Enterprise Architecture As Platform For Connected Government
Enterprise Architecture As Platform For Connected Government
FOR CONNECTED GOVERNMENT
Advancing the Whole‐of‐Government Enterprise
Architecture Adoption with Strategic (Systems) Thinking
NUS – Government Enterprise Architecture Research Project
Principal Researcher: Dr. Pallab Saha
© 2010 NUS Institute of Systems Science
NUS Institute of Systems Science grants permission to reprint this document provided this cover page is included.
Advancing W‐O‐G EA Adoption with Systems Thinking | Phase 2 Report | © NUS Institute of Systems Science
WITH CONTRIBUTIONS FROM
1. Manohar. K. Bhattarai, GOVERNMENT OF NEPAL
2. Saleem Zoughbi, Ph.D., UNITED NATIONS
3. Haiyan Qian, UNITED NATIONS
The author would like to acknowledge the support of Microsoft Corporation in this research.
A special thank you goes to Lorenzo Madrid for sharing ideas, observations and review
comments throughout the development of this report.
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Contents
0 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................. 6
0.1 DEFINING ENTERPRISE ARCHITECTURE ........................................................... 6
0.2 WHY ENTERPRISE ARCHITECTURE MATTERS IN GOVERNMENT ..................... 7
0.2.1 Understanding Connected Government ........................................................................ 8
0.2.2 Role of Government Enterprise Architecture .............................................................. 10
0.3 ABOUT THE RESEARCH .................................................................................. 11
0.3.1 Objectives ..................................................................................................................... 11
0.3.2 Structure of the Research ............................................................................................ 12
0.4 ASSESSMENT FRAMEWORK .......................................................................... 12
0.5 SUMMARY OF PHASE 1 STUDY ...................................................................... 13
1 SYSTEMS THINKING FOR THE BUSINESS OF GOVERNMENT .......... 15
2 SYSTEMS MODELING FOR W‐O‐G EA ADOPTION .......................... 18
2.1 THE TRANSFORMATION IMPERATIVE ........................................................... 18
2.2 ICT CAPABILITY AND INDUSTRY DEVELOPMENT ........................................... 19
2.3 ICT ADOPTION AND SAVVYNESS ................................................................... 20
2.4 DIVERGING AGENDAS ................................................................................... 23
2.5 FEUDAL GOVERNANCE .................................................................................. 25
2.6 ECOSYSTEM AND THE CRITICAL MASS .......................................................... 26
2.7 EXPANDING HORIZONS ................................................................................. 28
2.8 UNDERSTANDING THE BUSINESS VALUE HURDLE ........................................ 29
2.9 THE POLITICAL DYNAMICS ............................................................................ 31
2.10 THE COMPLETE PERSPECTIVE AND LINKING IT ALL ...................................... 33
3 PERSPECTIVES .............................................................................. 36
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3.1 GOVERNMENT OF NEPAL .............................................................................. 36
3.2 UNITED NATIONS .......................................................................................... 36
4 INTERVENTION STRATEGIES ......................................................... 40
4.1 EMERGENT SYSTEMIC PROFILE ..................................................................... 40
4.2 DESIGNING INTERVENTION STRATEGIES ...................................................... 42
4.3 ILLUSTRATIONS FROM THE REAL WORLD ..................................................... 47
4.4 ESCAPING THE SHACKLES —DESIGNING W‐O‐G EA ADOPTION ................... 48
5 CONCLUSIONS AND WAY FORWARD ............................................ 50
6 REFERENCES ................................................................................. 52
7 ABOUT THE AUTHOR .................................................................... 55
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Exhibits
Exhibit 0‐1: Enterprise Lifecycle with Architecture ................................................................... 7
Exhibit 0‐2: Benefits from IT‐Enabled Connected Government ................................................ 8
Exhibit 0‐3: High Level Relationship of Government EA and E‐Government Maturity ........... 11
Exhibit 0‐4: Enterprise Architecture Assessment Framework for Connected Government ... 13
Exhibit 1‐1: Characteristics of Complex Dynamic Systems (Governments) ............................ 15
Exhibit 1‐2: Comparing Conventional and Systems Thinking .................................................. 16
Exhibit 2‐1: Complexity Triggered Government Transformation ............................................ 18
Exhibit 2‐2: Economic Impact of ICT Industry in South Korea (2007 – 2017) (Source: WEF) .. 19
Exhibit 2‐3: Impact on ICT Capability and Industry Development .......................................... 20
Exhibit 2‐4: Impact on ICT Diffusion and Leverage.................................................................. 21
Exhibit 2‐5: ICT and its Role and Impact in National Economy (Source: OECD) ...................... 22
Exhibit 2‐6: World Economic Forum’s Net Strategy Framework (Source: WEF) ..................... 23
Exhibit 2‐7: Limit to Government Transformation with Diverging Agendas ........................... 24
Exhibit 2‐8: Feudalism as the Predominant Governance Archetype ...................................... 26
Exhibit 2‐9: Government EA Ecosystem and the Lead Adopters ............................................ 27
Exhibit 2‐10: Critical Mass Adopters and the Implementation Learning Curve ...................... 28
Exhibit 2‐11: Enterprise Architecture as the Architecture of the Enterprise .......................... 29
Exhibit 2‐12: The ROI Conundrum and its Impact on Program Continuity ............................. 30
Exhibit 2‐13: EA Office and the Burden of Stretch Targets ..................................................... 31
Exhibit 2‐14: Extending the Feudalism .................................................................................... 32
Exhibit 2‐15: Self‐Sufficiency as a Perceived Virtue ................................................................ 32
Exhibit 2‐16: Complacency and Inertia as System Constraints ............................................... 33
Exhibit 2‐17: Putting it All Together – The Holistic View ......................................................... 35
Exhibit 4‐1: Approach to Construct Emergent Systemic Profile .............................................. 40
Exhibit 4‐2: Systemic States for Intervention Design .............................................................. 41
Exhibit 4‐3: Comparing Current and Recommended Paradigms ............................................. 43
Exhibit 4‐4: Mapping Systemic Interventions to Stages of Connected Government ............. 46
Exhibit 4‐5: Intervention Strategies Proposed for Australia’s Government 2.0 Program ....... 48
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0 INTRODUCTION
0.1 DEFINING ENTERPRISE ARCHITECTURE
Enterprise Architecture is the inherent design and management approach essential for
organizational coherence leading to alignment, agility and assurance 1 .
Structured enterprise architecture (EA) approach is often used to plan and implement
efficient and effective transformation efforts. However, the strongest driver for EA is to
improve service delivery and overall performance within the organization's business
segments. The principal challenge faced by chief architects today is to institute an EA
program that is able to coordinate sustainable changes throughout the enterprise, while
simultaneously mentoring the specific transformation planning that is needed to support the
mission.
In a nutshell, EA is a robust planning function which helps organizations to understand the
process by which business strategies turn into operational reality. Hence, establishing a
standard methodology for conducting architecture planning and implementation is vital.
Metaphorically, an EA is to an organization’s operations and systems as a set of blueprints is
to a city and its buildings. Traditionally, by following an architecture‐based approach to
systems development, organizations strive to address issues pertaining to: (1) business–IT
alignment; (2) information accuracy and integrity; (3) infrastructure management; (4)
security; (5) technology compatibility; (6) business value of IT; (7) IT governance; (8) business
collaboration; and (8) procurement among others. Though EA is often assumed to follow an
organization’s strategy and to align IT with business objectives, increasingly, evidence of the
reverse is also surfacing. In other words, organization strategies are being influenced by IT
capabilities.
At a high‐level, EA consists of a hierarchy of architectural domains that can be loosely
associated with full EA delivery, as:
► The business architecture, which defines the enterprise business outcomes,
functions, capabilities and end‐to‐end business processes, and their relationships to
external entities required to execute business strategies;
► The data / information architecture, which deals with the structure and utility of
information within the organization, and its alignment with its strategic, tactical and
operational needs;
► The application architecture, which specifies the structure of individual systems
based on defined technology; and
► The technical architecture, which defines the technology environment and
infrastructure in which all IT systems operate.
The above four domains largely represent the current state of practice in the discipline of
EA. In their book Coherency Management–Architecting the Enterprise for Alignment, Agility
and Assurance, authors Doucet, Gotze, Saha and Bernard present and discuss the extended
and embedded modes of EA in addition to the traditional mode. They assert that as
1
Source: Coherency Management – Architecting the Enterprise for Alignment, Agility and Assurance; Gary Doucet, John Gotze,
Pallab Saha & Scott Bernard; 2009.
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organization start embracing the more advanced extended and embedded modes, the need
for synergy and consistency amplifies, thus facilitating the attainment of organizational
coherence, the ultimate goal of EA. Successful EA not only captures the above four domains,
but also the relationships between them. Having linkages between the four domains
provides line‐of‐sight (or traceability) to the relevant stakeholders of the EA. Exhibit 0‐1
depicts how EA is usually positioned within the organization. It is important to remember
that keeping EA linked upstream to strategic management and downstream to portfolio
management and system development lifecycle provides an effective approach to business
transformation. It thus allows for a complete lifecycle approach to business transformation.
Exhibit 0‐1: Enterprise Lifecycle with Architecture
EA effectively supports the business, enables information sharing across departments /
divisions / organizations, enhances management’s ability to deliver effective and timely
services and improves operational efficiencies. Committing to an on‐going EA practice within
an enterprise enables a business‐aligned and technology‐adaptive enterprise that is effective
efficient and agile.
0.2 WHY ENTERPRISE ARCHITECTURE MATTERS IN GOVERNMENT
Most governments worldwide are in the midst of substantial public sector transformation
activities. A majority of these initiatives are triggered by the need to have better and
seamless government services delivered online. The focus on automating government
services often is largely limited to specific ministries and agencies. However, such initiatives
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lack the cross‐ministry / agency viewpoint and coordination. This creates challenges in taking
a Whole‐of‐Government (W‐O‐G) approach with its concomitant benefits, which are much
more than benefits derived by taking agency‐centric viewpoints. These shortcomings are
clearly evident in the findings of the UN Global E‐Government Survey 2010. According to the
UN, the value of e‐government will be increasingly defined by its contribution to national
development. Lack of coherent strategy is often cited as the primary reason for under‐
development of e‐government. Moving forward, more and more countries are adopting
national e‐government strategies and multi‐year action plans, and EA is the strategy that
governments are increasingly looking toward. According to Haiyan Qian, Director of the
Division for Public Administration and Development Management, United Nations
Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA), “EA is an effective strategic planning
tool for governments by [facilitating] creation of linkages and improving interoperability
among government agencies, benefiting both internal operational processes as well as
improved public service delivery to citizens.”
0.2.1 Understanding Connected Government
Connected government enables governments to connect seamlessly across functions,
agencies and jurisdictions to deliver effective and efficient services to citizens and
businesses.
The United Nations (UN), in its Global E‐Government Survey of 2008, used connected
governance as its primary criteria by which to evaluate and rank national e‐government
programs. According to the survey report, the concept of connected government is derived
from the W‐O‐G approach which utilizes technology as a strategic tool and enabler for public
service innovation and productivity growth, the two key outcomes being innovation and
productivity. In continuation of this theme, the UN Global E‐Government Survey of 2010
takes the concept of connected government even further, adding “citizen‐centricity” as the
watchword. This approach to government service delivery requires countries to shift from a
model of providing government services via traditional modes to integrated electronic
modes wherein the value to the citizens and businesses gets enhanced. According to the UN,
such IT‐enabled services (e‐services) can actually improve the rate and quality of public
service delivery in times of economic crises.
Thus IT‐enabled connected government, of which e‐services are a crucial component, leads
to several benefits, both internally to the provider agencies and governments, and externally
to the consumer citizens and businesses. Exhibit 0‐2 lists the benefits:
Benefits from IT‐Enabled Connected Government
Internal External
(To Provider Agencies and Governments) (To Consumer Citizens and Businesses)
1. Avoidance of duplication 1. Faster service delivery
2. Reduction in transaction costs 2. Greater efficacy
3. Simplified bureaucratic procedures 3. Increased flexibility of service use
4. Greater efficiencies 4. Innovation in service delivery
5. Richer communication & coordination 5. Greater participation and inclusion
6. Enhanced transparency 6. Greater citizen empowerment
7. Greater information sharing 7. Greater openness and transparency
8. Secure information management
Exhibit 0‐2: Benefits from IT‐Enabled Connected Government
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Government transformation is a long term endeavor that is seldom impacted by any short
term technology trends. In their transition toward connected government, all governments
typically traverse through the four primary stages of e‐government capability and maturity,
each stage representing a progressively higher level in the government transformation
continuum. The four widely used stages of e‐government capability and maturity are; web‐
presence, interaction, transaction and transformation. Furthermore, connected
government is the desired state that countries strive to reach as part of the transformation
level of e‐government maturity. However, there is no straightforward way to describe what
exactly connected government means and its implications to countries.
Based on the current state of practice and available literature, connected government is
expected to entail certain characteristics and capabilities. These characteristics and
capabilities, described below, are clearly stated to be the key contributors to e‐government
development according to the UN E‐Government Survey 2010, and in turn contribute to
national development. These characteristics and capabilities, structured as dimensions,
allow connected government to be viewed as a multi‐dimensional construct. The dimensions
of connected government are:
► Citizen centricity: This refers to viewing the governments from the outside in, i.e.
understanding the requirements and expectations of the citizens becomes the pre‐
eminent guiding principle for all government policies, programs and services. In
short, this represents the service‐dominant logic which requires the governments to
operate as one enterprise and organize itself around citizen demands and
requirements. Aside from the citizens per se, other government constituents, such
as businesses and civil organizations, are captured in the social inclusion dimension
described later;
► Common infrastructure and interoperability: This refers to the use of standards and
best practices across governments so as to encourage and enable sharing of
information in a seamless manner. Interoperability is the ability of organizations to
share information and knowledge within and across organizational boundaries. The
underlying foundation for effective interoperability comes from standardized
common infrastructure;
► Collaborative services and business operations: Connected government requires
ministries and agencies to collaborate. It is not difficult to uncover success stories
about integration and interoperability at the technology level. However, to
collaborate at the level of business services and functions requires political will. This
is because collaboration at this level leads to shallower stovepipes, elimination of
redundant or overlapping services and discovery of common and shared services,
which in turn lead to loss of authority and control for some;
► Public sector governance: This refers to the decision rights and the accountability
framework required for implementing all the other strategies for connected
government. Good governance is a non‐negotiable factor in the success of
connected government, more so for countries that have multiple levels of
governments (i.e. federal / central; state / provincial; and town / city) where various
levels could be administered by different political parties;
► Networked organizational model: As Theresa Pardo and Brian Burke discuss in their
work on government interoperability, this refers to the need to accommodate new
organizational models wherein the enterprise (in this context the whole of
government) is a network of relatively autonomous ministries and agencies working
in a coherent manner to deliver value to both citizens and businesses. This makes
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0.2.2 Role of Government Enterprise Architecture
According to the UN, moving to connected government requires a holistic and coherent
framework, which cannot be achieved by piecemeal approaches and mechanisms. Such a
framework recognizes the integrated presence of e‐government both as an internal driver of
transformation within the public sector and an external driver of better governance.
Typically governments are the largest organizations. They are further characterized by
complex federated structures where individual government organizations work in their
respective silos. This often leads to fragmented business processes and duplicated systems
and technologies, creating obstacles in cross agency interoperability. Government‐wide
architecture allows end‐to‐end business processes, standard technologies, rationalized data
structure and modularized e‐services that can be assembled as required to deliver e‐
services.
EA is a critical success factor for all types, scale and intensities of e‐government programs.
The key goal of EA in government organizations is to make them citizen‐centered, results‐
oriented and market‐based. Governments usually pass through different evolutionary stages
in their EA journeys. The MIT Center for Information Systems Research identifies four such
evolutionary stages; business silos, standardized technology, rationalized data and
applications and business modularity. Even though standardization of technology is strictly
not a prerequisite, it is a valid entry point into the EA journey for many countries. The
primary reasons being: (1) EA programs are largely driven by the CIO / IT Department, hence
they have maximum control over the technology infrastructure; (2) this is an area where
tangible benefits can be demonstrated fairly quickly. These two reasons make technology
standardization an attractive entry point, even though countries (and governments) must
move beyond this to other stages of EA evolution to derive full benefits. However, the
caveat is that transitioning to higher levels of evolution requires greater involvement of a
broad range of stakeholders and government constituents.
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Interestingly, there exists a positive correlation between the desired level of e‐government
capability and maturity and the required level of architectural maturity. Exhibit 0‐3 depicts
this relationship, from which the ability to build and manage advanced government EA is a
necessary prerequisite for countries to elevate to higher levels of e‐government maturity
and capability.
Government EA Maturity Stages
E‐Government Maturity Rationalised
Stages Standardized Business
Business Silos Data and
Technology Modularity
Applications
1. Web Presence √
2. Interaction √ √
3. Transaction √√ √
4. Transformation
(Connected Government)
√√ √√√
Exhibit 0‐3: High Level Relationship of Government EA and E‐Government Maturity
0.3 ABOUT THE RESEARCH
Sections 0.1 and 0.2 are intended to provide a general overview about the key components
of this research, namely, enterprise architecture, e‐government (connected government)
and the relationship between the two.
Connected government as a goal is gaining acceptance and popularity. This is demonstrated
by various e‐government surveys that are conducted regularly by different organizations
including the UN. The expanding role of EA as a central component for e‐government
programs is substantiated by the fact that several countries have taken a legislative
approach to embracing and adopting EA. Furthermore, there have been several EA surveys
conducted in the past few years. Hence, individually (e‐government and EA) are well
understood, richly documented and regularly assessed and researched.
This research addresses the gap in current literature in terms of linking and understanding
the relationship between e‐government and government EA. Within this broader context,
the focus is specifically on uncovering and comprehending the relationship between
government EA and connected government. The primary reason for focusing on connected
government is that it is the area where government EA has the highest potential for
influence and as a result the highest levels of benefits derivation.
In summary, the aim is to address the questions “can enterprise architecture act as a
platform for connected government?” and “what will it take for enterprise architecture to
do so?” substantiating any claims with empirical evidence.
0.3.1 Objectives
This research aims to:
A. Identify and develop the dimensions of connected government and position it as a
multi‐dimensional construct.
B. Specify the levers that positively influence the various dimensions of connected
government.
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C. Understand the role of enterprise architecture (either as facilitator or inhibitor) in
achieving connected government.
D. Identify the enterprise architecture capabilities and structure them as a meta‐
framework to act as a positive factor to connected government.
E. Document case studies and experience reports of successful use of enterprise
architecture in transitioning to some or all stages of connected government.
0.3.2 Structure of the Research
This work is organized into four logically sequenced phases. Collectively, the four phases
address all the above research objectives.
► Phase 1: Phase 1 report documents the part of the research that focuses primarily
on Objective A and establishes the context and background for Objectives B, C and
D;
► Phase 2: Phase 2 report (this report) documents the part of the research that
focuses primarily on Objectives B and C;
► Phase 3: Phase 3 report documents the part of the research that focuses primarily
on Objective D; and
► Phase 4: Phase 4 report documents the part of the research that focuses primarily
on Objective E. In addition, this report also integrates and summarizes the findings
across the four phases.
0.4 ASSESSMENT FRAMEWORK
In order to study and analyze government EA frameworks and associated activities, an
assessment framework has been established and utilized for the rest of the study. In
alignment with the research objectives delineated in Section 0.3.1, the Enterprise
Architecture Assessment Framework for Connected Government (EAAF‐CG) is based on the
dimensions of connected government presented in Section 0.2.1. Exhibit 0‐4 summarizes the
established assessment framework along with the dimensions and levers. Connected
government is systemic in nature. This makes the relationships between dimensions and
levers causal and mutually reinforcing among and between themselves by design.
Enterprise Architecture Assessment Framework for Connected Government
Dimensions of Connected Government Levers to Connected Government Dimensions
A. Citizen requirements & expectations
B. Government appears and operates as one
1. Citizen Centricity C. Multiple channels of engagement
D. Adaptability of government services
A. Technology standards
2. Common Infrastructure & B. Government‐wide applications & systems
Interoperability C. Data exchange standards
D. ICT & infrastructure management
A. Collaborative business functions
3. Collaborative Services & Business B. Shared services
Operations C. Shared information
D. Service innovation & back office reorganization
A. Business function ownership
4. Public Sector Governance B. Business outcome accountability
C. Governance structures, policies and practices
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Enterprise Architecture Assessment Framework for Connected Government
Dimensions of Connected Government Levers to Connected Government Dimensions
D. Institutionalization of governance
A. Multi‐stakeholder cooperation
B. Ministry / agency and government level autonomy
5. Networked Organizational Model C. Cluster based approach & common mission
D. Value network
A. Citizen engagement at various levels
6. Social Inclusion B. Citizen outreach
C. Responsive government
A. Public scrutiny & oversight
B. Data discovery, availability & accessibility
7. Transparent & Open Government C. Performance management & accountability
D. Legal Framework(s)
Exhibit 0‐4: Enterprise Architecture Assessment Framework for Connected Government
0.5 SUMMARY OF PHASE 1 STUDY
The Phase 1 report “Understanding the Impact of Enterprise Architecture on Connected
Government ‐ A Qualitative Analysis” establishes several critical concepts and findings. It
sets the context. A summary of these findings are listed below.
A. Connected government remains a favored and much desired goal for national
governments, the impetus further coming from the periodic e‐government surveys
conducted by the UN and various other organizations. The four evolutionary stages
of connected government are:
► Intragovernmental: Connectedness among and between government
ministries and agencies that usually leads to the whole‐of‐government
perspective and being viewed as a single virtual and networked enterprise.
This also includes interactions and coherency at multiple layers of
government (national, state, provincial, district, city);
► Intergovernmental: This is connectedness between sovereign nations driven
by common and shared goals and objectives on issues that have multi‐
country or global repercussions (examples include law enforcement,
customs, counter‐terrorism, health, intellectual property, free trade
agreements, etc.);
► Extragovernmental: This refers to the connectedness between government
and associated business organizations and partners outside of the
government. This type of connectedness allows the creation of services that
may be planned and delivered in collaboration with non‐governmental
entities, seamlessly integrated and usually leading to service ecosystems;
and
► Ubiquitous: This refers to connectedness that facilitates multi‐dimensional
multi‐channel pervasive communication between all stakeholders (but
focusing more on citizens) by way of participation, engagement, openness,
government transparency and accountability. In some literature these are
the goals of Government 2.0. This is the stage wherein government itself
acts as a platform and coherency is imperative as connectedness is fully
diffused, comprehensive and encompasses the emotional aspects as well.
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B. As part of the e‐government lexicon, government EA: (1) has attained the status of
mainstream activity and is gaining further traction; (2) is a precondition for
successful implementation of connected government; (3) is challenging and
sometimes intimidating to countries who do not yet have adequate prerequisites;
(4) provides a structured and disciplined approach to converge several technology
and management centric activities; (5) facilitates the move toward value network as
the primary value configuration; and (6) requires enhancements in the way it is
designed, developed, portrayed, managed and utilized to provide the necessary
impetus for countries to move toward connected government.
C. Many e‐government initiatives fall short of their goals as a result of being
conceptualized and implemented in a piecemeal manner rather than
comprehensively and from a whole‐of‐government perspective. The stove piped
approach is ingrained in the financial structures, intervention designs, policies and
evaluation methods. Government EA offers the potential to act as the meta‐
discipline that provides mechanisms to holistically understand the enterprise in
question (i.e. governments) and link and optimize disparate activities and
approaches into a single unified coherent program.
D. The challenge is to view governments as complex and dynamic systems and, in
order to support the whole‐of‐government paradigm, embrace systems‐thinking.
This is an imperative as systems thinking provides new vantage points and new
perspectives.
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1 SYSTEMS THINKING FOR THE BUSINESS OF GOVERNMENT
Government EA has gained the center stage as an essential discipline to enable and even
drive government transformation. To be considered as the “architecture of the enterprise”,
it is thus an imperative to understand the enterprise that is to be architected, an
understanding that permeates the entire enterprise. Yet, all current government EA
activities focus entirely on the operational aspects, completely ignoring the more important
strategic aspects. In order for government leaders and policy makers to comprehend the
role and intended outcomes from government EA programs, it is imperative that they view
such programs from a strategic viewpoint in the way these are planned, designed,
embraced, managed and governed. It would be an understatement to say that enterprises
are complex. Going a step further, governments are even more complex and at times
paradoxical. This stems from the fact that governments are by far the largest enterprises and
with size comes complexity. Complexities in governments are of both types—combinatorial
complexity and dynamic complexity. Complexity arising due to sheer number of
components and elements that are interconnected refers to combinatorial complexity.
Dynamic complexity, on the other hand, arises due to the velocity of change and the
quantum of interactions between the components and elements. In addition, unpredictable
delays between decisions and their effects (and counter‐effects) completes the picture of
what constitute, according to Gartner, “wicked problems”. In short, governments are
excellent examples of complex dynamic systems.
A system is defined as a set of interrelated things encompassed by a well defined
and permeable boundary, interacting with one another and an external environment,
forming a complex but unitary whole and working toward a common overall goal.
Governments around the world are facing several challenges (wicked problems) and are
under pressure to address these challenges in more open, accountable and transparent
ways from active and vocal citizens and businesses alike. In order for governments to
transform, it is critical that they are understood and, as complex dynamic systems
governments, exhibit the following characteristics:
Common Characteristics of Complex Dynamic Systems (Governments)
1. Constantly changing 6. Self‐organizing
2. Tightly coupled 7. Adaptive
3. Governed by feedback 8. Counterintuitive
4. Non‐linear 9. Policy resistant
5. History dependent 10. Trade‐off dependent
Exhibit 1‐1: Characteristics of Complex Dynamic Systems (Governments)
Enterprises (in this case governments) characterized by the above, require much more than
conventional thinking in order to understand the underlying system and the challenges that
the system faces. The success of government transformation programs thus becomes
dependent on comprehending the underlying system. Ambiguity in understanding the
system is one of the primary reasons for public sector transformation showing less than
satisfactory results and success rates. It is amply evident that countries are adopting Whole‐
of‐Government (W‐O‐G) EA as the meta‐discipline to trigger, design and realize government
transformation. However, in the past decade or so the focus of W‐O‐G EA programs have
been on developing frameworks, methodologies, languages, guidelines, best practices,
reference architectures and other capacity building activities. This is evident in the surveys
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done and presented in the Phase 1 report of this research. Despite all these seemingly
impressive efforts, the adoption of W‐O‐G EA has been less than impressive. This is
evidenced by Gartner’s Hype Cycle for Government Transformation 2009, wherein W‐O‐G
EA would require another 5 to 10 years before reaching full maturity and delivering benefits
justifying its immense potential. On the upside, however, Gartner’s Hype Cycle for
Enterprise Architecture 2010 does state that W‐O‐G EA is past the bottom of the trough of
disillusionment. There is no dearth of literature and other enabling resources for countries
to build their enterprise architectures. Yet, after the initial enthusiasm, things are difficult to
sustain with questions often being raised regarding the efficacy of government EA efforts.
This is not surprising at all. EA efforts in the past decade or so have concentrated on building
what could be termed as solutions to the EA problems. As it is evident from the Phase 1
report of this research, nearly all EA efforts currently focus on building frameworks,
methodologies, guidelines, principles, best‐practices and tool support. Without fully
understanding the underlying system, the success achieved through the above has been
limited. This leads to two logically explainable reactions: (1) frantic efforts to improve the
frameworks, methodologies, guidelines, principles, best‐practices and tool support; and (2)
discontinuing the W‐O‐G EA altogether by terming it “too difficult” and “too complex”.
The need of the moment is not better solutions, but better thinking about the problems.
Gary Hamel in his book The Future of Management states that solving a systemic problem
requires understanding its systemic roots is the first of the 10 rules for management
innovation. It is in this context that conventional open‐loop thinking to solving business
problems needs to be replaced with systems (closed‐loop) holistic thinking. A systemic
perspective is used to understand how the numerous components of the governments act,
react and interact with one another with the intent of improving the adoption of W‐O‐G EA
for connected government. This provides a comprehensive, holistic and a more coherent
way of anticipating synergies and mitigating negative emergent behaviors, which would
facilitate development of policies and other relevant intervention mechanisms. Using a
systemic perspective encourages strategic thinking. Exhibit 1‐2 shows a comparison of
systems thinking over conventional thinking.
Comparing Conventional and Systems Thinking
Conventional (Open‐Loop) Thinking Systems (Closed‐Loop) Thinking
Dynamic thinking
Static thinking
Framing a problem in terms a pattern of behavior over
Focusing on particular events.
time.
Systems‐as‐effect System‐as‐cause
Viewing behavior generated by a system as driven by Placing responsibility for a behavior on internal factors
external forces. and actors.
Fragmented Holistic
Believing that really knowing something means Believing that to know something requires
focusing on the details. understanding the context of relationships.
Factors thinking Operational thinking
Listing factors that influence or correlate with some Concentrating on causality and understanding how a
results. behavior is generated.
Straight‐line thinking Loop thinking
Viewing causality as running in one direction, Viewing causality as an ongoing process, with effect
ignoring the interdependence and interaction feeding back to influence the causes and the causes
between and among the causes. affecting one another.
Exhibit 1‐2: Comparing Conventional and Systems Thinking
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This report uses causal‐loop diagrams to capture non‐linear cause and effect relationships in
order to realize the systems thinking described earlier. The conventions of causal‐loop
diagrams are not described here, as excellent literature is already available in this area.
Unfortunately, the same cannot be said about the reasons for less than optimal adoption of
W‐O‐G EA by many countries. Gartner’s Hype Cycle for Enterprise Architecture 2010 clearly
states that W‐O‐G EA is currently immature and is still 5 to 10 years from attaining full
maturity and adoption. It does not provide the reasons for the current state and what needs
to be done to address this “wicked problem” in the context of connected government (i.e.
government transformation). With the primary aim of advancing the adoption of W‐O‐G EA
for connected government, there is a clear need to: (1) uncover the critical influencing
factors; (2) indentify the relationships between and among the factors; (3) recognize the
underlying dynamics; (4) propose plausible intervention strategies to address the situation.
It can be mentioned with a high degree of confidence that the systems thinking approach
presents the highest potential to view W‐O‐G EA adoption from a holistic perspective, which
also happens to be a major gap in the current literature.
The outputs from this phase of the research are intended to provide critical inputs for the
development of the proposed Government EA meta‐framework in the subsequent phases.
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2 SYSTEMS MODELING FOR W‐O‐G EA ADOPTION
Governments around the world are under increasing pressure to demonstrate their
performance to all key stakeholders. They are at times being expected to do things that have
very little precedence. Business models and technologies are changing rapidly and
stakeholders expect governments to embrace these changes ever more quickly. This puts
unprecedented pressure on the governments not only to focus on efficiency, but also remain
effective and agile. The current economic and geo‐political situation exacerbates the need to
perform and deliver even further as citizens are demanding (not merely expecting)
performing governments.
2.1 THE TRANSFORMATION IMPERATIVE
According to the UN, many governments are experiencing transformative power in
revitalizing public administration, overhauling public management, fostering inclusive
leadership and moving civil service toward higher efficiency, transparency and
accountability. Countries recognize the increasingly central role e‐government will play in
reaching these goals. There are example abounds of the positive influence of high
performing governments on the overall national development of countries and in turn the
size of their economies itself. It is fairly straightforward to state that countries with growing
economies (rising GDP) tend to be more complex simply because expectations from these
governments are higher and as a result such governments tend to provide greater number
of (and more complex) services. As government services permeate more into the economy
(i.e. more and more constituents use these services) they without fail become complex and
dynamic as governments are forced to cater to a wide range of needs, wants, expectations,
and aspirations. This increases the pressure on the governments to organize their services as
there arises the need to: (1) change the way services are delivered and consumed; (2)
change the way internal back office operations are executed; and (3) change the way
resources and processes are sourced and combined. The role of enabling policies in making
this happen cannot be overstated. It is in this context that governments are looking at e‐
government (and technology) to bridge the policies and outcomes, leading to even more
government services that are offered electronically. These factors are all inter‐related in a
single reinforcing loop that forms the trigger for government‐wide transformation. This is
depicted in Exhibit 2‐1 in the variables 1 through to 9 combining to form the reinforcing loop
(R1: complexity triggered transformation).
Exhibit 2‐1: Complexity Triggered Government Transformation
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2.2 ICT CAPABILITY AND INDUSTRY DEVELOPMENT
Information and communication technology (ICT) is increasingly a central part of national
competitiveness strategies and plays a key enabler of socio‐economic progress and
development, productivity enhancement, modernization, economic growth and even
poverty reduction. The reinforcing loop R1 described in Section 2.1 creates the initial trigger
for governments to embrace ICT‐enabled transformation. A positive influence of this is that
the pressure to transition to e‐government also creates pressure to improve the overall e‐
government maturity. A capable and mature e‐government allows countries to showcase
their achievements and this is further fuelled by the several e‐government surveys and
rankings that are currently in use. An interesting downstream impact of high e‐government
capability is that it directly impacts the overall national ICT capability. In other words, a
country’s e‐government focus and capability provides the raw material to improve its overall
national ICT capability by way of resources, talented and trained people, investments,
research and development expertise, supporting policies and governance among other
enabling inputs.
Greater national ICT capabilities provide the necessary fodder to the emergence of national
ICT industry. There are several countries who have utilized their foray into e‐government as
an entry point to build their national ICT industries, notable among them being South Korea,
Singapore, Taiwan, Turkey, Malaysia, Egypt, South Africa and Brazil. Several other countries
like Bahrain, Oman, Vietnam, United Arab Emirates, Philippines and Macau are also in the
process of attempting the same. The above list of countries is only indicative of the diffusion
of this approach. A common underlying element in all these countries is that the national e‐
government and ICT strategy typically is derived from the national ICT plans where the
primary focus is increasing the ICT penetration. An example is Singapore, wherein the
national e‐government plan (iGOV 2015, the current one) is derived from the national ICT
plan called the iN2015. An interesting observable phenomenon is that the national ICT
industry matures; it also facilitates the joint delivery of selected e‐government services in
the public‐private partnership (PPP) mode based on business needs.
The impact of national ICT industries on the overall economy and GDP is immense, albeit
sometimes it takes time to fully realize the potential. According to the World Econonic
Forum “a fluid and ever‐changing ICT touches nearly every industry sector with innovative,
personalized and efficient solutions”. As an example, Exhibit 2‐2 shows South Korea’s past,
present and future impact of ICT industry and its contribution to the national economy.
Exhibit 2‐2: Economic Impact of ICT Industry in South Korea (2007 – 2017) (Source: WEF)
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The World Bank’s Global Economic Prospects 2008 – Technology Diffusion in the
Developing World further substantiates the link between the technology diffusion and its
impact of the national economies. In short, technology is both a critical determinant and an
outcome of rising national incomes. These factors and their impacts are captured as two
reinforcing loops (R2: capability multiplier) and (R3: IT industry in motion). The variables
covered include 9, 10, 11, 18, and 19 which in turn feeds into variable 2 further reinforcing
the loop R1. These are depicted in Exhibit 2‐3.
Exhibit 2‐3: Impact on ICT Capability and Industry Development
2.3 ICT ADOPTION AND SAVVYNESS
The highly inter‐connected and inter‐dependent reinforcing loops R1, R2 and R3, if utilized
correctly, provide tremendous momentum for countries to embrace e‐government and
make use of them for government modernization and transformation, enhancement of
national ICT capability and even development of the national ICT industry, each feeding into
the other and growing stronger. Countries have understood these dynamics and used it to
their advantage. The positive churn that loops R1, R2 and R3 create is further instrumental in
creating and sustaining another reinforcing loop that allows countries to be power‐
consumers of ICT.
As the national ICT industry matures (discussed in Section 2.2), an ecosystem is created. This
facilitates the adoption of ICT both across the government and the private sector
organizations. Knowledge about ICT and its capabilities makes organizations ICT savvy, i.e.
they develop the ability to utilize ICT to address business issues and ICT becomes an integral
part of the overall government and corporate strategy. Such organizations are able to
balance supply‐side leadership along with demand‐side leadership by adopting advanced
practices and techniques such as portfolio management, ICT strategic planning, risk
management, business continuity planning and ICT service management among several
others. These in turn augment their ability to embrace new technologies quickly as it allows
them to be on the “leading edge”, even though, as experience has shown, this may not
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always be the best strategy. The World Economic Forum’s Global Information Technology
Report of 2009 provides an excellent example of this phenomenon of ICT diffusion and
leverage. In short, ICT readiness facilitates ICT adoption and usage. Countries that
demonstrate a high degree of ICT diffusion and leverage usually tend to have the position of
Government Chief Information Officer (GCIO) and similar roles across the government. This
is indicative of the seriousness that is lent to ICT. Interestingly, a majority of these
organizations also tend to pressurize their vendors to deliver and deploy the latest
technologies, some of which may not even have been field proven. The chase to embrace
and showcase new technologies, gives rise to several projects largely unrelated, examples of
which include next generation broadband, cloud computing, and green ICT among others,
which in turn feeds to encourage the development of technology silos. This will be discussed
further in subsequent sections. The reinforcing loop (R4: Technology adoption and usage
maturity) consisting of new variables 19, 20, 21, 22 and 23 is shown in Exhibit 2‐4.
Exhibit 2‐4: Impact on ICT Diffusion and Leverage
The discussions above have identified four reinforcing loops: R1, R2, R3 and R4, wherein the
key points are as below:
A. According to John Zachman, the two primary reasons for organizations to embrace
EA as a disciplined approach to planning and implementation are management of
complexity and change. Loop R1 is in line with this. Countries use e‐government as a
way to trigger and sustain government transformation. As shown in the UN E‐
government maturity levels, transformation (i.e. achievement of connected
government) is highest level and is much more than mere automation of
government services.
B. Government modernization and transformation positively influences e‐government
capability, leading to more mature national ICT capability, which in turn plays a
critical role in the emergence of the national ICT industry, captured through loops R2
and R3.
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C. Aside from the supply‐side viewpoint captured in loops R1, R2 and R3, these factors
also provide a positive momentum to the demand‐side i.e. ICT diffusion and
leverage, captured in loop R4.
Exhibit 2‐5 depicts the interactions between the ICT supply and demand sides, by
highlighting the impact of ICT propagating through the economy to foster growth,
employment and innovation.
Exhibit 2‐5: ICT and its Role and Impact in National Economy (Source: OECD)
It is not difficult to understand that countries would typically go through several cycles of
loops R1 to R4 connected as a group of virtuous spirals, in the process advancing their e‐
government maturity. It has already be established and validated in the Phase 1 report that
transitioning to higher levels of e‐governments maturity requires disciplined planning and
implementation – capabilities provided by Government EA. To make these happen, it is
important that countries as part of their national strategies provide resources and dedicate
efforts to create the necessary ecosystem and the supporting infrastructure. Exhibit 2‐6
shows the Net Strategy Framework as proposed by the World Economic Forum in its Global
Information Technology Report of 2009, which captures the essence of the discussions
above. The influence of ICT adoption and Savvyness can be summarized as following:
A. ICT aids in providing positive thrust to the technology frontier.
B. ICT enables equitable capabilities by diffusion of ideas and financing.
C. ICT enables opportunities for growth and innovation.
D. ICT aids in the reduction of systemic risks.
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E. ICT modifies the way spatial‐location decisions are made and executed.
Exhibit 2‐6: World Economic Forum’s Net Strategy Framework (Source: WEF)
2.4 DIVERGING AGENDAS
As a long term endeavor, government transformation influences several other factors.
Despite the fact that the four highly inter‐connected virtuous spirals provide positive
momentum to W‐O‐G EA adoption, the fundamental principles of business make it clear that
there would be limits to growth. Any system with unchecked growth will ultimately destroy
itself if it is not balanced with relevant factors. In this context, the limits to growth refer to
factors that typically slow down or obstruct the W‐O‐G EA adoption. It is important to
understand that there are potentially multiple limits and countries have to: (1) identify
them; (2) prioritize them; and (3) address them according to their specific requirements.
However, the state of affairs in the case of W‐O‐G EA adoption for connected government is
not one of moving at breakneck speed, but of overcoming the inertia to get it to move.
Hence the need to slowdown using balancing loops is not immediate. This phenomenon is
elaborated in the subsequent sections.
Focus of countries on government transformation leads to pressure on the government to
organize and structure its business and services in a manner that is intuitive and has a
citizen‐centric outside‐in perspective. Countries with advanced government EA programs
typically capture the outside‐in view of the government through their business reference
models (BRM). The BRM provides a business‐centric view of the government operations and
usually organizes government operations through components like business areas, lines‐of‐
business and business functions at the W‐O‐G level. Such standard approaches tend to
discourage and overlooks the need for operational diversity that is needed at the agency
level. Resulting from the need to have operational diversity, governments (and their
agencies) are under pressure to retain and even enhance operational autonomy. As agencies
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start functioning in an autonomous manner, their strategies, goals, objectives, procedures
and business focus diverge. This creates competition for resources and usually the larger and
more influential agencies are able to garner a greater amount of resources. Aside from
certain country specific issues, the general trend described above is widely prevalent
globally. Such a scenario creates avoidable duplications and overlaps leading to wastage of
precious resources. According to Scott Bernard of Syracuse University, who has been deeply
involved with the United States’ Federal Enterprise Architecture program, “agencies are
often funded individually and cross‐agency initiatives therefore require a designated “lead”
that receives much or all of the money for implementation, which is less than optimal. Also,
a lack of complete standards for workflow, data, systems, and infrastructure inhibit multi‐
agency initiatives.” For lower and middle income countries this situation is further
exacerbated by the constraints of finance and available capabilities. As a result, the primary
focus of government transformation undoubtedly becomes achieving cost efficiencies.
“Doing more with less” is the mantra that is all too common in government parlance. The
2008 financial and economic crisis and the unfolding austerity measures by governments
around the world makes the goal of cost efficiencies even more pronounced. Efficiencies and
performance gained as a result of cost cutting may provide some benefit to individual
agencies and organizations; however, aggregated at the national level, it brings deflationary
pressures. Without fail this hurts the country and a downward impact on the economy is
inevitable. This is a classic example of “racing to the bottom”. The above phenomenon is
captured via variables 13, 14, 15, 16 and 17, getting initiated with variable 5 and completing
the circle linked to variable 7, and joining the rest of the loop R1. This is shown in Exhibit 2‐7
and represents (perhaps) the most important balancing loop (B1: Diverging agendas) in
terms of its role and impact on successful adoption of W‐O‐G EA. From the countries and
their government EA programs surveyed in Phase 1 it can be stated without any doubt that
the trend of agencies operating with high degree of autonomy leading to diverging agendas
is common and instrumental in putting breaks on government‐wide transformation
activities.
Exhibit 2‐7: Limit to Government Transformation with Diverging Agendas
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2.5 FEUDAL GOVERNANCE
It would not be an overstatement to say that governance is the most important factor
contributing to the success or failure of W‐O‐G EA adoption. Clearly defined governance and
allocation of decision rights increase the probability of successful and effective adoption of
W‐O‐G EA manifolds. A direct and unquestionable impact of operational diversity amongst
agencies within the government is the emergence of business silos that operate in their own
stovepipes. Amplified by the diverging agendas (discussed in Section 2.4), the business silos
are instrumental in creating and abetting the feudal form of operation.
In the context of the agency IT organizations, the CIOs almost operate their “little” empires
with negligible serious interactions both with the business‐side and IT organizations of other
agencies (characterized by low inter‐agency and intra‐agency communication, cooperation
and collaboration). In other words, these artificially created silos lead to technology diversity
(each agency invests in technology that is suitable only for itself), which leads to technology
stovepipes and bulging technology budgets at the W‐O‐G level. This, in turn, intensifies the
pressure to demonstrate cost efficiencies with regard to any expenditure made on ICT.
Hence the single minded focus on measuring and reporting the business value of IT for all
CIOs and their IT organizations becomes paramount. This has a direct impact on the
credibility of the CIO leadership. Interestingly, this whole series of factors gets boosted by
the earlier discussed reinforcing loop R4, thus augmenting the overall impact at the W‐O‐G
level by slowing or even pulling down the government‐wide transformation efforts. These
variables are collectively captured as a balancing loop (B2: Technology empires). The
technology diversity phenomenon elaborated above, in all cases is not a bad characteristic.
The problem gets amplified when the diversity leads to investments in isolated, unrelated
and irrelevant areas. Managed diversity allows for risks to be distributed across technologies
and their supplying vendors, without compromising the autonomy agencies so greatly
valued.
The feudal mindset is even more ingrained on the business side of the operations.
Government agencies (and their constituent departments) like to and demand to operate in
their respective stovepipes in the name of operational autonomy. From a business
operations perspective, most agencies rank very low in: (1) the extent to which their
business functions depend on business functions of other agencies (by way of sharing,
collaboration and commonalities); and (2) the extent to which their business functions are
replicated across different constituents. In other words, the primary operating model is
overwhelmingly diversified. Some of this can definitely be attributable to history (and
legacy). Historically, ministries and departments within governments have been encouraged
to operate as relatively independent organizations due to the need to distribute political
authority. The concept of whole‐of‐government as a single coherent enterprise is new,
transformational and unsettling. Mostly operating in a monopolistic environment, it
necessitates a huge mindset change, hence the cynicism and impatience. The diversified
operating model naturally leads to the same functions and activities being replicated across
different parts of the agencies and the government organizations, in turn pushing up their
operational budgets in support of the wasteful replications and redundancies. Resulting
from fragmentation and overlaps are situations wherein there could be multiple
departments doing the same thing (oversupply) as well as certain business activities which
no department or agency is responsible for (starvation), both having a negative impact on
the operational efficiencies and costs, further pushing the pressure to improve cost
efficiencies and in turn on the government‐wide transformation efforts. These variables are
collectively captured as a balancing loop (B3: Business empires). Loops B2 and B3 are
depicted in Exhibit 2‐8.
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Exhibit 2‐8: Feudalism as the Predominant Governance Archetype
2.6 ECOSYSTEM AND THE CRITICAL MASS
Even as the emergence of business silos within the government amplifies the feudal form of
governance and the diversified operating model, the reverse influence also comes forth at
the same time. There is a definite move to federate the operations of the government so as
to derive the benefits of both centralization and decentralization without slowing the
government transformation activities. Though it could be argued that at different stages of
architecture maturity centralized and decentralized approaches have their utility,
nonetheless the most stable and sustainable governance approach in the longer term
happens to be federated. This has a long tradition in several forms of government and
attempts to balance the accountabilities and allocation of decision rights between multiple
governing bodies. This makes the federated approach by far the most difficult to embrace
for effective decision making, entailing suitable adaptations by countries taking into
consideration respective cultural, political, social, technological and economic factors.
Getting the federated form of governance right brings with it several benefits and positive
impacts, one of the primary ones being getting the different constituents of the government
to collaborate and share. Collaboration and sharing in this context could potentially include
(but are not limited to):
A. Adoption of and conformance to common technology standards and best practices.
B. Establishment of data exchange standards, and adherence to such standards.
C. Rationalization of data to address issues of redundancies, security and integrity.
D. Sharing of common data and other business information.
E. Common and shared applications and application components, leading to use and
reuse.
F. Collaboration and sharing between agencies dictated by common overarching
business functions.
The extent of collaboration and sharing depends on the maturity and comfort levels of
agencies to do so. Each of the above directly influences the adoption of W‐O‐G EA by
addressing key issues pertaining to strategy, business, information, data, application and
technology infrastructure, leading to reduction of business duplications and redundancies
and standardization of the underlying technology infrastructure. These factors are captured
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through variables 32, 33 and 34 and combined to form the reinforcing loop (R5:
Government as an enterprise) which is shown in Exhibit 2‐9.
An interesting and useful phenomenon that gets triggered as a result of the pressure to
federate government operations is the push to expend resources required to develop
enablers for W‐O‐G EA adoption. As discussed previously, the enablers for W‐O‐G EA
adoption is an aggregated factor that typically consists of: (1) reference architectures; (2)
frameworks; (3) methodologies; (4) guidance documents; (5) case studies; (6) tool support;
(7) awareness and advocacy sessions; (8) legislations and policies and (9) capacity building.
Developing and making these components available increases the attractiveness of
embracing EA to potential adopters. This is important, because many times, due to the
broad and deep nature of work that EA requires, it becomes confusing, in turn leading to
trepidation in “taking the plunge”. The enablers listed above help alleviate the fear and
encourages governments to take the initial concrete steps. This then creates a pool of initial
adopters, “the first movers”. These factors are captured through variables 43, 44 and 45 and
combined to form the reinforcing loop (R6: First movers).
Exhibit 2‐9 shows the two reinforcing loops R5 and R6. Interestingly, these two loops get
further reinforced and augmented by loops R2, R3 and R4. This phenomenon is explainable
by the fact that parts of the government (or agencies) having higher capabilities in delivering
e‐services and the ability to embrace new technologies also have an observable preference
to adopt government EA. Such organizations and agencies are willing to experiment and take
the lead in creating the ecosystem by being the first movers. This, in turn, positively
influences the government‐wide transformation journey by extracting benefits of the
diffusion effect.
Exhibit 2‐9: Government EA Ecosystem and the Lead Adopters
Thus far we have seen six reinforcing loops (R1 through to R6) that collectively play a critical
role in the adoption of W‐O‐G EA centered on the government‐wide transformation area.
These loops provide the initial momentum, but in order to sustain this momentum and make
W‐O‐G EA a self sustaining program, it is important to build up the critical mass of adopting
agencies so as to cross over the tipping point. Loops R5 and R6 provide a good build up get
to the tipping point. Through the lead adopters, governments are able to create a pool of
agencies that adopt EA. As adoption grows, the fear of the unknown subsides as more
experience is gained. As experience is gained, agencies learn to avoid the traps and work
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their way to success, in turn leading to improved business outcomes resulting from EA. In
other words, as more agencies initiate their EA programs, the more they traverse the
learning curve, moving progressively more quickly. This makes it even more attractive to
potential adopters thus increasing the adoption rate even further creating an effective
virtuous spiral. This phenomenon is captured through variables 35, 46, 54, 51, 44, 45 and 34
and consolidated as a reinforcing loop (R8: Success breeds success). The only caveat here is
that agencies usually take some time to succeed in their efforts. This is a very powerful
mechanism that governments can use as a lever to push the adoption of W‐O‐G EA.
A minor reinforcing loop that gets created as a result of loop R8 is the “bandwagon effect”.
These are agencies that, with not necessarily sufficient knowledge just join the lead agencies
in adopting EA because they perceive it to be a good thing to do. In itself the bandwagon
effect could be a double‐edged sword, which means it can provide fodder by contributing to
the critical mass, but if not managed well could lead to dissatisfaction and negative word‐of‐
mouth. However, with good enablers (as discussed earlier in loop R5) the bandwagon effect
is usually has positive impacts. Reinforcing loops R7 and R8 are shown in Exhibit 2‐10.
Exhibit 2‐10: Critical Mass Adopters and the Implementation Learning Curve
2.7 EXPANDING HORIZONS
In most cases EA remains within the discipline of ICT Strategy and Management. This is
further strengthened by the fact that currently almost all EA efforts are initiated and
managed by the IT organization / CIO office. This constrained way of looking at EA is
reinforced by several factors, the key ones being: (1) current literature “conveniently” using
Enterprise Architecture and Enterprise IT Architecture interchangeably; (2) emergence of
the discipline itself from the IT side of the organization; (3) EA initiatives historically assigned
to and managed by the IT organization with limited linkages to other broader areas; and (4)
lack of awareness on the business side in appreciating the true scope and potential of EA.
Gartner terms this as the “traditional” approach of EA.
In the government context, EA programs are typically managed by the Ministry of ICT (or
equivalent), though there are a few cases wherein the organization responsible for
government administration or public service development managing the EA programs are
emerging. This is important, as it points to partial transformation of the ingrained mindset
and also recognition of the role and impact of government EA spanning much more that
mere ICT and related issues.
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Exhibit 2‐11: Enterprise Architecture as the Architecture of the Enterprise
2.8 UNDERSTANDING THE BUSINESS VALUE HURDLE
Despite the fact that reinforcing loops R6, R7 and R8 are instrumental in creating the critical
mass of adopters and providing the opportunity for much needed experience, there is an
interesting downside attached to these. The negative impact of adopters and their success
stories starts from the variable 34 (i.e. W‐O‐G EA adoption), which leads to increase in the
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number of agencies and other organization structures in the government that start and
derive benefits out of EA. As the adoption of government EA becomes more prevalent and
widely diffused, the financial resources required to keep the program afloat keeps
escalating. This escalation in the financial burden creates a reduction in the actual program
value. This captures an interesting behavior, i.e. the doubters about the W‐O‐G EA, already
cynical about the whole initiative get ignited when made aware about the amount of
resources that is ploughed into the program. Constantly looking for cracks, these groups of
people start questioning the benefits that are derived from W‐O‐G EA. In addition, the
information about the financial resources expended makes them more vocal and vociferous.
This in turn leads to the program owners and other key stakeholders scrambling to
demonstrate the program return on investment (ROI), sometimes using dubious ways. This is
itself is not a desirable behavior as it shows the core EA group to be insecure and unsure,
which could at times lead to slowing or total stoppage of the government transformation
journey, thus jeopardizing even the national development agenda. It is interesting to note
that such behaviors also impact the organization ability and willingness to adopt new
technologies as the risk‐averse behavior becomes highly pronounced and visible. This usually
is a killer for the innovation culture. This is captured through the variables 34, 35, 36, 37, 38,
39 and 17 combined together into the balancing loop (B4: Program costs) and is depicted in
Exhibit 2‐12.
Exhibit 2‐12: The ROI Conundrum and its Impact on Program Continuity
In an inter‐connected loop, as there is more adoption of government EA leading to valuable
experience gained by the core group of the implementation team, it elevates the credibility
of the Government EA Program Management Office (PMO) and in turn directly influences in
raising the expectations from the program itself. This state is now a victim of its own
success. The expectations lead to stiffer and stretched targets and gets further amplified by
the factors coming in from loop R10. Together, the heightened expectations raise the
desired program value, thus negatively impacting the actual benefits derived by the
organization and pushing the pressure to demonstrate the program ROI even higher. This is
captured through the variables 34, 35, 46, 47, 48, 49 and 38 combined together into the
balancing loop (B5: Burden of stretch targets) and depicted in Exhibit 2‐13.
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Exhibit 2‐13: EA Office and the Burden of Stretch Targets
2.9 THE POLITICAL DYNAMICS
Perhaps the most important and largely under‐addressed factor that systematically resists
the adoption of W‐O‐G EA is the underlying political dynamics in the government. Done to
its full potential, government‐wide transformation that is driven by EA can bring in major
changes to the way government is planned, designed, operated and managed. It can lead to
redistribution of authority, rebalancing of finances, changes in organization structures,
redefinition in job roles, perceived intrusion into individual autonomy among many other
related but very fundamental impacts. For most governments (and civil servants) that
(usually) have a limit to their tenure in a given position, bringing in such fundamental
changes all at one go is next to impossible. As a result, in most cases, the urge to “cling to
power” takes precedence over everything else and government transformation is the first
casualty. With such a background, pushing W‐O‐G EA invites irrelevant scrutiny and
questioning. Often such scrutiny is, in reality, a delaying tactic. These kinds of political tactics
can often manifest into operational obstacles. For instance, some common reasons provided
by parts of the government (ministries and agencies) include: (1) insistence on maintaining
own version of all business processes citing operational uniqueness (we’re different); and (2)
refusing to share information and collaborate citing confidentiality and state secrecy. If
analysed in depth, these operational obstacles are in some form an expression of the feudal
form of governance (that was discussed earlier). Many countries are attempting to address
the issue of refusal to share government information through open government initiatives. It
is early days now, before the actual rules of engagement are codified are implemented
widely across in the national governments. Political obstacles impact overall architecture
governance effectiveness, which in turn affects the business outcomes. The most difficult
part of this whole phenomenon is that it is almost impossible to fully comprehend the actual
power‐equation, because, like the proverbial iceberg, the part that is visible constitutes less
than 10% of the total. As a result the attractiveness for potential adopters to support and
embrace government‐wide transformation and W‐O‐G EA wanes, which deepens the silo
mindset among the ministries and agencies. This further slows down the overall momentum
toward the transformation along with all the linked affects already discussed earlier. The
phenomenon of the underlying political dynamics is captured with variables 40, 41, 42 and
51 and collectively put into the balancing loop (B7: Political landmines).
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Exhibit 2‐14: Extending the Feudalism
An interesting behavior that is widely observable and can be considered a manifestation of
agency autonomy and the feudal form of governance is the “not invented here” syndrome.
In operational terms, this means that ministries and agencies while not directly refusing to
accept government‐wide frameworks, policies, standards, methodologies and other guiding
materials, actually attempt to delay the progress by initiating activities and assigning
resources to develop the same (or similar) materials specifically for the agency. The reason
often cited is that “they’re different” and centrally developed material would not suit their
specific requirements. In a general scenario of aggressively pushing to achieve cost
efficiencies, such replicated efforts amounts to wasteful use of scarce resources. Such
behavior further demonstrates the ingrained divisiveness and the complete lack of “whole of
government as a single enterprise” mindset. The phenomenon is captured into the balancing
loop (B8: Not invented here) and strengthens the loop B7 discussed earlier.
Exhibit 2‐15: Self‐Sufficiency as a Perceived Virtue
In some governments, the initial momentum and enthusiasm brings in good disciplined
effort to adopt e‐government. This is demonstrated via commendable performance and also
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manifests itself as a high ranking in the various e‐government surveys. As a result the
countries reap in economic benefits affected from good governance and also become role
models for other countries that aspire to emulate similar successes. Notwithstanding the
initial success, sustaining the same level of momentum and senior government leadership
involvement to ensure continued success is a different ball game altogether. In most cases,
the classic “S” curve of performance, when extended, is likely to be a “rise‐stagnancy‐fall”
curve of performance. The stagnancy and fall part of the performance happens due to two
reasons: (1) the country in question actually falls back in performance; and (2) other
countries emulate, catch‐up and even exceed the role model countries. Both cases, at times
are instrumental in deepening the complacency and inertia to keep up the momentum. This
is an important phenomenon, because most countries publicly do not state complacency
and inertia as a reason for slowing down or even reversing government reforms and
transformation. This would amount to sacrilege for the government in power and provide
fodder to opposition parties to pull down the government. Hence, this phenomenon of
complacency and inertia manifests itself through the several other balancing loops discussed
earlier. Exhibit 2‐16 shows the balancing loop (B6: Complacency) along with its variables 10,
11, 12 and 17.
Exhibit 2‐16: Complacency and Inertia as System Constraints
2.10 THE COMPLETE PERSPECTIVE AND LINKING IT ALL
The Phase 1 report includes surveys pertaining to EA and government EA in the past. These
have partially identified key challenges that countries face embracing government EA as a
decision making and management framework. Nonetheless, the key word is “partially”.
Current literature on government EA is incomplete in two regards: (1) the coverage of
challenges i.e. all the challenges have not been identified; and (2) the challenges and (hence
their) solutions have been looked at and analyzed in a piecemeal approach. Sections 2.1
through to 2.9 presented and discussed 10 reinforcing loops and 8 balancing loops
connecting over 50 variables in a single linked and coherent way. The loops and their
constituent variables have deliberately been kept generic to ensure wide applicability
subject to local adaptations. Exhibit 2‐17 depicts the full view. The purpose is to:
A. Understand the dynamics of W‐O‐G EA adoption aimed at achieving connected
government via government‐wide transformation.
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B. Identify the enablers and inhibitors impacting W‐O‐G EA driven government
transformation.
C. Develop intervention strategies that are likely to provide the highest degree of
leverage to encourage and push the W‐O‐G EA adoption, so as to create a
framework for W‐O‐G EA that takes into consideration the enablers and inhibitors.
Sections 2.1 through to 2.9 address A as above. It is interesting to note that all the “difficult‐
to‐solve” challenges that countries face in W‐O‐G EA adoption have very little to do with
technology, EA frameworks, best practices, methodologies, tools and the like. Yet that is
where most countries are spending their efforts and resources. Hence, the divergence
between where the resources are being spent and where they need to be spent is growing.
There is a mismatch in both understanding and expectations. The chasm between perceived
showstoppers and the actual showstoppers is enormous. In other words, governments are
spending resources to develop “solutions” without fully understanding and articulating the
underlying “problems”. The dimensions of connected government have been delineated in
the Phase 1 report of this research. It is very clear that current forms of management,
bureaucracy and organization design are insufficient to address issues related to the
connected government dimensions, as the challenges to be surmounted in future will not be
solvable by solutions of the past. The need would be for management innovation. Gary
Hamel defines management innovation “as anything that fundamentally alters the way in
which the work of management is carried out, or significantly modifies customary
organizational forms, and, by doing so advances organizational goals”. This is the very
essence of W‐O‐G EA for connected government. Current EA efforts focus on lower level
innovation, for example, process or operational innovation, product or service innovation
and, at best, strategy innovation. The “solutions” seldom look at management innovation
that is absolutely essential for government‐wide transformation to gain traction and sustain.
Furthermore, this variance gets exacerbated by the fact that most government EA programs
are initiated and managed by the Ministry of ICT (or equivalent). This group perceived to be
the “IT folks”, who are not even privy to a lot of the other real issues and challenges are
expected to make W‐O‐G EA programs successful by practically operating in the dark. With
respect to W‐O‐G EA, senior government leaders operate in a realm of bewildering
uncertainty and staggering complexity and a result find limited success or even fail (and
hence discontinue the whole effort).
Interestingly, analyzing all the 10 reinforcing and the 8 balancing loops reveal existence of
behaviors captured in all the 10 system archetypes as defined by Peter Senge. This is
important as it facilitates design of intervention strategies, discussed later in Section 4.
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Exhibit 2‐17: Putting it All Together – The Holistic View
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3 PERSPECTIVES
The following sub‐sections present the viewpoints by government leaders from various
national governments and multi‐lateral institutions. In each viewpoint the existence of some
or most of the reinforcing and balancing loops are evident. Besides acting as a validation
mechanism to all the earlier discussions, these viewpoints are also used to determine the
most pertinent emergent systemic profiles and the systemic states, which are proposed and
described below.
3.1 GOVERNMENT OF NEPAL
Manohar. K. Bhattarai
Vice Chairman
High Level Commission for Information Technology
Government of Nepal
There is a general perception among policy and decision makers that the investment made
in eGovernment can only be realized if it ultimately leads to a fully integrated government.
From such a perspective, W‐O‐G EA becomes an aspiration for countries keen on improving
their eGovernment initiatives. This is also driven, in part, by the emergence of new
governance challenges; be it the realm of terrorism threats or climate change or disaster
management that further underscores the need for greater level of coordination / vertical
and horizontal integration and [the capability to] respond effectively to the process of
“fragmentation” of the public administration sector.
One of the key inhibiting factors [to embrace W‐O‐G EA] would be the sheer degree of
complexities involved, more so perhaps in a deeply entrenched bureaucratic and
administrative set‐up like that of Nepal. There is a wide range of variation among the
government organizations along the dimension of “e‐readiness” or for that matter,
readiness to take on some business process reengineering related challenges. Some
organizations are more receptive and well capacitated to take up technology enabled
strategies while others pose formidable change management challenges.
Nepal’s approach unfortunately has not been that of the W‐O‐G perspective. The integrated
and joined‐up government and the overall value proposition is that such a scenario
generates is the key driver of W‐O‐G approach. Drawing from a developing country
experience, there has not been sufficient debate around the notion of W‐O‐G perspective as
an approach for overarching public sector reforms. This should serve as the entry point
before we attempt to build business case for W‐O‐G EA. Trying to push “technology” alone
and trying to decouple W‐O‐G EA from the overall administrative and public sector reforms
agenda will not work. New strategies therefore must be geared towards securing buy‐in
from key constituencies.
3.2 UNITED NATIONS
Saleem Zoughbi, Ph.D.
Regional Adviser
Information and Communication Technology
Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia
United Nations
In e‐government work, and as the focus shifts from providing services to the public to how
government agencies work with each other to solve citizens’ problems, it is evident [that] the
W‐O‐G paradigm assumes a more sensitive role that is not only essential but also critical. This
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is easily observed in developing countries that are suffering from internal “islands of power”
where some government authorities prefer to work independently and in a competition‐
driven way rather than adopting a complementary approach.
Enterprise Architecture follows an exact and demanding description and specification of an
enterprise. Such [a] methodology would be efficiently applied to loosely coupled “sub‐
enterprises”. Ministries and government agencies that have the tendency to work
independently yet belong to the same government can be easily restructured and re‐
engineered using EA approaches. Within this empowerment, certainly a W‐O‐G EA can be a
significant opportunity for countries desirous of improving their e‐government initiatives.
The main objective is not to enable citizens to use technology to benefit from services
offered by the government, but rather to enable them to use it to approach [and engage
with] governments. In other words, the challenge is to move from a “citizen‐centric” to
“government‐centric” state. Certainly, W‐O‐G EA is an aspiration for these governments since
it provides the capability to assist the public to team up with them for development and
betterment of citizen‐government cooperation.
The main obstacles to widespread adoption of W‐O‐G EA can be easily identified. The most
important ones are: (1) the weakness of the central authority that cannot assure total
participation of different government entities; and (2) heterogeneous public administration
policies and strategies which are so rigid that they cannot be adapted to embrace EA
practices.
There are several factors that are already facilitating the adoption of W‐O‐G EA. In particular
the following seem to be the most active ones: (1) the potential active involvement of the
citizen in how the government does its business. This requires proper EA that can host
connected government bodies; and (2) the development of regional relations in such a way
that citizen mobility in countries that belong to some defined grouping require the flexibility
of connected government practices across these countries. The service of citizens of a
country in different regional context is also facilitated strongly by connected government EA.
Two important strategies [that] can encourage the adoption of W‐O‐G EA include: (1) the
democratic reforms and governmental transparency to the citizen; and (2) extending
government services to businesses and governments with focus on regional and
international linkages (and even enabling serving the citizen in an international and regional
perspective) to promote the concept of connected government in a holistic W‐O‐G approach
to embrace EA in these countries.
Haiyan Qian
Director
Division for Public Administration and Development Management
Department of Economic and Social Affairs
United Nations
W‐O‐G EA assists in instituting the comprehensive framework that unites ICT strategy, ICT
policy, information standards and enterprise architecture across the whole of government.
W‐O‐G EA is definitely an aspiration for countries wishing to improve [their] e‐government
initiatives for attaining “Connected Government” to promote the integration and
mainstreaming of e‐government into the broader public sector and administrative reform
agenda.
The prime factor that inhibits the adoption of W‐O‐G EA is the lack of political support from
the highest levels of government and the absence of political commitment to back office
reforms. The W‐O‐G EA is more a reform process of the government sector rather than the
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streamlining of the government ICT structure. The complexity of government functions,
which require coordination among multiple agencies, need to have political support from
the highest levels of government and must be dealt within a reasonable time scale.
The adoption of W‐O‐G EA also depends on the maturity of e‐government. It is difficult to
promote the W‐O‐G EA [paradigm] in developing countries that are at the early stage of e‐
government development and lack a well shaped ICT strategy for development. Moreover,
some of the institutional barriers include the jurisdictional boundaries between national and
sub‐national administrations that inhibit cooperation on public sector ICT development.
Some of these barriers may be rooted in social values manifesting themselves in a
constitutionally‐protected separation of powers among different actors [and stakeholders].
Whether it is feasible to implement W‐O‐G EA or even EA within a single ministry [or agency]
depends on a number of factors: (1) political and administrative leadership to develop an
appropriate legal and regulatory framework; (2) institutional capacity, ICT infrastructure and
skills; (3) resources; and (4) supportive social values (e.g., those that balance the right to
privacy concerns with calls for administrative reforms). The absence of these enabling
conditions hinders the widespread adoption of W‐O‐G EA, whereas their presence facilitates
it.
The benefit of adopting W‐O‐G EA has been gradually recognized as a means to facilitate the
sharing of information and resources across government agencies with a view to reducing
costs and improving citizen services. Some good practices and guides for adopting W‐O‐G EA
have been developed by countries with sophisticated e‐government that could be followed
by other countries. For example: (1) Australia and New Zealand have explored using the W‐
O‐G approach as a tool for public sector transformation into a citizen‐centric joined‐up
government; (2) the Republic of Korea has expanded the W‐O‐G context from its successful
implementation of e‐government and e‐participation, to “going green”, which pushes for an
across‐the‐board online [capability] of all civil affairs‐related businesses for reform of
administration system suitable for global system while contributing to expanding foundation
for low carbon and green growth; (3) the Republic of Singapore has proven to be successful
in adopting a W‐O‐G approach, or what is called “Integrated Government” or “i‐Gov”; (4) the
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland has developed the cross‐government
enterprise architecture, which is likely to cover sub‐national governments as well; and (5)
the United States of America implemented the Federal Enterprise Architecture Program in
2007.
As described above, the underlying factors for the flourishing of W‐O‐G EA can be attributed
to the availability of resources, advanced ICT skills in the public sector, and the push for new
public management. Many countries in transition and developing countries, such as the
Federative Republic of Brazil, the Kingdom of Bahrain, the Republic of Estonia, the Republic
of Ghana and the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, are also establishing a seamlessly linking e‐
government agenda [integrated] with broader administrative reforms and the public sector
transformation agenda. Moreover, developing countries are well positioned to benefit from
adopting new W‐O‐G EA because they do not have the added expense of maintaining and
transitioning from legacy IT systems to newer technologies and can thus leapfrog to
advanced EA infrastructure. In addition, W‐O‐G EA can help ensure the inter‐operability of
distinct systems.
It should be noted that W‐O‐G EA does not cover just IT implementation but also all
government business processes and, therefore, serves as a tool for the re‐engineering of
government process and change government. Therefore, it is helpful to have a national e‐
government strategy, endorsed by legislators, that sets out high‐level objectives and
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authorizes the necessary actions including, as appropriate, consultations on possible legal
and regulatory reforms. [Furthermore], it is recommended to adopt an incremental
approach to launching and implementing W‐O‐G EA and implementation should start from
areas where quick and meaningful success can be achieved. A consistent approach over time
to institute W‐O‐G EA should be emphasized due to the complexity involved in effecting
change in government processes.
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4 INTERVENTION STRATEGIES
4.1 EMERGENT SYSTEMIC PROFILE
Peter Senge in The Fifth Discipline argues that to solve difficult problems one needs to
understand the “inter‐relationships rather than things, for seeing patterns of change rather
than static ‘snapshots’”. Taking a holistic synthesized view, the 10 reinforcing and the 8
balancing loops together capture the underlying “genetic” structure of W‐O‐G EA adoption
for connected government. Each causal loop represents a set of inter‐relationships among
multiple factors / variables. Collectively, they represent the overall systemic structure that
connects more than 50 critical factors / variables. The principle of parsimony is thus
achieved.
To design effective intervention strategies, it is critical to “diagnose” the issues correctly. In
this regard, this research proposes defining and comprehending the emergent systemic
profile. Ideally, the aim is to develop a profile for a country intending to adopt W‐O‐G EA for
connected government and then use the profile to design the intervention strategies based
on suitability and efficacy. The profiling based approach allows for configurability of the
solutions (interventions). Exhibit 4‐1 shows the basic approach to construct the emergent
systemic profile.
Approach to Construct Emergent Systemic Profile for W‐O‐G EA Adoption
Intensity of Likelihood of Composite
Causal Loops Impact Occurrence Rating
[H, HM, M, L] [H, HM, M, L] [H, HM, M, L]
R1: Complexity Triggered Transformation
R2: Capability Multiplier
R3: IT Industry in Motion
R4: Technology Adoption & Usage Maturity
Enablers
R5: Government as an Enterprise
R6: First Movers
R7: Bandwagon
R8: Success Breeds Success
R9: Facilitated Diffusion
R10: Architecting the Enterprise
B1: Diverging Agendas
B2: Technology Empires
B3: Business Empires
Inhibitors
B4: Program Costs
B5: Burden of Stretch Targets
B6: Complacency
B7: Political Landmines
B8: Not Invented Here
Legend: HÆ High; HM Æ High‐Medium; M Æ Medium; L Æ Low
Exhibit 4‐1: Approach to Construct Emergent Systemic Profile
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The causal loops and their inter‐connected constituent factors / variables provide senior
government leadership with the inputs to initiate the process prognostication in the context
of W‐O‐G EA adoption for connected government. However the prognosis needs to be
validated by a detailed examination and analysis to ascertain the underlying systemic issues.
This leads to a detailed diagnosis by constructing the emergent systemic profile. The intent is
for a country to have a single profile. This facilitates a coherent response. However, it is
likely that countries with multiple levels of government may have one national level profile
and multiple sub‐profiles to address localized issues. In constructing the profile and
performing the diagnosis, countries must factor in the targeted evolutionary stage of
connected government. The diagnosis performed with the profile information is followed
with the relevantly designed intervention strategies. For better effectiveness, the prognosis
Æ diagnosis Æ intervention cycle is repeated as a continuous learning and improvement
process.
The emergent systemic profile points to existence of enablers and inhibitors on two different
dimensions (vectors) which are largely orthogonal in nature. In other words, absence of or
weak inhibitors do not necessarily mean presence of strong enablers. From an execution
viewpoint, there are ramifications that governments need to understand and factor in when
designing intervention strategies. The two dimensions (i.e. enablers and inhibitors) are used
to identify four unique quadrants called the systemic states, depicted in Exhibit 4‐2, that
provides a concrete basis (rationale) for designing appropriate interventions.
Exhibit 4‐2: Systemic States for Intervention Design
The systemic states derived from the emergent systemic profile provide the means to
develop strategic navigation pathways for countries. The most plausible pathways that are
observed in reality are listed below, depicting the defining milestones in a country’s W‐O‐G
EA journey:
A. Initial ÅÆ [Discontinued]
B. Initial ÅÆ Arduous ÅÆ [Discontinued]
C. Initial ÅÆ Profligate ÅÆ [Discontinued]
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D. Initial ÅÆ Arduous ÅÆ Profligate ÅÆ [Discontinued]
E. Initial ÅÆ Optimal ÅÆ [Sustained]
F. Initial ÅÆ Arduous ÅÆ Optimal ÅÆ [Sustained]
G. Initial ÅÆ Profligate ÅÆ Optimal ÅÆ [Sustained]
H. Initial ÅÆ Arduous ÅÆ Profligate ÅÆ Optimal ÅÆ [Sustained]
Pinpointing the exact systemic state requires profound evaluation; if not, the intervention
strategies are likely to be tenuous. Effective intervention strategies are an imperative
because these dictate the strategic navigation pathway that is traversed. The links depicted
in the pathways are deliberately bi‐directional as W‐O‐G EA programs can traverse in either
direction. This is especially more likely in the government context as major changes (like
change of political leadership) have the potential to disrupt, revive, weaken or strengthen
existing programs.
4.2 DESIGNING INTERVENTION STRATEGIES
The emergent systemic profile and the strategic navigation pathways form the basis for
designing interventions strategies. Needless to mention, the specific interventions would
depend on the context of country specific nuances. Nonetheless, designing the right
interventions are as important as the location these interventions would be applied. In a
complex system, there are places where a small shift in one thing can produce large changes
in (almost) everything. The places are termed “leverage points – the points of power”.
Donella Meadows in her article Leverage Points–Places to Intervene in a System identifies
and elaborates generic leverage points where interventions are most likely to be impactful
and results bearing. The next few paragraphs elaborate on the leverage points suitably
adapted to the context of W‐O‐G EA for connected government. The leverage points then
lead to the plausible interventions which are discussed in the subsequent sections. As a
caveat, leverage points and associated interventions is not an exact science, hence
discretion is expected and recommended.
A. The mindset out of which the system arises: According to John Zachman, any
organization that aspires (and expects) to manage its complexity and change needs
architecture. This is absolutely true. Organizations (governments included) view EA
as an IT‐Management and Strategy discipline. Following from this obviously flawed
view, comes paradigms that are deeply ingrained and are the most effective
candidates of leverage. Listed below are a few such paradigms as to what they
currently are contrasted with what they should be changed to in the context of W‐
O‐G EA for connected government. It is evident from the below that the current
paradigms are not only flawed but also severely restrictive. Transitioning to the new
paradigms is a gradual process and impacts the very fundamentals of the system but
has the power to transform the way W‐O‐G EA is viewed and along with it influence
all the loops discussed earlier. They constitute the most potent of the leverage
points.
W‐O‐G EA for Connected Government Paradigms
As they are As they should be
Governments embrace a lattice‐based architecture that
Governments are primarily hierarchical in
potentially connects every stakeholder in the organization to
structure that are characterized by creative
everyone else, enabled by direct communication channels.
apartheid, over administration, and risk
There are multiple nodes that are lateral in a dense network of
aversion.
interpersonal connections where information flows unfettered.
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W‐O‐G EA for Connected Government Paradigms
As they are As they should be
Organizations that have not embraced a All organizations have architecture. The only point of contention
formal architecture framework or is whether the architecture is informal and implicit or formal
methodology do not have any architecture and explicit.
W‐O‐G EA for connected government is a journey that has no
W‐O‐G EA is a project and there is a point
end. Following from the earlier point, as long as the
when it is done.
organization exists, it needs to be continually architected.
The techniques, tools and approaches used Most techniques, tools and approaches used are well accepted.
in the process of architecting are new, and The newness comes from the way they are applied and
have nothing to do with any existing interconnections between them created so that line‐of‐sight
management practices can be established and maintained.
Management of complexity and change are great reasons to do
Organizational coherency is not important formal architecture. Nonetheless, as a result of the architecture
the organization becomes more coherent.
The architects establish the rules, procedures and shared
understanding. The actual activity of architecting is done, to a
The architects do all the architecting. large extent, by people themselves. The actual role of the
architects is to ensure consistency and completeness
holistically.
The barriers between business and IT in the context of EA are
Enterprise architecture is an IT artificial and constrain its role and derived benefits.
management and IT strategic planning Organizations with mature EA view it as a management and
discipline and remains stuck in the IT trap. strategic planning discipline, which in some literature gets
mentioned as second generation EA.
Exhibit 4‐3: Comparing Current and Recommended Paradigms
B. The goals of the system: EA is the very essence of good organization design. To
move toward connected government and evolve through its various stages (as
presented in the Phase 1 report), countries need to design their government(s). In
most countries the structure and the behavior of the governments has formed
organically. They seldom have been subjected to disciplined and structured
processes of planning, design and adoption. There may have been some initiatives
and programs in parts of the governments, but in such cases the scope and coverage
is piecemeal and the W‐O‐G continues to remain inefficient in the larger context.
Phase 1 of this research identified seven dimensions of connected government: (1)
citizen centricity; (2) common infrastructure and interoperability; (3) collaborative
services and business operations; (4) public sector governance; (5) networked
organizational model; (6) social inclusion; and (7) transparent and open
government. These are excellent goals for any government and stand the test of
time. In the Phase 1 report, these dimensions are well elaborated and the role of W‐
O‐G EA in impacting these dimensions have also been explained, including how
countries need to progress along these dimensions to evolve through the various
stages of connected government.
C. The rules of the system: This is an area many countries proactively look at seriously
as a way to enable W‐O‐G adoption. These are important as they establish the scope
of the system by way of its boundaries and its degrees of freedom. The rules get
operationalized through legislations, policies and procedures. The Clinger‐Cohen Act
of 1997 is an example of a rule operationalized as a legislation that mandates the
need to have formal EA for all federal agencies in the United States as part of the
Presidential Management Agenda. This legislation is very specific to EA in the federal
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agencies. However, this is supported by a host of other legislations concerning e‐
government in the United States. Similar legislative approach to establish the rules
of the system exist in Bahrain, South Korea and Singapore. Rules may differ in scope,
coverage, specificity and operationalization, but the underlying intent remains
consistent, i.e. to define the boundaries and expectations of the system. Rules are
strong leverage points. Nonetheless, when setting rules to enable W‐O‐G EA for
connected government, it is critical to identify and understand: (1) expected impact
of the rule(s); (2) conflicting and supporting rules, if any; and (3) support system
required to enforce the rule(s).
D. The structure of the system: Governments are bureaucratic organizations. Their
primary purpose is to administer. Transformation and innovation is not business as
usual for governments. There have been efforts around the world targeting public
sector reforms. Beyond the political rhetoric, in most cases successes have been
limited, the primary reason being the structure of the system itself is one of the
most deeply ingrained factors. This is because the structure of the system in some
sense (both directly and indirectly) reflects authority or the power structure, thereby
making it relatively resilient to change. However, if there are ways and means for
the system to modify governance structures, add new negative or positive loops,
dynamically reallocate resources and make new rules, it gives the ability to the
system to self‐organize, stay responsive and adapt more effectively. Gary Hamel in
his book The Future of Management describes the demise of management in the
way it is practiced presently due to its inadequacies in addressing current and future
organizational issues. Hamel proposes 10 rules for management innovators, all of
which are applicable to government organizations. The rigid organization structure
that governments relish having in the name of stability more likely than not comes in
the way of government‐wide transformation efforts, i.e. the structure becomes a
drag on the system.
E. The structure of information flows: In many situations citizens and businesses
believe that information sent to governments tends to go into a “black‐hole”; it goes
in, and seldom anything useful ever comes out. The virtual non‐existence of
feedback loops and information sharing makes it necessary to provide the same
information more than once. Governments are (usually) the largest collectors and
sources of information. However, the appropriate flow of this information is
generally impaired and way less than optimal. The feedback loops that enable the
information flows bring in accountability in performance. For example, UN E‐
Government Surveys and the published ranking make many countries start taking e‐
government seriously. A low rank that is publicly visible makes it embarrassing for
national governments.
As part of open government programs countries like India, Australia and New
Zealand have or are instituting legislations pertaining to freedom of information.
From a W‐O‐G EA perspective this is both necessary and radical as governments
tend to hold back on information citing security and confidentiality concerns. It does
not require deep analysis to realize that to successfully traverse the evolutionary
stages of connected government, three things pertaining to information are
absolutely essential: (1) clarity and understanding in the information collected; (2)
clarity in how the collected information is aggregated for decision making; (3) clarity
in establishing the channels through which the information flows and who receives
the information. The technicalities of frequency, format, protocol and the like are
more implementation issues. Thomas Davenport and Jeanne Harris in their book
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Competing on Analytics – The New Science of Winning aptly describe the importance
of information, information flows and the raw material they provide organizations
for building and using analytics as a competitive weapon.
F. The strength and intensity of the balancing (negative loops): Loops B1 to B8 in
Exhibit 2‐17 are the key negative loops identified and elaborated in the previous
sections. Negative loops per se are not bad for the system. These loops, also called
balancing loops, correct the system and keep the system in a stable state. Goldratt’s
Theory of Constraints (TOC), another systems thinking approach, rightly urges
organizations to uncover the constraints and address them before anything else.
Even though negative loops correct the system and keep it in a stable state, if
dominant they slow down the performance of the system. Almost all governments
usually try to ignore the existence and impact of negative loops, hence not acting on
them. Instead their focus is on the positive loops and tendency to make them
stronger. Fundamentally there is nothing wrong in making the positive loops
stronger and dominant via proper interventions. However, strengthening the system
by making the positive loops dominant, without weakening the negative loops is
akin to accelerating a vehicle without releasing the breaks. It produces friction,
leading to intense heat in the engine and ultimately break‐down. It is critical that
role of negative loops are fully understood in the context of the current system
behavior prior to proposing ways and means to use them as leverage points. In a
system that is accelerating without control (as a result of highly dominant positive
loops), collapse and destruction is very likely. In such scenarios, negative loops are
used to full positive effect to slow down the system and bring it down to a more
manageable and sustainable level of performance. However, this is not in case of W‐
O‐G EA for connected government.
As has already been explained in the previous sections and also evidenced by
Gartner’s Hype Cycle for Enterprise Architecture 2010, W‐O‐G EA currently faces
tremendous headwinds and inertia before it can even start to move, though its
adoption is on the upside. The negative loops B1 and B8 directly contribute to the
inertia becoming the system’s constraints thus preventing the system to move. The
primary source of the inherent inertia that exists in governments and their
organizations comes from the short‐sighted belief that these entities operate in a
monopoly, unless forced to, there is no urgency to bring in change. Hence it is
imperative for governments to fully understand the impact of negative loops and
design appropriate interventions.
G. The strength and intensity of the reinforcing (positive loops): Loops R1 to R10 in
Exhibit 2‐17 collectively represents factors that have the ability to push forward and
have a multiplier effect on W‐O‐G EA adoption for connected government. Used
correctly, they have the ability to provide the rationale for moving toward
connected government using W‐O‐G EA. In the situation wherein efforts are
required for governments to embrace W‐O‐G EA, the positive loops provide the
necessary impetus. From a government perspective these loops need to be
strengthened to a level where they can overcome the inertia presented by the
negative loops in the system. As discussed earlier, if the strengthening of the
positive loops happens in unison with the weakening of the negative loops, the
system moves and provides the desired performance. However, it is critical to
realize that completely eliminating negative loops altogether is neither possible nor
desirable, as they provide the levers to slowdown the system when the system
moves at a greater than sustainable pace.
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H. The lengths of delays: Delays are a critical dynamic characteristic of any system.
Exhibit 2‐17 identifies some of the key delays that exist in the whole system. Delays
are strong leverage points, even though they could be double‐edged swords. On the
positive side, delays act as buffers in the system that can absorb the shocks and
gyrations in the system, whilst on the negative side they seemingly slow down the
impact of another change in the system. Delays are common causes of oscillations.
In the context to W‐O‐G EA adoption, the area where delay has a negative impact on
the overall system is time needed to reach the critical mass of EA adoptions across
the government. As explained earlier, as critical mass is achieved, the system ‘tips‐
over’ to the new state, thus facilitating system success. However, when the response
to specific change is not visible with a reasonable period of time, there is a tendency
to believe that the system is not responding, hence the reaction to “push the
throttle”, until there is overcorrection followed by oscillations. Despite the fact that
delays are strong leverage points, it is important to realize that delays are often not
easily changeable. Things take as long as they take.
Applying the above interventions would depend on the emergent systemic profile. Leverage
point H through to leverage point A are sequenced in increasing order of effectiveness.
Interestingly, the sequence also captures the order of ease of adoption, i.e. as expected,
changing the mindset is definitely the most difficult (and not surprisingly) the most effective
leverage point for which appropriate interventions can be designed and implemented.
Hence an observable trend is that there is a direct correlation between the evolutionary
stage of connected government to the leverage points (and intervention strategies) that
countries need to employ. In other words, as countries target higher stages of connected
government they employ the more difficult (and more effective) intervention strategies at
points which give them more effective leverage aptly selected to fulfil the higher
requirements and expectations. To attain the ubiquitous level of connected government,
countries would usually require multiple “cycles” of W‐0‐G EA programs such that it allows
the governments to traverse through and learn from progressively more complete and
advanced generations of EA, even as they move through the various systemic states
introduced earlier. Exhibit 4‐4 maps the interventions strategies and leverage points needed
versus the evolutionary stages of connected government as a general guideline for countries
to adapt and adopt.
Exhibit 4‐4: Mapping Systemic Interventions to Stages of Connected Government
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4.3 ILLUSTRATIONS FROM THE REAL WORLD
Government EA efforts around the world have penetrated deep into e‐government
programs. There is a realization that moving toward higher levels of e‐government capability
and maturity (especially achieving connected government through government
transformation) makes an effective government EA an imperative. Government EA programs
surveyed in the Phase 1 of this study clearly evidence that even as governments across the
world are attempting to become more collaborative and pervasive, they are also trying to
balance these with being less intrusive. Connected government is no longer limited to being
what governments are trying to be, but what citizens and businesses are demanding of
governments. Yet, in adopting the W‐O‐G EA paradigm in the context of connected
government, countries overly focus on improving the operational enablers at the cost of
strategic wisdom and direction. Ignorance, complexity and capability gaps are cited most
frequently as the primary reasons.
Operational enablers mean components that countries typically develop as part of their EA
programs. These include: (1) frameworks; (2) methodologies; (3) reference architectures and
models; (4) tool capabilities; (5) competency building activities; (5) guidelines and standards;
(6) best practices and the like. Abundance of operational enablers are clearly evident in the
government EA programs reviewed and presented in the Phase 1 report. The skewness in
favor of operational enablers is hard to miss. Though operational enablers are important,
they, by no means have the ability to supplant the strategic perspective. Their role is
primarly in supplementing strategic wisdom and direction. In the absence of strategic
perspective, countries unknowingly drift between different systemic states (as shown in
Exhibit 4‐2), in an arbitrary manner without comprehending the underlying reasons. In such
scenarios, which are all too frequent, the program virtually navigates blind leading to
cynicism, lack of persistence, erosion of confidence and loss of attention by the government
leaders. It almost takes a crisis to make a deep change. And when it is time to address the
crisis, the focus is on symptoms, not causes.
For many governments, connected government is a concept and a long term vision. It is the
new normal. To make it simpler and intuitive, this concept could be manifested and realized
as a Government 2.0 program. Government 2.0 is gaining traction as a means to achieve part
of the capability dimensions of connected government. Government 2.0 involves the use of
Web 2.0 family of technologies to power government reforms, openness, collaboration, and
engagement. In this regard, Australia has shown the way to realize the goals of connected
government through its Government 2.0 program. In its report Engage–Getting on
Government 2.0, the Government 2.0 Taskforce has made 13 recommendations for the
Australian government. These recommendations are excellent examples of intervention
strategies and leverage points that have been proposed above, representing the overall
strategic wisdom and direction. Exhibit 4‐5 maps the 13 recommendations to intervention
strategies and leverage points, which demonstrates a reasonable completeness in terms of
coverage. Naturally, such strategic wisdom and direction will have to be augmented with
elements that facilitates the execution of the vision, in other words the operational
enablers.
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Intervention Strategies and Leverage Points for Australia’s Government 2.0 Program
Intervention Strategies and
Mindset Out of Which
Goals of the System
Rules of the System
Leverage Points
Information Flows
Reinforcing Loops
the System Arises
Length of Delays
Strengths of the
Balancing Loops
Structure of the
Strength of the
Structure of
System
Government 2.0 Recommendations
1. A declaration of open government by the
Australian government.
√ √√
2. Coordinate with leadership, guidance and
support.
√ √√
3. Improve guidance and require agencies to
engage online.
√ √√
4. Encourage public servants to engage online. √ √ √√
5. Awards √√
6. Make public sector information open,
accessible and reusable.
√ √√ √
8. Establish information publication scheme. √ √√
9. Accessibility √ √√
13. Encourage info‐philanthropy. √ √
Exhibit 4‐5: Intervention Strategies Proposed for Australia’s Government 2.0 Program
4.4 ESCAPING THE SHACKLES —DESIGNING W‐O‐G EA ADOPTION
This section presents a brief summary of the steps for designing or rethinking W‐O‐G EA
adoption to power the vision of connected government.
A. Articulate the goals and objectives of connected government, along with the
intended level of connected government maturity. The inability to concisely describe
the above is symptomatic of a lack of clarity.
B. Catalog the reinforcing and balancing loops that are applicable. Tailor the systems
model as required.
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C. Construct the emergent systemic profile. It is important to fully understand the
underlying nuances and inherent characteristics (both implicit and explicit) that give
rise to the emergent systemic profile.
D. Validate the emergent systemic profile. Iterate and refine as needed factoring in the
presence of ambiguity, confounding variables, dynamic complexities and implicit
linkages.
E. Ascertain the systemic state and determine the strategic navigation pathway. This
evaluation needs to be supported by adequate supporting explanation and
rationale.
F. Identify the leverage points that are pertinent and exploitable. Be sure to take into
consideration cultural, economic, political and technological factors that may impact
the effectiveness of the leverage points.
G. Craft the specific intervention strategies to support the leverage points. In the first
pass, articulate the intended impact on the system (i.e. W‐O‐G EA adoption). Iterate
until the desired impact is achieved and implement interventions in full scale.
H. Scrutinize the performance of the whole system against the initial set of goals and
objectives and make mid‐course corrections as new information is gathered and as
required. The consequences of the interventions are as important as the
interventions themselves.
The above steps ought to be repeated for countries to continuously practise the strategic
(systems) thinking and advance W‐O‐G EA adoption for connected government.
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5 CONCLUSIONS AND WAY FORWARD
A few years back Michael Porter asserted “strategic planning in most organizations has not
contributed to strategic thinking”. In the case of W‐O‐G EA adoption for connected
government this statement cannot be disputed. Strategic (systems) thinking makes it
possible to translate complex information that is inter‐connected into simple, yet compelling
explanations of not only what is happening, but more importantly “why”. There is no dearth
of literature that identifies pitfalls to EA and proposed solutions to avoid such pitfalls. There
is also abundant guidance literature available as to how governments (and other
organizations) must adopt EA. On the other hand, none of the currently available literatures
explain the underlying complexities of EA adoption per se. Gary Hamel’s contention that
operational efficiency does not equate to strategic efficiency makes absolute sense in a
scenario where governments are gradually transforming from a hierarchy to a lattice (both
by neccessity and design).
EA is a very large undertaking for any organization. W‐O‐G EA is even larger, more complex
and more dynamic, making it an imperative to comprehend the underlying complexities in a
holistic and coherent manner. Current thinking positions EA as an IT‐management discipline.
This research intends to dispel this thinking and positions EA literally as the “architecture of
the enterprise”. It is well‐known that adopting EA at the W‐O‐G level requires and demands
much more than good frameworks, methodologies, tools and technical capabilities. There
have been some efforts to identify such influencing factors. However, all these efforts have
looked at such influencing factors in a piecemeal manner and hence their proposed solutions
are seldom convincing or effective.
The systems thinking approach addresses the “why” of W‐O‐G EA adoption in the context of
connected government and uncovers non‐obvious inter‐dependencies between the factors
such as:
A. Different organization units within the government (e.g. central structure, ministries
and agencies).
B. Corresponding actions taken by these organization units.
C. Quantitative tangible variables (such as national economy size) and qualitative ones
(such as operational diversity).
D. Short and long‐term consequences of government decisions.
W‐O‐G EA for connected government is a long term endeavor. The technical process of
architecting is difficult enough, but understanding the underlying complexities and the
interconnected dynamics that contribute to particularly intractable and difficult‐to‐solve
problems makes it intimidating for many countries. Systems thinking, used in this report,
looks at these problems and analyzes them with the core intent of: (1) motivating people to
change; (2) generating collaboration between groups that blame each other for the current
situation; (3) concentrate limited resources to points of greatest leverage; and (4) ensure
continuous ongoing learning after key decisions with regard to interventions have been
made.
To ensure that the potential of connected government is realized and benefits derived,
policy and decision makers play an essential role. W‐O‐G EA provides the enabling
mechanism to understand the holistic viewpoint that is so very crucial. Through the use of
tools like the emergent systemic profiles, systemic states and strategic navigation pathways
proposed and desribed in detail in this report, countries have the means to assess, design
and advance their W‐O‐G EA agenda. As Haiyan Qian of UNDESA succintly puts it “W‐O‐G EA
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is more a reform process of the government sector rather than the streamlining of the
government ICT structure.” To make this happen, government EA frameworks must be
designed and applied keeping in view the systemic nature of government business and
strategic thinking that is required to attain connected government, which countries aspire
for. The purpose of this report is not to predict and design the future of W‐O‐G EA, but to
assist countries in inventing it, thus giving every nation the ability to take full advantage of
the extraordinary opportunities that lie ahead.
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7 ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Dr. Pallab Saha is with the National University of Singapore. His current research,
consulting and teaching interests include Enterprise Architecture and Governance. Dr.
Saha published his first book Handbook of Enterprise Systems Architecture in Practice
(2007), his second book Advances in Government Enterprise Architecture (2008) and his
third book Coherency Management‐Architecting the Enterprise for Alignment, Agility and
Assurance (2009). His books are extensively referred to by practitioners and researchers
around the world, making it to the Top Seller list in 2008 and 2009. His papers have been
translated and published in Korean, Russian and Polish.
Dr. Saha is the primary author of the Methodology for AGency ENTerprise Architecture (MAGENTA) (2007/8) and
the Government EA Guidebook (2010) for the Government of Singapore and has led them to international
prominence. They are available in IDS Scheer’s ARIS Toolset. He is a recipient of the Microsoft research grant in
the area of Government EA supported by the UN and the World Bank. He consults extensively both in the public
and private sectors. He has provided consulting services to the Ministry of Defence, Defence Science and
Technology Agency, Infocomm Development Authority of Singapore, Integrated Health Information Systems, IP
Office of Singapore, CPF Board, Singapore Healthcare Services, Governments of Oman and Kazakhstan and Great
Eastern Life Assurance among others. He has been invited as a keynote / distinguished speaker to the World
Bank, UN University, The Open Group, SAP Labs, Denmark IT Society, Korea Institute for IT Architecture, IEEE,
Nanyang Business School, Governments of Jordan, UAE, Macau, Korea, Kazakhstan, Colombia, Auditor‐General’s
Office of Singapore, Singapore Workforce Development Agency and Singapore Government CIO Forum among
others. His work has been featured and cited by the UN, WHO, United States Department of Defense, Carlsberg
and The Open Group and has contributed to the World Bank’s EA Guidelines for Vietnam. Featured as an
Architect in the Spotlight by the Journal of EA he has been an external examiner for doctoral research degree to
the University of New South Wales and a Visiting Researcher to the UN University. Dr. Saha is a member of
Technical Committee on IT Governance to the IT Standards Committee of Singapore.
Earlier, as Head of Projects and Development, he has managed Baxter's offshore development centre in
Bangalore. He has had engagements in several Fortune 100 organizations in various capacities. Dr. Saha holds a
Ph.D in Management (Information Systems) from the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore and has received the
best research design and best thesis awards. He is an alumnus of the MIT Sloan Executive Program. He can be
contacted at [email protected].
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