Advanced Variable Air Volume

Control Sequences

Steven T. Taylor, PE
Taylor Engineering
Alameda, CA

November 12, 2013

 Agenda

 VAV Box Control Sequences

 AHU Control Sequences
• Zone Groups
• DP setpoint reset
• SAT setpoint reset
 Outdoor Air Control
• Minimum outdoor air control
• Demand Controlled Ventilation
 AutomaticFault Detection and
Diagnostics, Alarms
2
 Highlighting Recent ASHRAE
Research
 RP 1455, "Advanced Control Sequences
for HVAC Systems - Phase I Air
Distribution and Terminal Systems."
 RP 1515, "Thermal and Air Quality
Acceptability in Buildings that Reduce
Energy by Reducing Minimum Airflow
from Overhead Diffusers."
 RP 1547, "CO2-based Demand
Controlled Ventilation for Multiple Zone
HVAC Systems."

3
 What is RP-1455?

 Intent
• Combine reliability and efficiency of
“configurable” pre-programmed sequences
with the benefits of advanced, high
performance sequences
• Standardized best-in-class control
sequences
• Include fault detection and alarm
suppression

4
 Why RP-1455?

 Maximize Performance
• Sequences are critical to HVAC system performance
but are hard to write well
 Style: Detailed, unambiguous, complete
 Content: minimize energy costs, maximize comfort, meet
codes & standards
 Minimize Installation and Commissioning
Costs
• Reinventing the wheel: Most sequences do similar
things, but everyone’s are slightly different.
• All jobs start almost from scratch, requiring new
programming, testing, and commissioning

5
 What does RP-1455 Cover?

 Variable Air Volume Systems

• Various configurations and options
 VAV Terminal Units:
• VAV, cooling-only or reheat
• Dual-duct, with inlet or discharge sensors
• Series fan-powered, constant speed fan
• Parallel fan-powered, constant or variable speed fan
 VAV AHUs:
• Single or dual duct
• Return or relief fans
• Various methods of controlling minimum outdoor air
 Future RPs proposed for HW and CHW plants
6
 How will RP-1455 be used?

 English-language sequences will be

published as an ASHRAE Guideline,
available for anyone’s use
• GPC will also maintain sequences as
improvements and bug fixes are proposed
• Commissioning tests also TBD
• Starting January 2014
 Manufacturer will implement sequences
for plug-and-play
• One manufacturer (ALC) has done so
• Other vendors will surely follow…
7
VAV Terminal Controls
VAV Reheat Box

9
 What the lowest minimum?

 Function of
• DDC Controller: What’s the lowest
controllable velocity pressure signal?
DDC velocity pressure transducer accuracy
A/D converter resolution (bits)
• VAV Box:
Amplification factor
Inlet size

VPmin
FPM min  4005 CFM min  FPM min A
Amp.
10
Why Not Just Look in the VAV Box
Catalog?

Equates to ~0.03” minimum VP and about 30% of

design CFM for typical box selections

11
 Why Not Just Look in the VAV Box
Catalog?
Still too high

Good Advice! NEVER use Box

manufacturer’s minimums! 12
 Controllable VP Range

 Some manufacturers list the range

 Some you have to ask

 Most available from ASHRAE RP 1353 and
PG&E research projects (see references)
• All controllers ± 10% at 0.003”
 Specify allowable setpoint ≤ 0.004”
13
13
 Typical DDC Performance

ALC Calibration Error

30
Nailor VAV Box
20
Titus VAV Box
10
Flow Error [cfm]

-10

-20

-30

-40
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Reference Flow [cfm]

Highly accurate down to about 50 CFM (0.003”)

14
 Flow Probe Amplification
10000

7000
C
F
3665 M
2806
@
2062
O
1432
22 inch n
1160
1000 e
916
I 16 inch
702 I
n 14 inch 515 n
C l c
F 12 inch 358 h
e
M 2
 4005 A 
t 10 inch S
229
9 inch

F 
i
S
8 inch g

 K 
7 inch n
100 i a
6 inch
z l
e 5 inch

4 inch
F = amplification factor
K = actual flow in CFM at flow probe
output of 1.0” w.c.
A = is the nominal inlet area in ft2
10
0.01 0.1 1
Flow Probe Velocity Pressure Signal (Inches W.G.)

15
 Typical Flow Probe Performance
2000

1000
V e lo c ity [fp m ]

500

200

100

50

.001 .005 .01 .05 .1 .5 1

Flow Grid Pressure [iwc]

 4005  A 
2
Spec ≥2.0
F    2 .6
 K 
16
Sample Controllable Minimum

VPmin 0.004
FPM min  4005 170  4005
Amp. 2.3
CFM min  FPM min A

Minimum CFM 
Maximum CFM  at 0.004  Minimum Ratio  Minimum Ratio 
Box Inlet  at 0.5 in.w.g.  in.w.g. sensor  at Highest  at lowest 
Diameter pressure drop reading Maximum, % Maximum, %
6 425 33 7.8% ‐
8 715 58 8.1% 13.6%
10 1,100 91 8.3% 12.7%
12 1,560 130 8.3% 11.8%
14 2,130 177 8.3% 11.3%
16 2,730 232 8.5% 10.9%
17
VAV Reheat Control

18
Q: Why do some buildings use 3 -5
times as much energy as others?

2,500
Site #1
Boiler Input (Btu/sf)

2,000
Site #2
1,500

1,000

500

0
Mar-02 Apr-02 May-02 Jun-02 Jul-02

A: Reheat
19
Conventional VAV Control

20
 Conventional VAV Box Minimum
Setpoint
 No less than larger of:
• Minimum ventilation rate
 Per Standard 62.1
• Controller minimum
 Not usually an issue – see discussion above
• Limit “dumping”
 Not a real issue – see RP-1515 results
• Limit stratification
 No more than 20°F above space temperature (~≤95°F) per
Standard 90.1
 No more than larger of:
• 30% of cooling maximum
• Minimum ventilation rate
21
 New for Standard 90.1-2013

b. Zones with DDC that comply with all of the following:

1. The air flow rate in dead band between heating and cooling
does not exceed the largest of the following:
i. 20% of the zone design peak supply rate;
ii. The outdoor air flow rate required to meet the ventilation
requirements of ASHRAE Standard 62.1 for the zone;
2. The air flow rate that is reheated, recooled, or mixed shall be
less than 50% of the zone design peak supply rate.
3. The first stage of heating consists of modulating the zone
supply air temperature setpoint up to a maximum setpoint while
the airflow is maintained at the dead band flow rate.
4. The second stage of heating consists of modulating the
airflow rate from the dead band flow rate up to the heating
maximum flow rate.

22
“Dual Maximum” Control
(Per Standard 90.1 and RP-1455)

23
 Dual Maximum Logic in Action
90 DAT DAT setpoint
80
70
60
50
8:30 8:45 9:00 9:15 9:30 9:45 10:00 10:15 10:30 10:45

100
Htg% Clg% Reheat valve
80
60
40
20
0
8:30 8:45 9:00 9:15 9:30 9:45 10:00 10:15 10:30 10:45

73
Clg Setpt Htg Setpt Zone Temp
72
71
70
69
8:30 8:45 9:00 9:15 9:30 9:45 10:00 10:15 10:30 10:45

2000
Cold Duct CFM
1000

0
8:30 8:45 9:00 9:15 9:30 9:45 10:00 10:15 10:30 10:45

Start heating, At 50%, start

increase DAT setpoint increasing airflow
24
Sort of Dual Maximum Control
(Found in some configurable controllers)

25
Sort of Dual Maximum Control
(Found in some configurable controllers)

26
 VAV Box Dual Maximum Control
Setpoints per Standard 90.1-2013
 Minimum:
1. No less than larger of:
 Minimum ventilation rate for the zone
 Controller minimum
2. No more than 20% of cooling
MARK
INLET  DESIGN CFM
maximum SIZE COOL MIN  HEAT
 Heating Maximum: VR‐101 12 1035 135 260
1. No less than larger of:
VR‐102
VR‐103
10
6
810
210
90
50
230
50
 Minimum
 Limit stratification - ≤20°F SAT above space temperature (≤~90°F to
95°F)
2. No more than 50% of cooling maximum
 Always use Option 1 above
• Do not use code maximum just because it’s legal!
• Avoid using %-of-cooling-maximum setpoints – boxes are
usually oversized!

27
What about Standard 62.1 Multiple
Spaces compliance?

System with Outdoor Air

Economizer
28
What about Standard 62.1 Multiple
Spaces compliance?

System without Outdoor Air

Economizer
29
 Ways to meet
Standard 62.1 with Dual Max Logic
 Simple approach
• Minimum zone airflow rates should be no lower than ~0.15
cfm/ft2
 Or use simulations to determine minimums
 Do not use 62.1 spreadsheet with conservative assumptions
• CO2 DCV should be used on all densely occupied spaces
 Allows occupant OA component to be determined dynamically
 Required by 90.1 and LEED anyway
• Use outdoor air economizers
 Increases ventilation in mild weather

 Complex approach
• Use dynamic reset of zone minimums
• To be discussed under Demand Controlled Ventilation later

30
How Well Does “Dual Max”
Logic Work?

RP-1515 results…
 RP 1515, "Thermal and Air Quality Acceptability in Buildings
that Reduce Energy by Reducing Minimum Airflow from
Overhead Diffusers"

Objectives
 Measure energy savings & validate simulations
 Identify comfort issues that may occur at low flow
Funding
 California Energy Commission - PIER
 ASHRAE
 UC Berkeley - Center for the Built Environment
Research Team
 UC Berkeley
 Taylor Engineering
 Price Industries

Method
 Field Study in 7 buildings
 Background survey
 “Right now” survey matched to zone trends
 Energy monitoring
 Laboratory Study
 Air distribution for various diffuser types

32
 Yahoo! Sunnyvale Campus

B
C
A
D

E
F
G
33
Yahoo! Sunnyvale Campus

 1073 Zones
 3700 Occupants
 Plaque face diffusers

34
800 Ferry Building

 22 Zones
 Perforated Diffuser
with blades in face

35
5-15% 30% +

35-50% 5-15%
 Measured flow fractions: Yahoo campus

Warm Season All Occupied Hours Cool Season All Occupied Hours
0.15

0.15
Low Minimum Low Minimum
30% Minimum 30% Minimum
0.10

0.10
Density

Density
0.05

0.05
0.00

0.00

0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Flow Fraction [%] Flow Fraction [%]

37
8% 20% 17% 9% 22% <-%Savings

16% 19% 9% 4% 6% <-%Savings

Total Electricity Usage

39
Loads are surprisingly low

0.2 0.5 1 CFM/FT2 at 20˚F ∆T

140 Zones, 2 buildings, 1 warm month (Sept)

40
What about your building?

41
 Occupant Comfort Survey
 Questions
• When the low minimum flow rate is reduced from high to low:
• Did occupants become less comfortable?
• Was their sense of air movement stronger due to “dumping”?
 Approach
• Surveyed 6 Yahoo! buildings and a county legal office (800 Ferry
building)
• 3 surveys: Yahoo warm and cool seasons, 800 Ferry building
warm season
• 3 – 4 weeks of surveying each season
• Switched between high and low minimum operation in the middle
of each survey period
• Surveys administered 3 times/day
 About 10,000 responses received

42
Thermal comfort questions

43
Temperature satisfaction survey results
(an example: Yahoo! warm season)

44
 "How satisfied are you with the temperature in your workspace?“

HIGH min flow rate LOW min flow rate

30.0%
249

25.0%
% dissatisfied of people

681
20.0%

15.0% 463
1793 766
10.0% 1408

5.0%

0.0%
800 Ferry Building Yahoo! Cool season Yahoo! Warm season

% Dissatisfied people HIGH LOW

800 Ferry Building 27.3% 12.5%
Yahoo! cool season 8.7% 9.4%
Yahoo! warm season 20.1% 10.3%
Thermal sensation distribution (Yahoo!
warm season)

46
 Zone air temperature under high and low
minimum operations (800 Ferry building)
High minimum: average Tzone = 71.2ºF Low minimum: average Tzone = 73.3ºF
800 Ferry Building - Zone Temperature

85 HIGH minimum flow rate

LOW minimum flow rate

80
zone temperature [F]

75

70

65

N 14 27 23 35 45 36 35 41 47 34 65 23 30 51 45 64 25 37 67 27 48
Mean 72 72 71 71 72 71 71 71 70 71 71 72 73 74 74 73 74 74 75 75 73
60 sd 1.4 2 1.8 1.5 1.6 1.5 1.4 1.8 1.6 1.5 2 0.89 1.6 1.5 1.1 1.9 1.1 1.4 1.3 1.2 2.1
09/22

09/23

09/26

09/27

09/28

09/29

09/30

10/03

10/04

10/05

10/06

10/07

10/10

10/11

10/12

10/13

10/14

10/17

10/18

10/19

10/20
Dates

47
 Occupant comments about summer over-cooling
(800 Ferry building, high minimum operation)

Sept. 24 4 PM “Just cold! I have to out on a heater.”

“I often come into my office and immediately put on a sweater because it is too cold for me. I dont have the sweater right
Sept. 24 2 PM
now which is why I feel cold.”
Sept. 24 2 PM “I find that as the day progresses, my floor (the third of three floors) gets colder due to the air conditioner.”
Sept. 24 2 PM “I noticed right after lunch, I was extremely cold, but maybe because I had just eaten.”
Sept. 27 11 AM “Its cold! Ill turn on my heater...”
Sept. 27 1:30 PM “Its cold! Ill turn on my heater...”
Sept. 27 3 PM “In the morning the office temp is good, but by 2:30 it starts to cool down when the sun moves away from the window.”
Sept. 28 7:30 AM “I don’t feel the direct air flow but it is for sure cold in here always.”
“Now that this survey requires me to focus attention on my work environment several times a day, it is clear to me that my
Sept. 28 10 AM environment starts out in the morning just right. It gets progressively colder and less comfortable during the course of the
day.”
Sept. 28 10:10 AM “Very cold I’m moving around the office more and I feel more air movement then I felt just sitting down.”
Sept. 28 11:40 AM “Very cold!”
Sept. 28 3 PM “LITTLE MORE AIR CONDITIONED.”
Sept. 29 11:30 AM “Its just cold all the time!”
Sept. 29 12:45 PM “You should send this survey on Monday when its going to be freezing in this building.”
Oct. 3 10 AM “Please help my office because it is always cold....”
Oct. 3 12:15 PM “Cold in here.”
Oct. 3 1:30 PM “Cold, Cold, Cold!!!!!”
Oct. 4 8:40 AM “its cold in here. They need to turn on the heat.”
Oct. 4 10 AM “cold in here. Turn on some heat.”
Oct. 4 11:50 AM “cold.”
Oct. 4 11:54 AM “cold. Need heat.”
Oct. 4, 12:10 PM “warmer on cold days, cooler on hot days.”
Oct. 4 3:30 PM “my arms are cold too, but there wasn’t a check for that.”
48
Occupant comments about summer over-cooling
(800 Ferry building, low minimum operation)

49
Sense of air movement
(800 Ferry building)

50
Perceived air quality (three surveys)

51
CBE background survey results

52
Comparison with CBE database

General
Satisfaction

Temperature
Satisfaction

53
Price Lab Tests

Perforated
diffusers with
blades in the neck
Diffuser located in
center of 20 ft.
wide room,
Cooling Mode.

Results:
• Negligible impact on ADPI – all near 1
• Negligible impact on ACE – all near 1
54
 RP 1515 Conclusions

 Conclusions
• Counter to they original hypothesis,
comfort improves rather than gets worse
with low flow operation
• Dumping & draft are not an issue at low
flow
• Energy savings is significant and similar to
simulation predictions

55
Dual Fan Dual Duct

56
 Dual Duct Snap Acting Controls

 Works with either

a single VP sensor
at discharge or
Cool Transition from Cooling one at each inlet
Max towards Heating  Eliminates need
for mixing plenum
since airflows do
Heat not mix
Max
 Reduces mixing
Min losses – space
serves as slow
acting mixing
Heat PID Loop Dead Cool PID Loop
Output band Output
plenum
 Cannot work when
high minimum
airflow rates are
needed
57
 Off-hour Isolation (aka Zone
Groups)
 Large systems must be broken into
isolation areas.
• Areas no larger than 1 story nor >25,000
ft2
• Each area to have individual automatic off-
hour controls (e.g. timeclock schedule) to
allow area to operate independent of other
areas
• Central systems must be capable of stable
operation with one zone operating

4-58
58
 Isolation Area (Zone Groups)
Example

Old
Methods

Current
Approach

Fan energy is reduced when using a

central system to serve a zone-group
rather than individual system!
4-59
59
Supply Air System

Zone Based Resets

“Trim & Respond” Reset Logic

Variable Definition
SP0 Initial setpoint
SPmin Minimum setpoint
SPmax Maximum setpoint
Td Delay timer
T Time step
I Number of ignored requests
R Number of requests from zones/systems
SPtrim Trim amount
SPres Respond amount
SPres-max Maximum response per time interval

61
“Trim & Respond” Reset Logic
Trim & Respond logic shall reset setpoint within the range SPmin to
SPmax. When the associated device (e.g. fan, pump) is off, the setpoint
shall be SP0. The reset logic shall be active while the associated device
is proven on, starting Td after initial device start command. When active,
every time step T, trim the setpoint by SPtrim. If there are more than I
Requests, respond by changing the setpoint by SPres times (R – I), i.e.
(the number of Requests minus the number of Ignored requests). But
the net response shall be no more than SPres-max. The sign of SPtrim must
be the opposite of SPres and SPres-max. For example, if SPtrim = -0.1, SPres
= +0.15, SPres-max = +0.35, R = 3, I = 2, then each time step, the setpoint
change = -0.1 + (3-2)*0.15 = +0.05. If R=10, then setpoint change = -0.1 +
(10-2)*0.15 = 1.1 but limited to a maximum of 0.35. If R≤2, the setpoint
change is -0.1.

Basic Idea: Keep trimming the setpoint

until zones “request” a response

62
 Zone “Requests”
 Typical “Requests”
• If the Loop is less than 85%, send 0 requests.
• If the Loop is greater than 95%, send 1 request.
 Importance Multiplier (IM)
• Multiply zone requests by IM
 Set manually by user
 Default IM = 1
• Allows “rogues” zones to be ignored (IM=0)
• Allows critical zones to increase response non-
proportionally
 Request-Hours
• Integral of requests over time
• %-request-hours displayed on graphics
• Used to identify rogue zones
63
 Trim & Respond vs. PID Loop

 Advantages
• Easier to tune
• Can “respond” more quickly than “trim”
• Easier to ignore “rogue” zones
• Reduced network traffic
• “Requests” can also be generated by
alarms and other metrics and
increased/decreased by Importance
Multiplier

64
Static Pressure Setpoint Reset

65
 Fan Energy at Varying SP Setpoints
120%

100%

80%
SP setpoint = TSP
Percent Fan kW

SP setpoint = TSP*.75
60% SP setpoint = TSP/2

Surge Region SP setpoint = TSP/3

SP setpoint = 0

40%

20%

0%
0 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Percent Fan CFM

66
 Real Fan Systems
Many Hours At Low Loads

4
Actual Data
3.5 Perfect System Curve (i.e. SP reset)
Pressure Drop Across Fan (" H2O)

Design Point (145,000 CFM at 4.0")

3 Likely Actual System Curve (No SP Reset)

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
0 20,000 40,000 60,000 80,000 100,000 120,000 140,000
Total CFM (SF-1 + SF-2)
67
 Zone Pressure Demand Options

 Analog actuators
• Damper signal
 Floating actuators
• Calculated damper position
PID loop output mapped to actuator; or
Time open/close contacts
• Damper position feedback
• Damper full-open end-switch
• Airflow rate

68
Trim & Respond Static Pressure
Setpoint Reset Logic
Variable Value
SP0 0.5 inches
SPmin 0.1 inches
SPmax Per §230593 Set by TAB Contractor
Td 10 minutes
T 2 minutes
I 2 Adjustable to limit dominance of rogue zones
R Zone Static
Pressure Reset
Requests
SPtrim -0.05 inches
SPres +0.06inches
SPres-max +0.13 inches

69
 Tuning – Unstable Control

1.4

1.2
y = 0.6709x + 0.2656
Static Pressure Setpoint

2
R = 0.5971
1

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
Actual Static Pressure 70
Tuning – Stable Control

71
Demand Based Reset Control
Trim and Respond Example

72
Outdoor air Economizers
 Integrated Air Economizer Control

MINIMUM OA ECONOMIZER OA
DAMPER DAMPER SUPPLY FAN

OUTDOOR MIXED
AIR AIR
SUPPLY AIR
TEMP
RA CHW VALVE SENSOR
DAMPER
HIGH LIMIT
SWITCH
RETURN SUPPLY AIR TEMP
AIR CONTROLLER

100% OPEN RA DAMPER

CHW VALVE

OA DAMPER
0% OPEN
SUPPLY AIR TEMP CONTROL LOOP
74
 Sequencing OA & RA dampers

100%

Outdoor air Damper

Return air Damper
Damper/valve Position, % open

HW Valve

CHW Valve

0%
-25% 0 30 70 100%
Supply Air Temperature Control Loop Output Signal

75
High Limit Devices
 High Limit Devices
 Fixed Drybulb Temperature
• Compares outdoor air drybulb to a fixed setpoint
 Differential (Differential) Drybulb Temperature
• Compares outdoor air drybulb to return air drybulb
 Fixed Enthalpy
• Compares outdoor air enthalpy to a fixed setpoint
 Differential (Differential) Enthalpy
• Compares outdoor air enthalpy to return air enthalpy
 Combinations of the above
• E.g. Fixed drybulb plus fixed enthalpy

77
 Measured Accuracy of New Sensors

12
Model A Model B Model C
Deviation from Actual Relative Humidity (%)

12 12

Deviation from Actual Relative Humidity (%)

Deviation from Actual Relative Humidity (%)

15oC 15oC 15oC
9 25oC 9 25oC 9 25oC
o o o
35 C 35 C 35 C
6 6 6

3 3 3

0 0 0

-3 -3 -3

-6 -6 -6

-9 -9 -9

-12 -12 -12

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Actual Relative Humidity (%) Actual Relative Humidity (%) Actual Relative Humidity (%)

12
Model D Model E Model F
Deviation from Actual Relative Humidity (%)

12
Deviation from Actual Relative Humidity (%)

12

Deviation from Actual Relative Humidity (%)

15oC 15oC 15oC
9 25oC 9 25oC 9 25oC
o o o
35 C 35 C 35 C
6 6 6

3 3 3

0 0 0

-3 -3 -3

-6 -6 -6

-9 -9 -9

-12 -12 -12

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Actual Relative Humidity (%) Actual Relative Humidity (%) Actual Relative Humidity (%) 78
 Aging / Drift Testing Results

Model C Model E
24 24
21 21
Actual Relative Humidity (%)

Actual Relative Humidity (%)

18 18
15 15
12 12

Deviation from
9
Deviation from

9
6 6
3 3
0 0
-3 -3
-6 -6
-9 -9
standard standard
-12 transmitter mean
deviation -12 transmitter mean
deviation
symbol (% RH) symbol (% RH)
-15 (% RH) -15 (% RH)
-18 -2.9 1.2
-18 -1.0 10.2
-21 -3.0 1.1 -21 2.0 9.3
-24 -24
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Actual Relative Humidity (%) Actual Relative Humidity (%)

 One year of data collected at 15 minute intervals

 Reference: Precision Grade 1% RH in-situ reference sensor

79
 Performance – Solid State Enthalpy Switch

 Actual Test DataEnthalpy Switch #2 Published vs Actual Data

 Enthalpy switch action curve
100

90

80

Setting A
70 Setting D
Relative Humidity, %RH

60

~ 4 BTU/lb
50
Setting D
Hysteresis
Setting A
~ 20% RH @
40 same temp

30
30 Btu/Lb
Setting D
20
Setting A
Economizer Disable
25 Btu/Lb
10
Economizer Enable D C B A
20 Btu/Lb
0
40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Chamber Temperature, Deg F

80
Fixed DB Diff DB Fixed Enthalpy Diff Enthalpy Diff Enthalpy  + DB Fixed Enthalpy + DB Fixed DB
DP + DB Diff DB Fixed Enthalpy Diff Enthalpy Diff Enthalpy  + DB Fixed Enthalpy + DB DP + DB

575 575

475 475

Economizer Savings  (Wh/sf/yr)
Economizer Savings  (Wh/sf/yr)

375 375

275 275

175 175

75 75

‐25 ‐25
1A Miami 1B Riyadh 2A Houston 2B Phoenix 3A Atlanta 3B Los Angeles 3C San Francisco

Fixed DB Diff DB Fixed Enthalpy Diff Enthalpy Diff Enthalpy  + DB Fixed Enthalpy + DB Fixed DB

DP + DB Diff DB Fixed Enthalpy Diff Enthalpy Diff Enthalpy  + DB Fixed Enthalpy + DB DP + DB

575 575

475 475
Economizer Savings  (Wh/sf/yr)
Economizer Savings  (Wh/sf/yr)

375 375

275 275

175 175

75 75

‐25 ‐25 81
4A Baltimore 4B Albuquerque 4C Seattle 5A Chicago 5B Boulder 5C Vancouver
 Required Maximum Differential Enthalpy
Error to Match Fixed Drybulb with ±2°F Error

1.4

Approximate Humidity  Sensor Error (% RH)
6.0
1.2
Enthalpy Sensor Error (Btu/lb)

1.0 5.0

0.8 4.0

0.6 3.0

0.4 2.0

0.2 1.0

0.0 0.0

82
 Conclusions
 [Dew point + fixed drybulb] logic should not be used anywhere.
 Differential drybulb control should not be used in humid
climates
 Fixed enthalpy control should not be used in dry climates
 Best with no sensor error: Differential enthalpy and
Differential/fixed drybulb
 Worst with sensor error: Differential enthalpy
 Best with sensor error: fixed drybulb control with setpoint
optimized by climate
 [Fixed enthalpy + fixed drybulb] performs well but not
measurably better than fixed drybulb alone even without error
 Electronic enthalpy switches are worse than drybulb switch
even without error and wide differential

83
High Limits – Standard 90.1-2013

Key changes:
• Fixed drybulb allowed in all climate zones
• Enthalpy limits can only be used along with fixed drybulb
• Electronic enthalpy eliminated
84
 Recommendation
 Use fixed drybulb in all climate zones at
the setpoint required by 90.1 (or
customized for climate via simulations)
• lowest first cost
• inherently high energy efficiency
• minimal sensor error
• minimal impact even when there is sensor error
• low maintenance costs

85
Supply Air Temperature Reset
 RP-1455 - Reheat System SAT Reset Logic
Supply Air Temperature Setpoint

65 SAT reset by demand

within this range

60

55

Tmin = 53F

55 60
65 70
70 75
Outdoor Air Temperature

87
 VAV Reheat System SAT Reset Logic

During occupied mode: Variable Value

Setpoint shall be reset SP0 SPmax
from T-min (the design SPmin Design
cooling coil leaving air cooling coil
temperature per coil leaving
schedule) when the temperature
outdoor air temperature is from AHU
70F and above, schedule
SPmax 65ºF
proportionally up to T- Td 10 minutes
max when the outdoor air T 2 minutes
temperature is 60F and I 2
below. T-max shall be R Zone Cooling
reset using Trim & SAT Requests
Respond logic with the SPtrim +0.2ºF
following parameters: SPres -0.3ºF
SPres-max -1.0ºF
88
Minimum Outdoor Air Control
 Need to measure OA flow. But OA
intake measurements are challenging!

 Low air speeds, near

detection limits of many
sensors
• Especially at minimum rates
of OA supply
 Spatially variable (non-
uniform) direction of air
flow
 Limited space
 Air flow rates &
temperatures vary over time
 Sensors may be exposed to
moisture and dust
 Effects of winds

90
 Lab and Field Tests
 Fisk et al (LBNL 2004, 2005)
• Measured performance of 5 measurement
technologies in lab and a few in the field
• Unfortunately only tested a few products – many
more available but untested
 Fisk et al (Building Energy Research
Grant. 2010)
• Measured only one product
 ASHRAE RP-980 (2007)
• Theoretical review and lab tests of several common
airflow measurement concepts
 May be the only unbiased tests (not
performed by manufacturers)
91
Fixed Minimum OA Damper Position
Most Common Approach

Does NOT WORK for VAV since mixed air

plenum pressure varies!! Outdoor air flow
will vary proportional to supply air flow.

Outdoor Air

Minimum
Signal Pot.
Return Air
Signal from
SAT Controller

92
RP-980 Lab Results
Fixed Minimum OA Damper

110%
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% 110%
S u p p ly A ir % of D esig n

93
 Dual Minimum Position
 Minimum damper position is set
proportionally based on fan speed
between setpoints determined when the
fan is at full speed and minimum speed
 Low cost
 Poor accuracy due to
• Nonlinear response between min and max
• Affected by wind, stack effective, filter loading

94
 Energy (or CO2) Balance

Does NOT WORK when OAT ~ RAT (which it is

when high limit is reached)

Outdoor Air OAT MAT

RAT

Return Air
DDC

%OA = (MAT - RAT) / (OAT - RAT)

CFM-OA = %OA * CFM-SA
95
 Return Fan Tracking
May NOT WORK due to cumulative error in flow
sensors and possible flow reversal, and ONLY
could work if pressurization CFM=OACFM

Outdoor Air

VSD

Exhaust Air

Return Air
DDC

VSD
Signal from
SAT Controller 96
RP-980 Return Fan Tracking Predicted Error

97
 Air Flow Measurement of 100% OA

Air Flow Measuring

Station

AFMS
Outdoor Air

Does NOT WORK unless

AFMS is very accurate at
Return Air low flow

DDC

Signal From SAT Controller

98
 Typical Pitot Array

15.0%
0.50 inW.G. DP Sensor
13.5% 0.25 inW.G. DP Sensor
0.10 inW.G. DP Sensor
12.0%

10.5%

9.0%

7.5%

6.0%

4.5%

3.0%

1.5%

0.0%
- 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200 1,400 1,600 1,800
Velocity [fpm]

99
Other Systems:
Minimum 300-400 fpm

100
Thermal Dispersion Anemometer

Manufacturer ‘s claim: ±2% of reading ≥50 fpm

101
Other Thermal Mass Flow Sensor

• + 3% accuracy ≥100 fpm

• AMCA Certified

102
 Injection Fan w/AFMS

Injection Fan w/
Discharge Damper

AFMS
Outdoor Air

Works, but fan

airflow measurement
and damper (not
VFD) required since
fan volume will vary Return Air
with DP
Signal from SAT Controller
103
 Dedicated Minimum Outdoor Air
Section with AFMS

Outdoor Air

Works! But space

needed for AMS
DDC Return Air
Signal from SAT Controller

104
Fixed Minimum OA Damper w/
Plenum Pressure Control
Works, and lowest cost, but control sequence can
be complex and/or fan energy increased slightly.
Not accurate when airflow setpoint is reset

Outdoor Air

DDC Return Air

Signal from SAT Controller

105
 Summary of OSA Control Methods

METHOD ACCURACY
Fixed Minimum Very poor
Dual Minimum Fair
Energy/CO2 Balance Very Poor
Return Fan Tracking Poor to Good (if app)
100% AFMS Poor to Good
Injection Fan Good to Excellent
Dedicated Min AFMS Good to Excellent
∆P Across OA Damper Good
106
Demand Control Ventilation

ASHRAE 1547-RP CO2-BASED

DEMAND CONTROLLED
VENTILATION FOR MULTIPLE
ZONE HVAC SYSTEMS
 Demand Controlled Ventilation
Requirements
 Standard 62.1 allows DCV
• Occupant ventilation component
can be reduced based on actual
occupancy
 CO2 sensors listed as example
• No current reduction allowed in
building component

 Standard 90.1 requires DCV

for most VAV applications
with DDC

108
 CO2 Demand Controlled
Ventilation
 Key assumptions:
• The per-person ventilation rates required by
Standard 62.1 are based on a bioeffluent
concentration “with which a substantial majority
(80% or more) of the <occupants> exposed do not
express dissatisfaction”
• Bioeffluent generation rate is proportional to
number of occupants and their activity level and
that the relationship is predictable and fixed
• CO2 generation rate is proportional to bioeffluent
generation rate
 RP 1547 basically affirmed these
assumptions based on existing research

109
Why Return CO2 Sensors Don’t Work

CO2 sensors must sense CO2 in the

occupied space
110
Single Zone CO2 DCV Control
Schematic

Total
Design
CFM

Area
Based
CFM

400 SS-Max
CO2 concentration
111
 CO2 DCV with Multiple Zone Systems

2) Increase minimum system OA

and cooling (or heating) load?

1) Increase zone
airflow and reheat?

on rise in space CO2 CO2

what do you change?

112
 Multiple Zone System CO2 DCV
 Simplified Approach
• First: Increase the zone damper up to 100% of zone
maximum based on zone CO2 signal
• Then: Increase the minimum OA setpoint from unoccupied
minimum rate to design minimum rate based on maximum
zone CO2 signal

100% Design OA
AHU OA
Zone Zone Rate
Minimum
CFM Minimum
Setpoint
Setpoint

Area Area Based

Based OA Rate
Zone
Minimum
CO2 Control Signal
113
 RP-1547 Approach (Option 1)
 AHU Design
• Design AHU outdoor air intake is sum of zone design airflow rates
 Optionally adjusted for occupant diversity
• Required sensors:
 Supply air CO2
 Return air CO2
 Outdoor Airflow Measuring Station at both minimum and economizer intakes
 Zone Design
• Cool and Heat maximum setpoints determined normally
• Minimum airflow setpoints:
 CO2 zones: building component
 Occupancy sensor zones: building component
 Other zones: both building and occupant component
 AHU Controls
• Dynamically recalculate required outdoor air intake based on Standard
62.1 multiple spaces equation
 Setpoint varies from sum of design zone minimums to Design rate
• Control minimum outdoor air rate with dampers
• Economizer dampers controlled normally
 Zone Controls
• If outdoor air rate (including economizer) is below setpoint, find “critical
zone” and increase zone minimum until this satisfies AHU setpoint

114
 RP-1547 Approach

 Advantages
• No need to use “multiple spaces equation” for design
AHU outdoor air rate – just add up zone rates
• VAV box minimums simply equal to the zone
ventilation rate
• Very high HVAC energy savings
 25%-46% depending on climate
 Disadvantages
• Only applies to single path VAV systems
• Impact of CO2 sensor inaccuracy not known
• Future RPs needed
 Multiple path systems
 Error analysis and field study on CO2 sensors

115
 AFDD: Automatic Fault
Detection & Diagnostics
 Based on research by House, Bushby
and Schein at NIST in 2000-2006
 Only for air handlers (APAR). VAV
box FDD (VPACC) requires too much
tuning
 Finds fault and diagnosis by
evaluating equations (mostly energy
balance)

116
AFDD Fault Conditions

117
AFDD Equations Depend on AHU
Operating State

118
 Hierarchical Alarm Suppression

 Nuisance alarms are a huge problem for

operators
 If upstream equipment (e.g. AHU) and
downstream equipment (e.g. VAV boxes) are
both in alarm, this suppresses downstream
alarms
 Must define upstream/downstream
relationships for air, cooling, and heat
 Upstream equipment passes “OK” token to
downstream equipment when it’s working
right. Until getting “OK”, downstream alarms
are suppressed
119
 Summary

 In this class, you have learned to

optimizing VAV System Controls for
• VAV terminal units per RP-1455 and RP-
1515
• AHUs per RP-1455
• Ventilation Systems per RP-980 and RP-
1547
 And more!

120
 Resources
 TE Articles
• “Sizing VAV Boxes”, ASHRAE Journal, March 2004
• “CO2-Based DCV Using Standard 62.1-2004”. ASHRAE Journal May 2006:
• “Increasing Efficiency with VAV System Static Pressure Reset”, ASHRAE Journal
July 2007
• “Economizer High Limit Devices and Why Enthalpy Economizers Don't Work”,
ASHRAE Journal November 2010
• “Dual Maximum VAV Box Logic”, ASHRAE Journal, December 2012
• Available at no charge from http://www.taylor-
engineering.com/publications/articles.shtml
 Dickerhoff D., Stein J.; “Stability and Accuracy of VAV Terminal
Units at Low Flow”, PG&E 0514, http://www.etcc-
ca.com/reports/stability-and-accuracy-vav-terminal-units-low-flow
 Lui R., Wen J.; Stability and Accuracy of VAV Box Control at
Low Flows”, ASHRAE 1353-RP
 Iowa State Energy Center National Building Controls
Information Program
http://www.energy.iastate.edu/Efficiency/Commercial/nbcip.htm#ptreports

121
Questions

122