AAU PADM Research Methods for Public Administration

Chapter Two

Defining Research Problem and Hypothesis Formulation

1.1 What is Research Problem?

In research process, the first and foremost step happens to be that of selecting and properly defining
a research problem. A researcher must find the problem and formulate it so that it becomes
susceptible to research. Like a medical doctor, a researcher must examine all the symptoms
(presented to him or observed by him) concerning a problem before he can diagnose correctly.
A problem is:
Any significant, puzzling and challenging situation, real or artificial, the solution of which
requires reflective thinking
A difficult situation after it has been translated into a question or series of questions that
help determine the direction of subsequent inquiry.
In other words, a research problem refers to some difficulty, which a researcher experiences
in the context of either a theoretical or a practical situation and wants to obtain a solution
for the same.
Thus, a research problem is one that requires a researcher to find out the best solution for the given
problem, i.e., to find out by which course of action the objective can be attained optimally in the
context of a given environment. Defining the problem has the following necessities:
 Quite often, we all hear that a problem clearly stated is a problem half solved. This
statement signifies the need for defining a research problem.
 The problem to be investigated must be defined unambiguously for that will help to
discriminate relevant data from the irrelevant ones.
 A proper definition of research problem will enable the researcher to be on the track whereas
an ill-defined problem may create barriers.
 Questions like What data are to be collected? What characteristics of data are relevant and
need to be studied? What relations are to be explored? What techniques are to be used for
the purpose? and similar other questions crop up in the mind of the researcher who can well
plan his strategy and find answers to all such questions only when the research problem has
been well defined.
 Hence, the goal of defining a problem is to state research objectives and questions clearly
and to have well-formulated hypotheses.
Generally, defining a research problem properly is a prerequisite for any study and is a step of the
highest importance. In fact, formulation of a problem is often more essential than its solution. It is
only on careful detailing the research problem that we can work out the research design and can smoothly
carry on all the consequential steps involved while doing research.

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Elements of a Research Problem

There are certain elements that a problem must possess before it becomes a research problem ready
for investigation.
a) Aim or purpose of the problem for investigation (Answers the question “why?”)
b) The subject matter or topic to be investigated (Answers “what?”)
c) The place or locale where the research is to be conducted (“Where?”)
d) The period or time of the study during which the data are to be collected (‘”When?”)
e) Population or universe from whom the data are to be collected (“Who” are respondents?)
Consider the following example:
Research Problem: To determine the status of teaching science in the high schools of Addis Ababa
during the school year 2000-2010
1. Aim or purpose: To determine the status of
2. Subject matter/topic: The Teaching of science
3. Place: In the high schools of A.A
4. Period: During the school year 2000-2010
5. Population: The respondents are implied to be either in the teachers or the students or both.
Title: The Teaching of Science in the High Schools of Addis Ababa during the School Year 2000-
2010

1.2 Techniques and Approaches to Problem Definition

Defining a research problem properly and clearly is a crucial part of a research study and must in no
case be accomplished hurriedly. However, in practice this frequently overlooked which causes a lot
of problems later on. Hence, the research problem should be defined in a systematic manner, giving
due weightage to all relating points. The technique for the purpose involves the undertaking of the
following steps generally one after the other: (i) statement of the problem in a general way; (ii)
understanding the nature of the problem; (iii) surveying the available literature (iv) developing the
ideas through discussions; and (v) rephrasing the research problem into a working proposition.
(i) Statement of the Problem in a General Way
First of all the problem should be stated in a broad general way, keeping in view either some
practical concern or some scientific or intellectual interest. For this purpose, the researcher must
immerse himself thoroughly in the subject matter concerning which he wishes to pose a problem. In
case of social research, it is considered advisable to do some field observation and as such the
researcher may undertake some sort of preliminary survey or what is often called pilot survey. Then
the researcher can himself state the problem or he can seek the guidance of the guide or the subject
expert in accomplishing this task. Often, the guide puts forth the problem in general terms, and it is
then up to the researcher to narrow it down and phrase the problem in operational terms. In case
there is some directive from an organizational authority, the problem then can be stated accordingly.
The problem stated in a broad general way may contain various ambiguities which must be resolved
by cool thinking and rethinking over the problem. At the same time, the feasibility of a particular
solution has to be considered and the same should be kept in view while stating the problem.

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(ii) Understanding the Nature of the Problem:

The next step in defining the problem is to understand its origin and nature clearly. The best way of
understanding the problem is to discuss it with those who first raised it in order to find out how the
problem originally came about and with what objectives in view. If the researcher has stated the
problem him/herself, he should consider once again all those points that induced him to make a
general statement concerning the problem. For a better understanding of the nature of the problem
involved, he can enter into discussion with those who have a good knowledge of the problem
concerned or similar other problems. The researcher should also keep in view the environment
within which the problem is to be studied and understood.
(iii) Surveying the Available Literature
All available literature concerning the problem at hand must necessarily be surveyed and examined
before a definition of the research problem is given. This means that the researcher must be well
conversant with relevant theories in the field, reports and records as all other relevant literature.
She/he must devote sufficient time in reviewing of research already undertaken on related problems.
This is done to find out what data and other materials, if any, are available for operational purposes.
“Knowing what data are available often serves to narrow the problem itself as well as the technique
that might be used”. This would also help a researcher to know if there are certain gaps in the
theories, or whether the existing theories applicable to the problem under study are inconsistent with
each other, or whether the findings of the different studies do not follow a pattern consistent with
the theoretical expectations and so on. All this will enable a researcher to take new strides in the
field for furtherance of knowledge i.e., he can move up starting from the existing premise. Studies
on related problems are useful for indicating the type of difficulties that may be encountered in the
present study as also the possible analytical shortcomings. At times, such studies may also suggest
useful and even new lines of approach to the present problem.
(iv) Developing the Ideas through Discussions
Discussion concerning a problem often produces useful information. Various new ideas can be
developed through such an exercise. Hence, a researcher must discuss his problem with his
colleagues and others who have enough experience in the same area or in working on similar
problems. This is quite often known as an experience survey. People with rich experience are in a
position to enlighten the researcher on different aspects of his proposed study and their advice and
comments are usually invaluable to the researcher. They help him sharpen his focus of attention on
specific aspects within the field. Discussions with such persons should not only be confined to the
formulation of the specific problem at hand, but should also be concerned with the general approach
to the given problem, techniques that might be used, possible solutions, etc.
(v) Rephrasing the Research Problem
Finally, the researcher must sit to rephrase the research problem into a working proposition. Once
the nature of the problem has been clearly understood, the environment (within which the problem
has got to be studied) has been defined, discussions over the problem have taken place and the
available literature has been surveyed and examined, rephrasing the problem into analytical or
operational terms is not a difficult task. Through rephrasing, the researcher puts the research

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problem in as specific terms as possible so that it may become operationally viable and may help in
the development of working hypotheses.
In addition to what has been stated above, the following guidelines must also be observed while
defining a research problem:
1) The research problem or topic must be chosen by the researcher him/herself
2) It must be within the interest of the researcher.
3) It must be within the specialization of the researcher.
4) It must be within the competence of the researcher to tackle.
5) It must be within the ability of the researcher to finance; otherwise, she/he must be able to
find funding for the research.
6) It is researchable and manageable, that is,
a) Data are available and accessible.
b) The data must meet the standards of accuracy, objectivity, & verifiability.
c) Answers to the specific questions (sub-problems) can be found.
d) The hypotheses formulated are testable, that is, they can be accepted or rejected.
e) Equipment and instruments for research are available and can give valid and reliable
results.
7) Technical terms and words or phrases, with special meanings used in the statement of the
problem, should be clearly defined.
8) Basic assumptions or postulates (if any) relating to the research problem should be clearly
stated.
9) The scope of the investigation or the limits within which the problem is to be studied must
be mentioned explicitly in defining a research problem.
10) It can be completed within a reasonable period of time unless it is a longitudinal research
which takes a long time for its completion.
11) It is significant, important, and relevant to the present time & situation, timely, and of
current interest. (E.g. if the study is about drug abuse, it must be able to draw attention of
those engaged in the habit & those assigned to stop it.)
12) The results are practical and implementable.
13) It requires original, critical, and reflective thinking to solve it. (Note: The study may be
replicated with an intention to determine if conditions in one place are also true in other
places so that generalizations of wider application can be formulated.)
14) It can be delimited to suit the resources of the researcher but big or large enough to be able
to give significant, valid, & reliable results & generalizations.
15) It must contribute to the national development goals for the improvement of the quality of
human life.
16) It must contribute to the fund of human knowledge. (Any study must add a new bit of
knowledge to what we already have.)

1.3 Statement of the Problem, Research Question and Hypothesis

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AAU PADM Research Methods for Public Administration

In the above discussions, you understand the general statement of the problem and the specific sub-
problems or questions should be formulated first before conducting the research. It is customary to
state specific sub-problems in interrogative form. Hence, sub-problems are called specific
questions.
Specific question can also be called research question.
A research question is a way of explaining sharply and as pithily as possible to yourself exactly
what you are going to research and what you wish to find out. Sometimes, this may be in the form a
hypothesis.
While formulating your research questions, consider the following guidelines:
1) Each specific question must be clear and unequivocal, that is, it has only one meaning.
2) Answers to each specific question must contribute to the development of the whole research
or topic.
3) Summing up the answers to all the specific questions will give a complete development of
the entire study.
4) The number of specific questions should be enough to cover the development of the whole
research problem or study.
5) Before writing down specific questions, determine first the different aspects of the research
problem to be studied and then for each aspect make one specific question.
E.g. If the research topic is the teaching science, the different aspects may be the following:
a) Qualification of teachers (educational);
b) Methods and strategies of teaching used and their level of effectiveness;
c) Facilities available, instructional and non-instructional and their adequacy;
d) Adequacy of supervisory assistance extended to teachers;
e) Comparison between the perceptions of the teachers and those of the students
concerning the different aspects;
f) Problems encountered by the teachers in teaching science;
g) Proposals to solve or help solve the problems; and
h) Implications of the study on the teaching of science
Consider the following example:
Generally, there should be a general statement of the problem and then this should be broken
down up into as many specific questions/sub-problems as possible. E.g., this study was
conducted to investigate all aspects of the teaching of science in the high schools of Addis
Ababa during the school year of 2000 - 2010 as perceived by the science teachers and
students. Specifically, the study attempted to answer the following questions:
1. How qualified are the teachers handling science in the high schools of A.A.?
2. How effective are the methods and strategies used by the teachers in teaching
science?
3. How adequate are the instructional materials as well as the non-instructional
facilities for the teaching of science?

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4. How adequate are the forms of supervisory assistance extended to teachers relative
to the teaching of science?
5. Is there any significant difference between the perceptions of teachers and those of
the students concerning the different aspects in teaching of science?
6. What problems the teachers of science are encountering?
7. What suggestions do the teachers and students to improve the teaching of science
offer?
8. What are the implications of the findings to the teaching of science?

Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a tentative conclusion or answer to a specific question raised at the beginning of the
investigation.
 It is an untested proposition or possible solution to a problem.
 It is an educated guess about the answer to a specific question.
The major difference between a research question and a hypothesis is that a hypothesis predicts an
experimental outcome. Hypothetical statements assert probable answers to research questions.
Consider the following examples to understand them better:
 Research question: “How does the warning label on a cigarette package influence how
many cigarettes a smoker smokes?”
 Hypothesis: “There is a negative relationship between the number of times a smoker reads
the cigarette label & the number of cigarettes he or she smokes”
Benefits of a Hypothesis
1. It determines the focus and direction for a research effort.
2. Its development forces the researcher to clearly state the purpose of the research activity.
3. It determines what variables will not be considered in a study, as well as those that will be
considered.
4. It requires the researcher to have an operational definition of the variables of interest.
Forms of Hypothesis
There are two forms of hypotheses. One is operational form and the other is the null form.
a) The operational (also called alternate) form is stated in the affirmative while the null form
is stated in the negative form.
b) The alternate form (H1) states that there is a significant difference (or association) b/n two
phenomena while the null form (Ho) states that there is no significant difference
(association) b/n the two phenomena.
When you state the null hypothesis that there is no difference between the mean salary of men and
women, you are claiming that if you were to measure the salary of an infinite number of men and
that of women, there would be absolutely no difference at all b/n these means. Take the following
examples:
 Research Question: Is smoking dangerous to health?
 Null Hypothesis: Smoking is not negatively related to lung cancer.
 Alternate Hypothesis: Smoking is negatively related to lung cancer.

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 Research question: Is there any significant difference between the perceptions of the
teachers & those of the students concerning the different aspects in the teaching of science?
 Null Hypothesis: There is no significant difference between the perceptions of teachers
& those of the students concerning the different aspects in teaching of science.
 Alternate hypothesis: There is a significant difference between the perceptions of
teachers & those of the students concerning the different aspects in teaching of science.
Consider the following formulated hypotheses to further understand on the area.
Descriptive Hypotheses: These are propositions that typically state the existence, size, form, or
distribution of some variable.
Examples:
 Executives in Company X have a higher-than-average achievement motivation.
 Sixty percent of Company Z stockholder favor increasing the company’s cash dividend.
 The current unemployment rate in Addis Ababa exceeds 10 percent of the labor force.
 Ethiopian cities are experiencing budget deficiencies.
Relational Hypotheses: These are statements that describe a relationship between two variables
with respect to some case.
Examples:
 Foreign shoes are perceived by Ethiopian consumers to be of better quality than domestic
shoes.
 Young machinists (under 35 years of age) are less productive than those who are 35 years or
older.
 The height of women’s hemlines varies directly with the level of the business cycle.
Causal Hypotheses: Cause means roughly to “help make happen.” The hypotheses falling under
this category state (claim) the existence of cause-and-effect relationships.
Examples:
 An increase in family income leads to an increase in the percentage of income saved.
 Exposure to the company’s messages concerning industry problems leads to attitudes that are
more favorable by production workers toward the company.
 Loyalty to a particular grocery store increases the probability of purchasing the private brands
sponsored by that store.
 An increase in the price of salvaged copper wire leads to an increase in scavenging on the
Army firing range.

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