrbc` hiw afunis` bs r`jcsirc`o cjng bdti th` cfiio 
- Jntbv` trjdspirt (r`qubr`s `d`ray)
- Lrie fiw nidn`dtrjtbid bd th` d`phrid ti j hbah nidn`dtrjtbid bd th` cfiio
@xpfjbd th` `ll`nt il JOH id cfiio wjt`r f`v`fs 
- Iseir`n`ptirs bd hypithjfjeus o`t`nt wjt`r nidt`dt il cfiio
- JOH r`f`js`o lrie pbtubtjry afjdo 
- JOH ejg`s wjffs il niff`ntbda ount eir` p`re`jcf` 
Eir` wjt`r bs r`jcsirc`o 
- Prbd` bs nidn`dtrjt`o jdo y`ffiw bd nifiur
k. Ni-irobdjtbid jdo r`spids`

Qhjt bs hie`istjsbs9
- Ejbdt`djdn` il j nidstjdt bdt`rdjf `dvbride`dt `.a. Qjt`r nidt`dt, t`ep`rjtur`
Qhjt bs j stbeufus9
- Nhjda` bd th` `dvbride`dt
]fjdts

Qhjt jr` juxbds9

- ]fjdt hireid`s
Qhjt bs j tripbse9
- _h` r`spids` il j pfjdt ti j obr`ntbidjf stbeufus
Fbst obll`r`dt typ`s il tripbse
- ]hititripbse - pfjdt‒s r`spids` ti fbaht
- A`itripbse - pfjdt‒s r`spids` ti arjvbty
O`snrbc` th` riits jdo shiits r`spids` ti fbaht
- Siits - d`ajtbv` phititripbse
- ^hiits - pisbtbv` phititripbse
O`snrbc` th` riits jdo shiits r`spids` ti arjvbty
- Siits - pisbtbv` a`itripbse
- ^hiits - d`ajtbv` a`itripbse
Qhjt bs j nif`iptbf`9
- ^bepf` pfjdts us`o ti bdv`stbajt` tripbse
- N`r`jf s``ofbda
Qhjt bs j nfbdistjt9
- Jppjrjtus us`o ti r`eiv` th` `ll`nt arjvbty/fbaht/wjt`r
O`snrbc` hiw j st`e ejy c`do tiwjros th` fbaht
- Juxbds nidn`dtrjt` id th` sbo` lurth`st lrie th` fbaht
- Njus`s n`ff `fidajtbid
- ^t`e c`dos tiwjros fbaht

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Huejds

Qhjt jr` th` s`ds` irajds bd j huejd9

- @y` - r`n`bv`s fbaht `d`ray
- @jr - r`n`bv`s siudo jdo gbd`tbn `d`ray
- Eusnf` - r`n`bv`s gbd`tbn `d`ray
- _idau` - r`n`bv`s nh`ebnjf `d`ray
- Dis` - r`n`bv`s nh`ebnjf `d`ray
^gbd - r`n`bv`s gbd`tbn jdo h`jt `d`ray
-
Qhjt bs th` obll`r`dn` c`tw``d hireidjf jdo d`rvius r`spids`s9
- D`rvius bdvifv`s `f`ntrbnjf bepufs`s, hireidjf bdvifv`s nh`ebnjfs njrrb`o bd th` cfiio
- D`rvius r`spids` ljst`r, hireidjf sfiw`r
- D`rvius r`spids` shirt-fbv`o, hireidjf fida-fbv`o
- D`rvius r`spids` v`ry finjfbs`o, hireidjf wbo`-spr`jo
Qhjt bs th` ND^9
- Crjbd jdo spbdjf niro
Qhjt bs th` fbst il r`spids`s bd j d`rvius r`spids`9
- ^tbeufus - r`n`ptir - s`dsiry d`urid` - ND^ - eitir d`urid` - `ll`ntir - r`spids`
- Bdvifv`s `f`ntrbnjf bepufs`s jdo sydjps`s
Qhjt bs th` fbst il r`spids`s bd j r`ffi`x jntbid9
- ^tbeufus - r`n`ptir - s`dsiry d`urid` - r`fjy d`urid` - eitir d`urid` - `ll`ntir - r`spids`
- Bdvifv`s `f`ntrbnjf bepufs`s jdo sydjps`s
- @.a. Qbthorjwjf il ﬊da`r lrie hit ick`nt
Qhjt bs j sydjps`9
- Ajp c`tw``d twi d`urid`s
- D`uritrjdsebtt`r obllus`s jdo cbdos ti pist-sydjptbn e`ecrjd`
Hiw bs j r`ffi`x jntbid obll`r`dt ti j r`aufjr r`spids`9
- S`ffi`x jntbid bs ljst`r, bdvifudtjry, jdo bdvifv`s r`fjy d`urid`
Qhjt bs jd `ll`ntir9
- Eusnf` (nidtrjnts) ir j afjdo (s`nr`t`s j hireid`)
Qhjt bs jnnieeiojtbid9
- Nhjda`s thjt tjg` pfjn` wbthbd th` `y`
- @djcf` us ti linus id ick`nts jt obll`r`dt obstjdn`s
Hiw oi`s th` `y` linus id j d`jrcy ick`nt9
- Nbfbjry eusnf` nidtrjnts
- ^usp`dsiry fbaje`dts sfjng`d
- F`ds ljt
- Fbaht r`lrjnt`o stridafy
 Hiw oi`s th` `y` linus id j ljrjwjy ick`nt9
- Nbfbjry eusnf` r`fjx
- ^usp`dsiry fbaje`dts tjut
F`ds thbd
- Fbaht r`lrjnt`o f`ss stridafy

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Hiw oi`s th` pupbf nidstrbnt bd crbaht fbaht jdo why bs thbs d`n`ssjry9
- Nbrnufjr eusnf`s nidtrjnt
- Sjobjf eusnf`s r`fjx
- ]upbf nidstrbnts
- ]rit`nts th` r`tbdj lrie th` crbaht fbaht
Hiw oi`s th` pupbf obfjt` bd obe fbaht jdo why bs thbs d`n`ssjry9
- Nbrnufjr eusnf`s r`fjx
Sjobjf eusnf`s nidtrjnt
- ]upbf obfjt`
- Jffiws eir` fbaht ti `dt`r th` `y`
Qhjt bs r`lrjntbid9
- Qh`d fbaht nhjda`s obr`ntbid wh`d bt `dt`rs j d`w e`obue
Qhjt bs th` rif` il;
- Nhiribo - stips fbaht cbda r`ffi`nt`o bdsbo` th` `y`
- Nird`j - r`lrjnts fbaht
- F`ds - r`lrjnts fbaht
- Nidkudntbvj - prit`nts `y`
- ^nf`rj - tiuah iut`r njsbda - prit`nts `y`
- S`tbdj - nidtjbds phitir`n`ptirs (rios (obe fbaht) jdo nid`s (o`t`nt nifiur)) whbnh jr` s`dsbtbv`
ti fbaht
- Brbs - nidtjbds rjobjf jdo nbrnufjr eusnf`s whbnh nidtrif th` sbz` il th` pupbf
- ]upbf - jffiws fbaht ti `dt`r th` `y`
- ^usp`dsiry fbaje`dt jdo nbfbjry eusnf`s - nidtrif th` shjp` il th` f`ds
- Iptbn d`rv` - tjg`s `f`ntrbnjf bepufs`s lrie th` `y` ti th` crjbd
- Cfbdo spit - wh`r` th` th` iptbn d`rv` `dt`rs th` `y`
Qhjt bs th` rif` il th` sgbd9
- ^`ds` irajd lir pjbd, tiunh jdo pr`ssur`
- _iuah iut`r
iut` r fjy`r
- Nidtrifs h`jt fiss
- Cjrrb`r - pr`v`dts `dtry il pjthia`ds
- ]r`v`dts wjt`r fiss
@xpfjbd whjt hjpp`ds wh`d yiur cioy t`ep`rjtur` bs tii hbah

--
Hjbrs fjy ffijt - f`ss bdsufjtbda jbr trjpp`o nfis` ti th` cioy
\jsiobfjtbid (jrt`rbif`s obfjt`) - eir` h`jt rjobjt`o
- ^w`jt `vjpirjt`s jdo niifs th` cioy

@xpfjbd whjt hjpp`ds wh`d yiur cioy t`ep`rjtur` bs tii fiw

- Hjbrs stjdo up - eir` bdsufjtbda jbr trjpp`o nfis` ti th` cioy
- \jsinidstrbntbid (jrt`rbif`s nidstrbnt) - f`ss h`jt rjobjt`o
- ^hbv`r - nidtrjntbid il eusnf` r`f`js`s h`jt
Qhjt bs th` `ll`nt il jor`djfbd` id th` cioy9
- ]r`pjr`s th` cioy lir ‘ffibaht ir ﬊aht‒
- ]upbfs obfjt` - jffiws eir` fbaht ti `dt`r th` `y`
- Hjbrs stjdo up id `do - ti jpp`jr eir` bdtbebojtbda
- Cr`jthbda rjt` bdnr`js`s - ti jffiw eir` ixya`d bdti th` cioy
H`jrt rjt` bdnr`js`s - ti o`fbv`r eir` ixya`d jriudo th` cioy
- Cfiio obv`rt`o lrie aut ti eusnf`s

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Hiw bs cfiio suajr f`v`f o`nr`js`o9
- ]jdnr`js s`nr`t`s bdsufbd
- Bdsufbd nidv`rts sifucf` afunis` bdti bdsifucf` afynia`d
Qh`r` bs t`stist`rid` ejo` jdo whjt bs bts ludntbid9
- _`st`s
- ^tbeufjt` s`nidojry s`xujf nhjrjnt`rbstbns `.a. vibn` o``p`dbda, sp`re priountbid, pucbn hjbr
Qh`r` bs i`stria`d ejo` jdo whjt bs bts ludntbid9
- Ivjrb`s
- ^tbeufjt`s s`nidojry s`xujf nhjrjnt`rbstbns `.a. hbps wbo`dbda, cr`jst ariwth, pucbn hjbr
- S`pjbrs ut`rus fbdbda
- Bdhbcbts L^H priountbid, stbeufjt`s FH priountbid
Qh`r` bs pria`st`rid` ejo` jdo whjt bs bts ludntbid9
- Bdbtbjffy nirpus fut`ue, fjt`r bd pr`adjdny th` pfjn`dtj
- Ejbdtjbds ut`rus fbdbda
Qh`r` bs L^H ejo` jdo whjt bs bts ludntbid9 
- ]btubtjry afjdo 
- Ejtur`s `aas bd ivjrb`s 
- ^tbeufjt`s `aa jdo sp`re priountbid 
Qh`r` bs FH ejo` jdo whjt bs bts ludntbid9 
- ]btubtjry afjdo 
- Njus`s ivufjtbid (`aa r`f`js` lrie ivjry)
- ^tbeufjt`s sp`re priountbid

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>. S`priountbid jdo bdh`rbtjdn`

j. S`priountbid

^ueejry il s`xujf r`priountbid;

- 3 pjr`dts d``o`o ti ejg` aje`t`s (s`x n`ffs - sp`re jdo `aas)
- ^p`re jdo `aa lus` jt l`rtbfbsjtbid
- [yait` lire`o
- Obvbo`s cy ebtisbs ti lire `ecryi
^ueejry il js`xujf r`priountbid;
- : pjr`dt idfy
- Di aje`t`s
- Di l`rtbfbsjtbid
- N`ffs lrie pjr`dt obvbo` cy ebtisbs jdo th`d cr`jgjwjy ti lire d`w irajdbse whbnh bs bo`dtbnjf
ti pjr`dt (nfid`)

^`xujf S`priountbid Js`xujf S`priountbid

s`x n`ffs prioun`o y`s di

l`rtbfbsjtbid tjg`s pfjn` y`s di

vjrbjtbid bd i!sprbda y`s di

h`fps survbvjf bd; nhjdabda `d
`dvbride`dt stjcf` `d
`dvbride`dt

Qhjt bs l`rtbfbsjtbid9
- Lusbid il ejf` (sp`re) jdo l`ejf` (`aa) aje`t`
- [yait` lire`o
- Pdo`rai`s ebtisbs
- @ecryi lire`o
]fjdts

Abv` `xjepf`s il js`xujf r`priountbid bd pfjdts

- ^trjwc`rry rudd`rs
- _uc`rs
O`snrbc` th` prin`ss il tjgbda j nuttbda
- J pb`n` il j pfjdt‒s st`e bs nut ill
- Obpp`o bd riitbda piwo`r
- _rjdsl`rr`o ti sibf
Qhjt bs piffbdjtbid9
- Qh`d piff`d lrie th` jdth`r fjdos id th` stbaej
Qhjt bs s`fl piffbdjtbid9
- Qh`d piff`d lrie th` jdth`r fjdos id th` stbaej bd th` sje` ffiiw`r
Qhjt bs l`rtbfbsjtbid9
Qh`d piff`d lus`s wbth th` `aa bd th` ivjry
-

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O`snrbc` th` l`jtur`s il jd bds`nt piffbdjt`o ffiiw`r thjt h`fp bt jttrjnt bds`nts
- Fjra` p`tjfs
- Nifiur`o p`tjfs
- ^n`dt
- D`ntjr
O`snrbc` th` l`jtur`s il j wbdo piffbdjt`o ffiiw`r
- @xpis`o stje`ds
L`jth`ry stbaej
- ^ejff p`tjfs
- ^ejff piff`d arjbds - `jsbfy njrrb`o cy th` wbdo
O`snrbc` th` `v`dts thjt f`jo ti s``o lirejtbid
- ]iff`d fjdos id stbaej
- ]iff`d tuc` ariws oiwd styf` bdti ivjry
- Ejf` aje`t` (piff`d) lus`s wbth l`ejf` aje`t` (`aa)
- Ivuf` c`nie`s s``o
- Ivuf` wjff c`nie`s s``o nijt
- Ivjry c`nie`s lrubt
Qhjt nidobtbids jr` d``o`o lir a`rebdjtbid9
- Qjt`r
- Ixya`d
- Qjre t`ep`rjtur`s
Qhjt bs a`rebdjtbid9
- Liio stir` bs us`o up
- Sjobnf` ariws oiwd
- ]fueuf` ariws up tiwjros fbaht jdo stjrts phitisydth`sbs #

Huejds

O`snrbc` th` struntur` jdo ludntbid il th` ejf` r`priountbv` syst`e

^truntur` Ludntbid

- ]jss`s urbd` iut il th` cioy lrie th` cfjoo`r

]`dbs - Jffiws s`e`d ti `dt`r bdti th` vjabdj il j wiejd ourbda
s`xujf bdt`rniurs`

- Nidtjbd`o bd th` snritue

_`stbs
- ]rioun`s sp`re jdo t`stist`rid`

- ^p`re pjss`s thriuah th` sp`re ount wh`r` bt ebx`s wbth

^p`re Ount
ffiubos prioun`o cy th` s`x afjdo

^`x Afjdo - ]rioun`s s`e`d (privbo`s sp`re n`ffs wbth dutrb`dts)

- @xpirts urbd` ir s`e`d lrie th` cioy

Pr`thrj - Sbda il eusnf` bd th` ur`thrj pr`v`dts ebxbda il urbd` jdo
s`e`d

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O`snrbc` th` struntur` jdo ludntbid il th` l`ejf` r`priountbv` syst`e
^truntur` Ludntbid

- Nidd`nts th` ivjry ti th` ut`rus

Ivbount - Fbd`o wbth nbfbjt`o n`ffs ti push th` ivue tiwjros ut`rus lir
l`rtbfbsjtbid

- Nidtjbds l`ejf` aje`t`s (ivj) whbnh ejtur` jdo o`v`fip

Ivjry
wh`d L^H bs r`f`js`o

- Eusnufjr struntur` wbth j silt fbdbda

Pt`rus
- L`rtbfbs`o `aa n`ff bepfjdt`o th`r` ti o`v`fip bdti j li`tus

- Sbda il eusnf` jt fiw`r `do il ut`rus

N`rvbx
- G``ps li`tus bd pfjn` ourbda pr`adjdny

Pr`thrj - _uc` thjt pjss`s urbd` iut il th` cioy

- Eusnufjr tuc` thjt th` ejf`‒s p`dbs `dt`rs ourbda s`xujf bd-
\jabdj
t`rniurs`

O`snrbc` th` pjssja` il sp`re bd th` l`ejf` huejd

- ^`e`d (nidtjbds sp`re jdo ffiubo lrie s`ebdjf v`sbnf`s) bs `kjnufjt`o bdti th` vjabdj
- ^p`re swbe thriuah ut`rus ti ivbount
Qh`r` oi`s l`rtbfbsjtbid tjg` pfjn`9
- Ivbount
@xpfjbd hiw jd 8 n`ff `ecryi bs lire`o
- ^p`re jdo `aa ejo` cy e`bisbs
- L`rtbfbsjtbid bd ivbount
- [yait` bepfjdts bd ut`rus wjff
- Obvbo`s cy ebtisbs
O`﬊d` aje`t`
- J s`x n`ff `.a. sp`re ir `aa
Qhjt bs th` rif` il th` pfjn`dtj9
- ]rivbo`s `ecryi wbth ixya`d jdo dutrb`dts lrie th` eith`r‒s cfiio
- S`f`js`s pria`st`rid` bd fjt` pr`adjdny
Qhjt bs th` rif` il th` jedbid/jedbitbn ffiubo9
- ]rit`nts li`tus lrie physbnjf bepjnt
c. Bdh`rbtjdn`

Qhjt bs j a`die`9
- _h` `dtbr` ODJ il jd irajdbse
Qhjt bs j a`d`9
- ^`ntbid il ODJ whbnh nio`s lir j prit`bd
Qh`r` jr` a`d`s liudo9
- Bd nhrieisie`s wbthbd th` dunf`us

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Qhjt bs j dunf`itbo`9 
- ^uajr, phisphjt`, cjs` (A, N, J ir _)
O`snrbc` cjs` pjbrbda 
- Jo`dbd` (J) - _hyebd` (_)
- Nytisbd` (N) - Aujdbd` (A)
O`snrbc` th` struntur` il ODJ

- 3 strjdos
Nibf`o ti lire oiucf` h`fbx
- ^trjdos fbdg`o cy pjbr`o cjs`s 
- Jo`dbd` ti thyebd`, aujdbd` ti nytisbd` 
O`snrbc` th` struntur` il SDJ
- ^bdaf` strjdo`o 
- Nidtjbds urjnbf cjs` bdst`jo il thyebd` 
Qhjt bs j nioid9 
- > cjs`s il eSDJ whbnh nirr`spido ti j sp`nb﬊n jebdi jnbo ir stip nioid 
Qhjt bs jd jdtbnioid9 
- > cjs`s id j tSDJ eif`nuf` whbnh nirr`spidobda ti th` nioid il jd eSDJ eif`nuf` 
Qhjt jr` th` 3 ejbd stja`s il prit`bd sydth`sbs9 
- _rjdsnrbptbid 
- _rjdsfjtbid 
Qhjt hjpp`ds ourbda trjdsnrbptbid9 
- Innurs bd dunf`us 
- ODJ udwbdos bd dunf`us 
- Cjs` pjbrs `xpis`o id t`epfjt` strjdo 
- SDJ dunf`itbo`s pjbr up wbth t`epfjt` cjs`s 
- eSDJ bs lire`o jdo f`jv`s dunf`us 
- eSDJ `dt`rs nytipfjse  
Qhjt hjpp`ds ourbda trjdsfjtbid9 
- eSDJ jttjnh`s ti rbcisie` 
-- eSDJ nioid pjbrs wbth niepf`e`dtjry tSDJ jdtbnioid 
@jnh tSDJ bs ciudo j sp`nb﬊n jebdi jnbo 
- Jebdi jnbos kibd ti lire j prit`bd
- tSDJ bs r`nynf`o 
- Jt th` `do il th` nhjbd j stip nioid t`rebdjt`s trjdsfjtbid 

Qhjt bs jd jff`f`9
- Obll`r`dt lire il th` sje` a`d` whbnh abv`s rbs` ti obll`r`dt nhjrjnt`rbstbns
- @.a. C 5 criwd `y`s, c 5 cfu` `y`s
O`﬊d` hieizyaius
- Hjvbda twi nipb`s il th` sje` jff`f`
O`﬊d` h`t`rizyaius
- Hjvbda twi obll`r`dt nipb`s il th` sje` jff`f`

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O`snrbc` a`dityp`
- _h` jff`f`s jd irajdbse hjs
O`﬊d` ph`dityp`
- _h` physbnjf jpp`jrjdn` il jd bdobvboujf
O`﬊d` r`n`ssbv`
- Jff`f` idfy `xpr`ss`o bl th` oiebdjdt jff`f` bs dit pr`s`dt
O`﬊d` oiebdjdt
- Jff`f` `xpr`ss`o `v`d bl idfy id` bs pr`s`dt
O`﬊d` nioiebdjdn`
- Bl twi jff`f`s jr` `xpr`ss`o bd th` sje` ph`dityp`
A`d`tbn Nriss`s - ]udd`t ^qujr`s (JFQ
(JFQJ
JR^ ^@_ IP_ RIPS JD^Q@S FBG@ _HB^)

@.a. j eith`r bs r`n`ssbv` jdo hjs cfido hjbr, jdo j ljth`r bs h`t`rizyaius, jdo criwd hjbr`o.
Njfnufjt` th` pricjcbfbty il th`br nhbfor`d hjvbda cfido hjbr.

Eith`r Ljth`r

]h`dityp` Cfido Criwd

A`dityp` cc Cc

Aje`t`s c ir c C ir c

]udd`tt ^qujr`;

Ljth`r

C c

c Cc cc
Eith`r
c Cc cc

0=% cfido
0=% criwd #

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@.a. Orjw j pudd`t squjr` ti shiw hiw s`x bs bdh`rbt`o bd huejds

Eith`r Ljth`r

]h`dityp` L`ejf` Ejf`

A`dityp` XX XR

Aje`t`s X ir X X ir R

]udd`tt ^qujr`;

Ljth`r

X R

X XX XR
Eith`r
X XX XR

0=% ejf`
0=% l`ejf`

Qhjt bs j p`obar`` objarje9

- ^hiws hiw j a`d`tbn nidobtbid bs pjss`o lrie a`d`rjtbid ti a`d`rjtbid
- ]issbcf` ti wirg iut whbnh bs th` oiebdjdt jff`f`
- Njd th`d wirg iut a`dityp` il `jnh p`rsid/jdbejf bd th` p`obar``
Qhjt bs j njrrb`r9
- ^ie`id` whi hjs j a`d` lir j obs`js` cut oi`s dit sull`r lrie jdy syepties
O`﬊d` hjpfibo
- Nidtjbds : s`t il nhrieisie`s `.a. 3> bd huejds
O`﬊d` obpfibo
- Nidtjbds 3 s`ts il nhrieisie`s `.a. ?< bd huejds
O`﬊d` nfid`
- A`d`tbnjffy bo`dtbnjf n`ff/irajdbse
Abv` `xjepf`s il wh`d ebtisbs innurs
- Ariwth, r`pjbr
- Nfidbda
- Js`xujf r`priountbid
Ejbd st`ps il ebtisbs;
- ]riphjs`
- E`tjphjs`
- Jdjphjs`
_`fiphjs`
-

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L`jtur` Ebtisbs E`bisbs

duec`r il n`ff obvbsbids : 3

duec`r il ojuaht`r n`ffs

3 ?
lire`o

duec`r il nhrieisie`s bd
obpfibo hjpfibo
n`ffs lire`o

typ` il n`ffs lire`o cioy n`ffs s`x n`ffs

a`d`tbn vjrbjtbid bd n`ffs lire`o did` vjrbjtbid

Hiw bs vjrbjtbid wbthbd j sp`nb`s criuaht jciut9

- A`d`tbns (`.a. hjbr nifiur)
- @dvbride`dtjf nidobtbids (`.a. r`oun`o ariwth ou` ti piir ob`t wh`d yiuda)
- Ir j niecbdjtbid il cith
Qhjt bs j eutjtbid9
- J rjr`, rjdoie nhjda` bd th` a`d`tbn ejt`rbjf thjt njd c` bdh`rbt`o

Hiw ejy a`d` eutjtbids innur9 

- Oupfbnjtbid 
- O`f`tbid 
- ^ucstbtutbid
- Bdv`rsbid 
Qhjt `ll`nt njd eutjtbid hjv`9 
- J eutjtbid ejy f`jo ti j nhjda` bd ODJ
- Obll`r`dt ODJ nio` ejy f`jo ti obll`r`dt jebdi jnbos lirebda obll`r`dt prit`bds
- _h`r`lir` jft`rbda th` ph`dityp` il jd bdobvboujf 
- CP_ eist eutjtbids hjv` di `ll`nt id ph`dityp` 
- Bd sie` njs`s th`y hjv` j sejff `ll`nt 
- Idfy rjr`fy oi th`y hjv` j sbadb﬊njdt `ll`nt 

Hiw bs th` nhjdn`

- Bidbsbda il(ajeej,
rjobjtbid eutjtbid x-rjys,
bdnr`js`o9 
P\)
- Eutja`ds `.a. Nh`ebnjfs bd ticjnni 
O`﬊d` `vifutbid
- Jff irajdbses jfbv` tiojy, jdo ejdy eir` whbnh jr` diw
d iw `xtbdnt, `vifv`o lrie sbepf` fbl` lires
whbnh ﬊rst o`v`fip`o eir` thjd >.3 cbffbid y`jrs jai

O`snrbc` th` e`nhjdbse il Djturjf ^`f`ntbid

- \jrbjtbid wbthbd j sp`nb`s ou` ti eutjtbid
- Bdobvboujfs c`tt`r jojpt`o eir` fbg`fy ti survbv` jdo r`prioun`
- Jff`f`s pjss`o idti illsprbda
- S`p`jts iv`r ejdy a`d`rjtbids
Hiw ejy cjnt`rbj c`nie` r`sbstjdt ti jdtbcbitbns9
- ^ie` cjnt`rbj hjv` eutjtbids whbnh ejg` th`e eir` fbg`fy ti survbv`
- _h` cjnt`rbj r`prioun` jdo pjss id th`s` ljviurjcf` jff`f`s ti lutur` cjnt`rbj
- ^iid th` whif` pipufjtbid il cjnt`rbj bs r`sbstjdt ti th` jdtbcbitbn
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?. @nifiay jdo th` `dvbride`dt

j. _h` irajdbse bd th` `dvbride`dt

O`﬊d` ‘`dvbride`dt‒
- _h` titjf did-cbifiabnjf niepid`dts il th` `nisyst`e `.a. wjt`r, sibf, jbr
O`﬊d` ‘hjcbtjt‒

- _h` pfjn` wh`r` j sp`nb﬊n irajdbse fbv`s

O`﬊d` ‘pipufjtbid‒
- Jff  th` irajdbses il j pjrtbnufjr sp`nb`s
Jff th`  liudo bd jd `nisyst`e
sp`nb`s liudo

O`﬊d` ‘nieeudbty‒
- _h` pipufjtbid il jff sp`nb`s liudo bd j pjrtbnufjr `nisyst`e
O`snrbc` hiw j qujorjt njd c` us`o ti sjepf` jd `nisyst`e 
- ]fjn` qujorjt rjdoiefy usbda j rjdoie duec`r a`d`rjtir 
- Niudt hiw ejdy il `jnh sp`nb`s jr` pr`s`dt 
- S`p`jt 
O`﬊d` cbiobv`rsbty 
_h` vjrb`ty il pfjdt jdo jdbejf sp`nb`s bd jd `nisyst`e 
-
Qhjt bs jr` cbitbn ljntirs9
- Cbifiabnjf (fbvbda) ljntirs `.a. ]r`ojtbid, pjrjsbtbse, liio jvjbfjcbfbty, d`stbda sbt`s, obs`js`
Qhjt jr` jcbitbn ljntirs9
- Did-cbifiabnjf (did-fbvbda) ljntirs `.a. _`ep`rjtur`, pH il sibf, fbaht bdt`dsbty, duec`r il
ojyfbaht hiurs

c. L``obda r`fjtbidshbps

O`﬊d` ‘prioun`r‒
- ]fjdts whbnh phitisydth`sbs` ti prioun` liio
O`﬊d` ‘nidsue`r‒

- Jdbejfs whbnh `jt pfjdts ir ith`r jdbejfs

Qhjt bs j o`niepis`r9
- Irajdbses whbnh o`njy o`jo ejt`rbjf jdo h`fp ti r`nynf` dutrb`dts
O`﬊d` pjrjsbt`
- Jd jdbejf whbnh fbv`s bdsbo` jdith`r jdbejf ajbdbda liio jdo njusbda hjre ti hist jdbejf
O`﬊d` pr`ojtir
- Jd jdbejf whbnh `jts jdith`r jdbejf
Qhjt bs j triphbn f`v`f9
- _h` obll`r`dt stja`s il j liio nhjbd

Qhjt bs jr`pr`s`dt
- _h`y pyrjebo il
th`duec`rs9
duec`r il irajdbses jt `jnh triphbn f`v`f, brr`sp`ntbv` il th`br cbiejss

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Qhjt bs j pyrjebo il cbiejss9
- _h`y r`pr`s`dt th` titjf ejss il irajdbses bd `jnh triphbn f`v`f, brr`sp`ntbv` il th`br duec`r
Qhjt bs cbiejss9
- _h` titjf jeiudt il fbvbda ejt`rbjf bd jd irajdbse
Qhjt bs j sjepf`9
- Qh`d yiu tjg` j sejff`r r`pr`s`dtjtbv` pjrt il j pipufjtbid
@xpfjbd why idfy :=% il `d`ray bs trjdsl`rr`o lrie id` triphbn f`v`f ti th` d`xt
- Dit jff il th` pfjdt bs `jt`d (bd th` njs` il prioun`r --4 prbejry nidsue`r)
- ^ie` pjrts jr` bdoba`stbcf` (bd th` njs` il prioun`r --4 prbejry nidsue`r)
- ^ie` lire `xnr`tiry priounts `.a. ^w`jt, urbd`
- S`spbrjtbid f`jos ti fiss il njrcid obixbo` jdo wjt`r
- Ejbdt`djdn` il st`joy cioy t`ep`rjtur` (`.a. Bd niws)
n. Nynf`s wbthbd `nisyst`es

Njrcid nynf`
- Njrcid obixbo` bs jcsirc`o cy ar``d pfjdts bd phitisydth`sbs
- Njrcid us`o ti ejg` afunis` jdo prit`bds
- ]fjdts r`spbr` r`f`jsbda njrcid obixbo`
- ]fjdts `jt`d cy jdbejfs jdo njrcid c`nie`s pjrt il th`br ciob`s
- Jdbejfs r`spbr` r`f`jsbda njrcid obixbo`
- ]fjdts jdo jdbejfs ob` jdo jr` o`niepis`o cy ebnriirajdbses
- Ebnriirajdbses r`spbr`
- Niecustbid il lu`fs r`f`js`s njrcid obixbo`
Dbtria`d nynf` 
- Dbtrjt`s bd th` sibf jr` jcsirc`o cy riit hjbrs n`ffs cy jntbv` trjdspirt 
- Dbtrjt`s us`o ti cubfo pfjdt prit`bds 
- ]fjdts ob`, o`niepis`, jdo jr` nidv`rt`o ti dbtrjt`s cy dbtrblybda cjnt`rbj 
- O`dbtrblybda cjnt`rbj nidv`rt dbtrjt`s ti dbtria`d 
- Dbtria`d ﬊xbda cjnt`rbj jr` pr`s`dt id riit diouf`s il c`jds jdo p`js jdo nidv`rt dbtria`d
ajs bdti dbtrjt`s whbnh jr` joo`o ti th` sibf 
- Fbahtdbda jdo th` Hjc`r ]rin`ss jr` ith`r siurn`s il dbtria`d 

o. Huejd bdffiu`dn`s id th` `dvbride`dt

O`snrbc` th` `ll`nts il f`jnh`o s`wja` jdo `xn`ss l`rtbfbs`rs id th` `dvbride`dt
- @utriphbnjtbid
- L`rtbfbs`rs jdo s`wja` jr` wjsh`o (f`jnh`o) bdti rbv`rs
- Qjt`r pfjdts ariw qubngfy - jfajf cfiie
- Niep`tbtbid lir sudfbaht
- ]fjdts ob`
- Cjnt`rbj l``o id th` o`jo pfjdts
- Cjnt`rbj us` up jff th` ixya`d bd r`spbrjtbid
- Lbsh ob` js dit `diuah ixya`d

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Qhjt `ll`nt oi`s th` `dhjdn`o ar``dhius` `ll`nt hjv`9
- Aficjf wjrebda
- Bn` njps e`ft
- ^`j f`v`fs rbs`
- Fiw fybda fjdo ffiiios
- Fiss il cbiobv`rsbty
- @xtr`e` w`jth`r
- Nhjda` bd cbro ebarjtbid pjtt`rds
Abv` `xjepf`s il ar``dhius` ajs`s
- E`thjd` (niws, rbn` pjooy ﬊`fos)
- Qjt`r vjpiur
- Njrcid obixbo` (curdbda lissbf lu`fs)
- Dbtrius ixbo`
Qhjt `ll`nt oi NLNs hjv` id th` `dvbride`dt9
- Ojeja` izid` fjy`r
Qh`r` oi NLNs nie` lrie9
- J`risifs, lrboa`s
Qhjt `ll`nt oi`s jnbo rjbd hjv`9
- O`striys fbe`stid` cubfobdas, gbffs tr``s, jdo ejg`s pidos tii jnbobn f`jobda o`jth il ﬊sh
Hiw bs jnbo rjbd ejo`9
- Jnbobn bepurbtb`s bd nruo` ibf ‟4 sufphur ixbo` ‟4 sufphurbn jnbo
- Dbtria`d jdo ixya`d r`jnt bd njr `dabd`s ‟4 dbtria`d ixbo`s ‟4 dbtrbn jnbo
Qhjt `ll`nt oi`s njrcid eidixbo` hjv` id th` cioy9
- Niecbd`s brr`v`rsbcfy wbth hj`eiaficbd si f`ss ixya`d bs trjdspirt`o
Qhjt `ll`nt oi`s o`lir`stjtbid hjv` id th` `dvbride`dt9
- Hjcbtjts jr` o`striy`o 
- ^ibf `risbid ‟4 f`jnhbda il ebd`rjfs ‟4 `utriphbnjtbid 
- ^ibf `risbid ‟4 ffiiiobda ‟4 fjdo sfbo`s 
- Obsturcjdn` il `vjpitrjdspbrjtbid
- Curdbda il tr``s/nuttbda oiwd tr``s ‟4 r`f`js`s njrcid obixbo` ‟4 aficjf wjrebda

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0. Ps` il cbifiabnjf r`siurn`s

j. Liio priountbid

Hiw oi afjsshius`s jdo pifyth`d` tudd`fs bdnr`js` nrip yb`fo9

- Jffiw djturjf fbaht bd ourbda suee`r, jdo njd privbo` jrtb﬊nbjf fbaht bd wbdt`r
- ]rivbo` wjre`r `dvbride`dt thjd iutsbo` ou` ti trjppbda h`jt `d`ray (bdlrjr`o rjobjtbid) jdo
r`ounbda nidv`ntbid

--
Njd c` h`jt`o `f`ntridbnjffy bl bt‒s tii nifo iutsbo`
]rivbo` huebo jteisph`r` ti r`oun` wjt`r fiss cy trjdspbrjtbid

Qhjt `ll`nt oi`s bdnr`jsbda njrcid obixbo` jdo t`ep`rjtur` hjv` id nrip yb`fo bd afjsshius`s9
- Bdnr`jsbda njrcid obixbo` ‟4 bdnr`js`s rjt` il phitisydth`sbs ‟4 bdnr`js`s yb`fo
- Bdnr`jsbda t`ep`rjtur` ‟4 bdnr`js`o ariwth jdo phitisydth`sbs ‟4 bdnr`js`s yb`fo
Hiw oi l`rtbfbs`rs bdnr`js` nrip yb`fo9
- S`pfjn`s fist dbtrjt`s jdo ebd`rjfs bd th` sibf
- Dbtrjt`s r`qubr`o lir prit`bd sydth`sbs bd pfjdts
Qhy oi ljre`rs us` p`stbnbo`s9
- Gbff sp`nb﬊n p`sts thjt wiufo ith`rwbs` ojeja` nrip
- Bepriv` yb`fo
Qhjt jr` th` jovjdtja`s jdo obsjovjdtja`s il usbda p`stbnbo`s9
 Jovjdtja`s Obsjovjdtja`s

@%`ntbv` jt nidtriffbda p`sts @xp`dsbv`

S`jobfy jvjbfjcf` ]`rsbst`dt - ejy o`niepis` sfiwfy

stir`o bd th` tbssu`s il fbvbda irajdbses

(Cbijnnueufjtbid)
(Cbijnnueufjtbi d) jdo c`nie`s eir`
@jsy ti us`
nidn`dtrjt`o jfida j liio nhjbd
(Cbiejadb﬊njtbid)

_ixbn jdo dit sp`nb﬊n - gbff ith`r bds`nts

Qhjt jr` th` jovjdtja`s jdo obsjovjdtja`s il usbda cbifiabnjf nidtrif9

Jovjdtja`s Obsjovjdtja`s

Did-tixbn D`v`r luffy r`eiv`s p`st

Bdtriounbda jfb`d sp`nb`s bdti jd `dvbride`dt njd

_jra`ts sp`nb﬊n p`st idfy
hjv` udo`sbr`o r`sufts

^`fl-sustjbdbda sfiw

Qhjt bs th` rif` il y`jst bd th` priountbid il cr`jo9

- R`jst r`spbr` usbda suajrs
- R`jst r`spbr`s (j`ricbnjffy jt ﬊rst, th`d jdj`ricbnjffy) priounbda njrcid obixbo`
Njrcid obixbo` ejg`s cr`jo rbs`
- Qh`d cjg`o, ajs cuccf`s `xpjdo ti abv` cr`jo bts t`xtur`

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Hiw bs yiahurt ejo`9
- H`jt ebfg ti 8=-2= N ti pjst`urbs` bt, th`d niif cjng oiwd ti jpprix >0 N
- Cjnt`rbj joo`o (fjnticjnbffus 
(fjnticjnbffus )
- F`jv` lir < hiurs jt th` iptbeue t`ep`rjtur` lir th` cjnt`rbj
- Jdj`ricbn r`spbrjtbid nidv`rts fjntis` ‟4 fjntbn jnbo
Qhjt bs j l`re`dt`r
- J v`ss`f nidtjbdbda ebnriirajdbses us`o lir l`re`dtjtbid
Qhjt jr` th` subtjcf` nidobtbids wbthbd j l`re`dt`r9
- Dutrb`dts - j nidtriff`o suppfy ti l``o ebnriirajdbses
- pH - g`pt nidstjdt jt iptbeue f`v`f cy joobda jnbo ir jfgjfb js d`n`ssjry
- Jbr suppfy - privbo`s ixya`d d`n`ssjry lir j`ricbn r`spbrjtbid
- _`ep`rjtur` - nidtriff`o ti bdnr`js` rjt` cut pr`v`dt iv`rh`jtbda jdo o`djturbda
- Jabtjtbid - ebnriirajdbses nidstjdtfy stbrr`o ti abv` eir` `xpisur` ti dutrb`dts jdo r`oun`
t`ep`rjtur`

Qhjt bs ﬊sh ljrebda9 

- Fits il ﬊sh g`pt tia`th`r bd tjdgs/`dnfisur`s 
- Qjt`r qujfbty nidstjdtfy eidbtir`o ti privbo` iptbeue nidobtbids 
- Qjst` priounts nidstjdtfy r`eiv`o 
- Ob`t njr`luffy nidtriff`o 
- Lbsh bsifjt`o lrie pr`ojtirs ti prit`nt th`e 
- ^irt`o cy sbz` ti pr`v`dt cbaa`r ﬊sh `jtbda sejff`r ﬊sh il th` sje` sp`nb`s 
- Lbsh wbth o`sbrjcf` nhjrjnt`rbstbns s`f`ntbv`fy cr`o 
O`snrbc` th` jovjdtja`s jdo obsjovjdtja`s il ﬊sh ljrebda
- Ljre niee`rnbjfbs`o sp`nb`s `.a. nio, sjfeid, tudj,
- Jovjdtja`s - njd nidtrif t`ep`rjtur`, ixya`d f`v`fs, ob`t, gbff p`sts, s`f`ntbv` cr``obda
]riarjee`s njd bepriv` th` qujfbty il th` ﬊sh
- Obsjovjdtja`s - hbah`r rbsg il obs`js` js th` ﬊sh jr` si nfis` tia`th`r, jdtbcbitbns jr` us`o ti
tr`jt obs`js` js ejy `dt`r th` liio nhjbd, piffutbid ou` ti lj`n`s, p`stbnbo`s hbahfy tixbn ti
ith`r sp`nb`s

c. ^`f`ntbv` cr``obda

O`snrbc` s`f`ntbv` cr``obda bd pfjdts

- Huejds nhiis` pfjdts wbth o`sbrjcf` nhjrjnt`rbstbns (`.a hbah yb`fo, obs`js`/p`st r`sbstjdn`)
- Nriss piffbdjt` s`f`nt pfjdts
- ]fjdts wbth o`sbrjcf` nhjrjnt`rbstbns jr` cr`o
- ]rin`ss r`p`jts iv`r ejdy a`d`rjtbids

O`snrbc` s`f`ntbv` cr``obda bd jdbejfs

- Huejds nhiis` bdobvboujf jdbejfs wbth o`sbrjcf` nhjrjnt`rbstbns (`.a eir` ebfg priountbid,
c`tt`r qujfbty lur)
- Ejg` th`e cr``o (ir us` jrtb﬊nbjf bds`ebdjtbid)
- Illsprbda wbth o`sbrjcf` nhjrjnt`rbstbns jr` cr`o
- ]rin`ss r`p`jts iv`r ejdy a`d`rjtbids
n. A`d`tbn eiob﬊njtbid (a`d`tbn `dabd``rbda)

Qhjt jr` th`

- Nfidbda bs jovjdtja`s il usbda a`d`tbnjffy
ljst`r jdo prioun`s `ecryi nfidbda rjth`r
bo`dtbnjf thjd s`f`ntbv` cr``obda9
illsprbda
- Eir` illsprbda jr` prioun`o wbth nfidbda
- Di d``o lir twi pjr`dts bd nfidbda
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Qhjt bs a`d`tbn `dabd``rbda9
- Qh`d a`d`s jr` jft`r`o bd ebnriirajdbses ti nio` lir th` o`sbr`o priounts
Qhjt `dzye`s jr` us`o bd a`d`tbn `dabd``rbda9
- S`strbntbid `dzye`s - nuts ODJ jt j sp`nb﬊n pibdt
- Fbajs` - kibd th` nut `dos il ODJ cjng tia`th`r
Qhjt bs j v`ntir9

- J
bd v`ntir
a`d`tbnbs`dabd``rbda
jdythbda us`o
ir jtieisqubti
trjdsl`r cbifiabnjf ejt`rbjf
thjt trjdsl`rs `.a. J pfjseb
pfjseiobue pfjseboo bs us`o
ti huejds ti trjdsl`r
wh`d a`d`s
bt cbt`s th`e

@xpfjbd hiw pfjsebos jdo vbrus`s njd c` us`o js v`ntirs bd a`d`tbn eiob﬊njtbid
]fjsebo;
- ^ejff nbrnufjr pb`n`s il ODJ
- Bsifjt`o lrie cjnt`rbj
- O`sbr`o a`d` bds`rt`o bdti pfjsebo ti nr`jt` r`niecbdjdt pfjsebos
- S`niecbdjdt pfjsebos bds`rt`o cjng bdti cjnt`rbj
\brus;
- Cjnt`rbiphja` jr` j typ` il vbrus
- O`sbr`o a`d` bds`rt`o bdti cjnt`rbiphja`
- Cjnt`rbiphja` jttjnh`s ti n`ff wjff il cjnt`rbj
- Bdk`nts bts a`d`tbn ejt`rbjf (ODJ)
- O`sbr`o a`d` tjg`d up cy cjnt`rbjf ODJ
O`snrbc` hiw fjra` jeiudts il bdsufbd njd c` a`d`tbnjffy `dabd``r`o
- Nut iut bdsufbd a`d` usbda r`strbntbid `dzye`
- Nut ip`d pfjsebo bd cjnt`rbj usbda sje` r`strbntbid `dzye`
- ^tbng bdsufbd a`d` bdti pfjsebo usbda
u sbda ODJ fbajs` (r`niecbdjdt pfjsebo)
- ]fjsebo bs th` v`ntir
- ]fjn` bd l`re`dt`r
Abv` sp`nb﬊n us`s il a`d`tbnjffy eiob﬊`o pfjdts
- @xt`do sh`fl fbl`
- Lrist r`sbstjdt
- ‘Aifo`d rbn`‒ rbn` nidtjbdbda c`tj njrit`d` thjt pr`v`dts dbaht-cfbdod`ss
- S`sbstjdt ti h`rcbnbo`s (w``ogbff`rs)
- Eiob﬊`o ticjnni pfjdts prioun` h`pjtbtbs C jdtba`ds - pit`dtbjf us` bd ejduljnturbda vjnnbd`s
- Eiob﬊`o ticjnni pfjdts jdo siyc`jds prioun` jdtbciob`s ti ﬊aht obs`js`
Qhjt jr` th` c`d`﬊ts il a`d`tbnjffy eiob﬊`o pfjdts9
- Bdnr`js`o sjft tif`rjdn`
- Eir` niepf`t` dutrbtbid `.a. Nidtjbds j aiio cjfjdn` il prit`bds, njrcihyorjt`s, fbpbos,
vbtjebds jdo ebd`rjfs
- Bdnr`js`o r`sbstjdn` ti pjthia`ds
- Bdnr`js`o tif`rjdn` ti h`jt jdo oriuaht
O`﬊d` trjdsa`dbn irajdbse
- A`d`s jr` trjdspfjdt`o lrie id` sp`nb`s ti jdith`r#

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o. Nfidbda

O`snrbc` th` prin`ss il ebnripripjajtbid

- Ps` sejff pjrts il pfjdts (`xpfjdts)
- ]fjn` id st`rbf` jajr 
- Joo dutrb`dts, ebd`rjfs jdo hireid`s
- Nidtrif huebobty jdo fbaht f`v`fs

Qhjt jr` duec`rs

th` jovjdtja`s il ebnripripjajtbid9 
- Fjra` il a`d`tbnjffy bo`dtbnjf pfjdts jr` prioun`o qubngfy 
- Jt jdy tbe` il th` y`jr 
O`﬊d` nfid` 
- A`d`tbnjffy bo`dtbnjf bdobvboujfs 
O`snrbc` th` prin`ss il jouft n`ff nfidbda (`.a bd Oiffy th` ^h``p)
- _jg` ejtur` cioy n`ff ili l jdbejf c`bda nfid`o jdo r`eiv` obpfibo dunf`us 
- A`t `aa n`ff jdo r`eiv` dunf`us (`dunf`jtbid)
- Bds`rt jouft n`ff dunf`us bdti `epty `aa n`ffs 
- Lus` wbth jd `f`ntrbn shing
- ]fjn` bdsbo` ut`rus il surriajt` il sje` sp`nb`s
- Ebtisbs innurs 
Hiw njd nfid`o trjdsa`dbn jdbejfs c` us`o ti prioun` huejd prit`bds9 
- _hbs wiufo ejg` bt pissbcf` ti prioun` fjra` duec`rs il a`d`tbnjffy bo`dtbnjf jdbejfs 
- _h`s` jdbejfs niufo th`d ejg` huejd prit`bds 
]rivbo` jd `xjepf` il usbda trjdsa`dbn jdbejfs ti ejg` huejd prit`bds 
- _rypsbd ojeja`s fbv`r jdo fudas 
- JJ
JJ__ bs j huejd prit`bd whbnh stips trypsbd jttjngbda th` fbv`r jdo fudas 
- ^ie` p`ipf` oid‒t ejg` `diuah
`d iuah JJ_ 
JJ_ 
- _rjdsa`dbn sh``p jr` a`d`tbnjffy `dabd``r`o ti prioun` JJ_ bd th`br ebfg 

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