JEEVAN SANGI: SQUATTER REDEVELOPMENT

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgement
Abstract
Table of Content
List of Abbreviations ..................................................................................................... 5
List of Tables ................................................................................................................. 6
List of Figures ................................................................................................................ 7
1 THESIS PROPOSAL ............................................................................................. 9
1.1 PROJECT INTRODUCTION ......................................................................... 9
1.2 PROJECT BACKGROUND ......................................................................... 10
1.2.1 Overview ................................................................................................ 10
1.2.2 EXISTING PATTERN OF SQUATTER SETTLEMENTS IN
KATHMANDU .................................................................................................... 12
1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT ........................................................................... 13
1.4 JUSTIFICATION OF THE PROJECT ......................................................... 16
1.5 OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................... 17
1.6 LIMITATIONS ............................................................................................. 17
1.7 PROJECT OUTPUT ENVISAGED ............................................................. 18
1.8 METHODOLOGY OF THE RESEARCH ................................................... 19
2 LITERATURE REVIEW: LIVELIHOOD OF SQUATTER SETTLEMENTS . 21
2.1 SQUATTERS, ITS EFFECTS AND IMPACTS .......................................... 21
2.1.1 How to identify the landless? ................................................................. 21
2.1.2 Squatter Settlements and Impacts on Environment ............................... 23
2.1.3 Squatter Settlement and its environment ............................................... 23
2.2 HISTORICAL MAPPING OF SQUATTING IN KATHMANDU .............. 27
2.2.1 General Typologies of Poor and Marginalized Communities in
Kathmandu............................................................................................................ 27
2.2.2 SQUATTER ORIGIN AND PROLIFERATION .................................. 27
2.3 EXISTING SCENARIO OF SQUATTER COMMUNITIES ...................... 32
2.3.1 Households and Population.................................................................... 32
2.3.2 Ethnicity ................................................................................................. 33
2.3.3 Reason of Migration .............................................................................. 34
2.3.4 Occupation and Housing Construction .................................................. 35
2.4 SQUATTING AND ITS LINKAGES TO HOUSING DEFICIT, POVERTY
AND DISASTER IN KATHMANDU ..................................................................... 37
2.4.1 Squatting in response to Housing Deficit in the Kathmandu Valley ..... 37
2.4.2 Vulnerability to hazardous events .......................................................... 39

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2.4.3 RIGHTS TO ADEQUATE HOUSING ................................................. 41

2.5 SQUATTER UPGRADING EFFORTS ....................................................... 43
2.5.1 Upgrading Techniques for Slums and Squatters .................................... 43
2.5.2 Organizations involved in upgradation or relocation of squatters in Nepal
45
2.5.3 Actions carried out for Slum and Squatter Upgradation ........................ 45
2.6 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ................................................................. 47
2.6.1 Affordable housing ................................................................................ 47
2.6.2 DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR A PRODUCTIVE COMMUNITY
DESIGN50
2.7 DESINING SPACES: ENIVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY STUDY .... 53
2.7.1 Environmental Psychology .................................................................... 53
2.7.2 Architecture Considerations affecting Human Psychology and Behavior
57
2.8 Housing Standards and bye laws ................................................................... 62
2.8.1 STANDARDS FOR AFFORDABLE HOUSING IN INDIA ............... 62
2.8.2 STANDARDS FOR LOW COST HOUSNG IN MALAYSIA ............ 63
2.8.3 STANDARDS FOR AFFORDABLE HOUSING IN NEPAL ............. 64
2.9 Inferences from Literature Review ............................................................... 65
3 FRAMEWORK FOR CASE STUDY .................................................................. 67
4 CASE STUDY...................................................................................................... 68
4.1 NATIONAL CASE STUDY: SETTLEMENT STUDY .............................. 68
4.1.1 Contextual background of the case study settlements ........................... 68
4.1.2 Study of squatter settlements ................................................................. 74
4.1.3 Lessons learnt and way forward ............................................................ 85
4.2 NATIONAL CASE STUDY: PROPOSED DESIGNS FOR SQUATTER
RELOCATION ........................................................................................................ 86
4.2.1 Land Sharing Proposal in Sankhamul Squatter Settlement ................... 86
4.2.2 Raniban Joint Apartment Project for Urban Poor and Low-Income
Families: Government’s Approach for Relocation ............................................... 89
4.3 INTERNATIONAL CASE STUDIES .......................................................... 92
4.3.1 Tara Low Cost Housing ......................................................................... 92
4.3.2 QUINTA MONROY HOUSING .......................................................... 95
4.4 CASE STUDY: MATERIAL AND CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY .. 99
4.4.1 Local Material and Construction Technology: ABARI Bamboo and Earth
initiative 99
4.4.2 Hamlet: Baker’s Home ........................................................................ 100
4.5 Comparison of Space Standards in different cases ..................................... 103

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4.5.1 Space standards for low cost housing .................................................. 103

4.5.2 Rationale Space Standards for design .................................................. 103
4.6 INFERENCES FROM CASE STUDY ....................................................... 104
5 SITE ANALYSIS ............................................................................................... 105
5.1 SITE DETAILS ........................................................................................... 105
5.1.1 Location and Neighborhood context .................................................... 105
5.1.2 History to present ................................................................................. 106
5.2 RIVER REGULATIONS ............................................................................ 107
5.2.1 GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATIONS OF URBAN CHARACTER .. 108
5.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF SITE ................................................................. 112
5.3.1 GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES ......................................................... 112
5.3.2 DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTER ....................................................... 113
5.3.3 PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURES ................................................... 116
5.3.4 SOCIO-ECONOMIC FEATURES ...................................................... 119
5.3.5 SOCIAL AND CULTURAL ACTIVITIES ........................................ 121
5.4 LIFE STORIES OF THE RESPONDENTS ............................................... 123
5.5 SITE JUSTIFICATION .............................................................................. 124
5.5.1 LEGAL ASPECT: PERSPECTIVE TOWARDS TENURE SECURITY
AND UPGRADATION ...................................................................................... 125
6 BY LAWS .......................................................................................................... 126
6.1.1 Basti Bikas Mapdanda, 2072 B.S. ....................................................... 126
6.1.2 Bhawan Nirman Mapdanda, 2075 B.S. ............................................... 128
7 PROGRAM FORMULATION .......................................................................... 130
7.1.1 Housing Typologies ............................................................................. 130
7.1.2 Community Centre ............................................................................... 132
7.1.3 CHILD CARE CENTER ..................................................................... 133
7.1.4 COMMERCIAL SPACES ................................................................... 134
7.1.5 RECREATIONAL SPACES ............................................................... 136
7.1.6 Parking and Circulation ....................................................................... 138
7.1.7 Area Calculation .................................................................................. 139
8 CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT ........................................................................... 140
8.1 APPROACH 1: COMMUNITY ARCHITECTURE-COMMUNITY
WORKS FOR THE COMMUNITY BY THE COMMUNITY ............................ 140
8.2 APPROACH 2: ON SITE REDEVELOPMENT AND LAND SHARING
142
9 DESIGN DEVELOPMENT ............................................................................... 144
9.1 DEVELOPMENT OF MASTERPLAN...................................................... 144
9.1.1 Planning ............................................................................................... 144

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9.2 KEY FEATURES OF DESIGN .................................................................. 148

9.2.1 FEATURE I ......................................................................................... 148
9.2.2 FEATURE II ........................................................................................ 154
9.2.3 FEATURE III....................................................................................... 158
10 SITE SERVICES ............................................................................................ 162
10.1 Water services: ............................................................................................ 162
10.2 Bio gas plant ................................................................................................ 163
10.3 Rain water harvesting system...................................................................... 165
11 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................... 167
References .................................................................................................................. 168
ANNEX I ................................................................................................................... 172
ANNEX II .................................................................................................................. 173

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List of Abbreviations

DUDBC Department of Urban Development and Building Construction

HH Households
HPBCIDC High Powered Bagmati Civilization Integrated Development
Committee
NBBSS Nepal Basobas Basti Samrakchan Samaj
NGO Non-Governmental Organization
INGO International Non-Government Organizations
NMES Nepal Mahila Ekata Samaj (Nepal Women ‘s Unity Society)
SDI Slum Dwellers International
LSGS Lumanti Support Group for Shelter
SSS Sankhamul Squatter Settlement
TSS Thapathali Squatter settlement
BSS Balkhu Squatter Settlement
KSS Kirtipur Squatter settlement
UN United Nations
WHD World Habitat Day
UCSF Urban Community Supporting Fund

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List of Tables
Table 1: Name of River and Nearby Squatter Settlements ..................................................................... 12
Table 2: Population and No. of Households by Locations ..................................................................... 13
Table 3:Typologies of Poor and Marginalized Communities in Kathmandu ......................................... 27
Table 4: Growth pattern of squatter settlements in Kathmandu from 19985-2013 ................................ 28
Table 5: Household distribution by Location ......................................................................................... 32
Table 6: Population and No. of Households by Locations ..................................................................... 33
Table 7: Ethnicity of squatter population by location ............................................................................ 33
Table 8: Distribution of households by main occupation and location .................................................. 35
Table 9: Required dwelling units for extra increased population by 2021 ............................................. 38
Table 10: Affordable Housing Definition under Government Housing Schemes .................................. 62
Table 11: Standards of Floor Area and Living Density of Housing Units ............................................. 64
Table 12: New Design Specification for Low cost housing in Malaysia ............................................... 64
Table 13: Contextual background of the case study settlements of urban poor in the Kathmandu valley
...................................................................................................................................................... 68
Table 14: Provision of informal land tenure ........................................................................................... 74
Table 15: Rationale Standards of space requirements for design phase ............................................... 103
Table 16: Land value in Sankhamul ..................................................................................................... 107
Table 17: Characteristic of climatic features of Kathmandu ................................................................ 112
Table 18: Stakeholder's Opinion towards squatter upgrading and tenure security ............................... 125
Table 19: Proposed rationale standards for affordable housing ........................................................... 131
Table 20: Standards of Floor Area and Living Density of Housing Units ........................................... 131
Table 21: Required area for housing .................................................................................................... 131
Table 22: Space requirements for Library ............................................................................................ 132
Table 23: Space requirements for child care center.............................................................................. 133
Table 24: Space requirements for retail outlets .................................................................................... 134
Table 25: Open Space Standards for Neighbourhood .......................................................................... 136
Table 26: Percentage of different activities in the design ..................................................................... 145

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List of Figures
Figure 1:Methodology of Project ........................................................................................................... 19
Figure 2: Convergence of multiple source of evidence .......................................................................... 20
Figure 3: Degraded environmental conditions along Bagmati River ..................................................... 23
Figure 4: Children living under harsh housing conditions in squatter settlements ................................. 26
Figure 5: Catchment of Bagmati and other Rivers within Kathmandu Valley ....................................... 30
Figure 6: Pockets of squatter communities developed in river catchment areas in Kathmandu ............. 30
Figure 7: Study of household numbers from 2007-2011 AD .................................................................. 31
Figure 8: Distribution of households by type of migration and location ................................................ 34
Figure 9: Distribution of households by major reasons of migration ..................................................... 35
Figure 10: Percentage of households by occupation and type of construction ....................................... 36
Figure 11: Urbanization trend of Kathmandu Valley in different periods.............................................. 37
Figure 12: 2012 Eviction of Thapathali Squatters by the government ................................................... 39
Figure 13: Conditions for adequate housing as per WHD ...................................................................... 41
Figure 14: Upgrading techniques for slums and squatters used by CODI .............................................. 43
Figure 15: Typologies in Missing Middle Housing ................................................................................ 48
Figure 16: Main four categories of space, the hidden dimension ........................................................... 55
Figure 17: Territorial hierarchy in space design ..................................................................................... 56
Figure 18: Scope of environment –behavior information....................................................................... 57
Figure 19: Dimensions and sub-dimensions of home comfort .............................................................. 57
Figure 20:Factors that give identity ........................................................................................................ 58
Figure 21: Stairs safety consideration .................................................................................................... 60
Figure 22: Sankhamul Squatter Setllement and its surrounding............................................................. 69
Figure 23: Thapathali Squatter Settlement and its surrounding context ................................................. 70
Figure 24: Balkhu Slum Settlement ....................................................................................................... 71
Figure 25: Kirtipur Squatter Settlement and its surrounding context ..................................................... 72
Figure 26: Ramhiti Squatter Settlement and its surrounding context ..................................................... 73
Figure 27: Housing Typologies in study areas ....................................................................................... 75
Figure 28: Inner courtyards with karesa bari, small backyard space for washing clothes ...................... 76
Figure 29: Pattern of housing along the river bank in Thapathali .......................................................... 77
Figure 30: Open spaces used for drying clothes ..................................................................................... 77
Figure 31: Housing in Kirtipur ............................................................................................................... 77
Figure 32: Picture showing small shop and common living cum bedroom space in squatter house ...... 78
Figure 33: Measured drawing taken during field visit in SSS showing housing unit ............................. 78
Figure 34: Site plan of Kirtipur Housing Project ................................................................................... 79
Figure 35: TYPE 1 ................................................................................................................................. 79
Figure 36: TYPE 2 ................................................................................................................................. 79
Figure 37: Poor road infrastructure and electric services in Balkhu....................................................... 82
Figure 38: Poor sanitation in households at SSS .................................................................................... 82
Figure 39: Proposal for resettling three settlements into one ................................................................. 86
Figure 40: Options for lower entry level and upper level layouts .......................................................... 87
Figure 41: Proposed Masterplan of Raniban Joint Apartment showing open spaces, blocks, roads and
parking spaces ............................................................................................................................... 90
Figure 42: Layout of Upper floor plans .................................................................................................. 91
Figure 43: Figure Ground Relation ........................................................................................................ 92
Figure 44: Section at A-A'(Upper) and South East Section(Lower) ...................................................... 92
Figure 45: Lighting accessibility ............................................................................................................ 93
Figure 46: Cross ventilation applicable due to presence of wide courtyard at the center ....................... 93
Figure 47: L type flats at the edges ........................................................................................................ 94
Figure 48: Combination of three flat bedroom ....................................................................................... 94
Figure 49: Combination of two bedroom flat ......................................................................................... 94
Figure 50: Built form.............................................................................................................................. 94
Figure 51: Relation with adjacent context .............................................................................................. 95
Figure 52: Ground Floor Plan with incremental option.......................................................................... 97
Figure 53: First Floor Plan with incremental option .............................................................................. 97
Figure 54: Top Floor Plan with incremental option ............................................................................... 97
Figure 55: Sections showing incremental options .................................................................................. 98
Figure 56: Variations in model ............................................................................................................... 98
Figure 57: Variations in facade .............................................................................................................. 98
Figure 58: Interior design at Pharpin Cafe and Coffee House in Kathmandu ........................................ 99

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Figure 59: Bamboo as truss, rafters and joints in Saraswati Secondary School in Dhulikhel .............. 100
Figure 60: Initial Plan of Hamlet .......................................................................................................... 102
Figure 61: Additional Plan of Hamlet .................................................................................................. 102
Figure 62: Change in land use from agricultural land to commercial active zone with development of
road services from 2003 AD-2019 AD, image taken from google satellite ................................ 106
Figure 63: Graphical representation of existing building uses, infrastructures, site amenities and green
parks present in Sankhamul settlement ....................................................................................... 108
Figure 64: Graphical representation of road heirarchy in Sankhamul settlement................................. 109
Figure 65: Graphical representation of pedestrian and vehicular flow pattern ..................................... 110
Figure 66: View of the river running between the squatter settlement and the green park .................. 111
Figure 67: View of squatter settlement from the bridge ....................................................................... 111
Figure 68: View from and towards the site .......................................................................................... 111
Figure 69: Sankhamul ghat on the opposite side of the river bank ....................................................... 111
Figure 70: Sankha park on the opposite bank of the river facing the squatter settlement .................... 111
Figure 71: Section of the site showing topographical features ............................................................. 112
Figure 72: Climatic study of the site .................................................................................................... 113
Figure 73: Housing before and after land sharing proposal by government, permanent structures with
high storey construction done by those who are capable ............................................................ 116
Figure 74: Roofing Material Types ...................................................................................................... 117
Figure 75: Type of flooring .................................................................................................................. 117
Figure 76: Measured drawing taken during field visit in SSS showing housing unit ........................... 118
Figure 77: Room space availability ...................................................................................................... 118
Figure 78:Heirarchy of space in Sankhamul Squatter settlement ......................................................... 121
Figure 79: FAR Regulations for Residential Zone as per Bhawan Nirman Mapdanda ........................ 128
Figure 80: Traffic calming remedies .................................................................................................... 138
Figure 81: Model for community architecture ..................................................................................... 141
Figure 82: Model for Productive Community Generation: Jeevan Sangi............................................. 142
Figure 83:Proposed Master planning with inclusion of various activity spaces ................................... 144
Figure 84: Measures carried out for making a safer and pedestrian friendly activity to reduce heavy
intersection of pedestrian and vehicular flow ............................................................................. 146
Figure 85: Measures taken for defining clear hierarchical pattern of space ......................................... 146
Figure 86: Measures taken for creating a legible image of the proposed settlement design ................ 147
Figure 87: Housing Model for Griha Ka .............................................................................................. 148
Figure 88: Incremental model for Griha Kha ....................................................................................... 149
Figure 89: incremental model for Griha ga .......................................................................................... 150
Figure 90: Incremental model for Griha Ga ......................................................................................... 150
Figure 91: Utilization of natural topography of site for cost reduction ................................................ 151
Figure 92: Sectional elevation: Resemblance to lotus flower............................................................... 152
Figure 93: Streetscape along the upper pedestrianized public street .................................................... 152
Figure 94: Typical interior view of housing unit .................................................................................. 153
Figure 95: Proposed Community Center .............................................................................................. 155
Figure 96: Perspective view of community center ............................................................................... 156
Figure 97: Proposed Child Care Center................................................................................................ 157
Figure 98: Perspective design for child care center .............................................................................. 158
Figure 99: Market Space with open amphitheater ................................................................................ 160
Figure 100: Puxin Biogas systemPlay area : Basketball court and badminton court with seating spaces,
children play area, viewing decks etc. ........................................................................................ 161
Figure 101: Puxin Biogas system ......................................................................................................... 163
Figure 102: Geometrical dimensions of cross section of cylindrical bio digester body ....................... 164
Figure 103: Cross sectional of a cylindrical digester............................................................................ 164
Figure 104: Proposed rainwater harvesting system .............................................................................. 166

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1 THESIS PROPOSAL
1.1 PROJECT INTRODUCTION
The best and greatest architecture of all times, 21st century architecture, all so beautiful
and innovative is so rare and serves very few. There is always a rising question what
more can be done with creative architecture that can serve the people.
Near the end of 2011, the human population reached a staggering seven billion people.
The population of urban areas has also grown significantly in comparison to rural areas.
Forecasts are that population will keep increasing until approximately 2050. The
inability of governments to keep up with the rapid pace of urbanization and provide
affordable housing has led to an increase in the number of slums and squatters. Already
one third of the urban world population is living in slums and squatter settlements
(Winssen, August, 2013). It is a priority for local governments to improve housing
conditions in slums and squatters as they are being associated with poverty (Winssen,
August, 2013).
Approaches have shifted from neglect and eviction to upgrading, redevelopment and
rehabilitation. This thesis will be a research attempt to carefully outline the impacts of
squatter community redevelopment practices in Sankhamul, Kathmandu, for the well-
being and quality of life of the residents.
“Instead of a neighborhood characterized by misery, I find a bustling and enterprising
place, packed with small‐scale industries defying their circumstances to flourish amidst
squalor. Rather than pity, I am inspired by man’s alchemic ability to thrive when the
chips are down.” (Simon Crerar, The Times, 2010). We cannot create a healthy and
prosperous country unless the people residing here are not healthy and secured. There
is the urge of design approaches for a healthy and productive community design that
caters the rising needs of the urban fabric.

Jeevan Sangi, the word itself gives the meaning of life partner with whom a person can
spend his life happily and to whom he can trust. Jeevan Sangi will be a community
where the people who once were excluded from the society will live with dignity
without fear of getting evicted from their own homes. Uplifting the quality of their
living conditions for which they can work, train and educate themselves, a step to
empowerment of poor to work together with the community as a whole. Community
works by the community for the community, Jeevan Sangi is a place to live, work and
play for the squatters.

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1.2 PROJECT BACKGROUND

1.2.1 Overview
Slums are generally known as extremely populated inner-city areas considered by poor
housing and squalor. The commonly used definition for slum by United Nation -
Habitat (April 2007) is slum household as a group of individuals who have one or more
of the following characteristics:

Poor structural housing quality, overcrowding, inadequate access to safe water,

sanitation and other infrastructure and insecure residential status

Each of these characteristics can be looked through a micro-perspective that provides

detailed understanding of any particular situation with its causes and its consequences
which are linked with poverty, social exclusion and well-being.

Whereas squatting, is one form of slum which is quite visible in most of the slum area
of Nepal. The meaning of squatters in Nepal is defined by Lumanti (2001, 12) as
squatter settlement takes the form of appropriation over public or private land for one’s
own use without any legal procedure or rights. This form of settlement usually uses
materials of little or no value to construct their shelter or move into abandoned buildings
owned by others. Squatting may take place in an openly or secretly done by an
individual or large number of people. An important difference between slums and
squatter settlements is that the squatter settlements lacks the basic land rights (Ramesh,
2014, p. 11).

Land is a cross-cutting issue. Basically, in the urban areas, there are slums and squatters
developed simultaneously with urbanization. There are many haphazard residential
settlements and built up areas which have brought serious problems like continuity of
informal settlements, increased gap between rich and poor people, lack of tenure
security, and unsustainable land use (Ashokkumar Shrestha, 2017, p. 1).

1.2.1.1 How is a squatter formed?

There are push and pull factors that causes rural to urban migration. The push factors
are lack of access to land in which many people find themselves in a situation of
economically insecure. Similarly, the push factors are better jobs, health, education and
other facilities. However, due to lack of affordable land and housing, lack of
employment opportunities the migrant population left to squat and build their shelters

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on public land and other environmentally sensitive areas like riverbanks or flood plains,
steep slopes and vacant spaces under high-voltage electrical transmission line. As stated
by UN-HABITAT, the failure of the rural economy and displacement of people for
various reasons, including natural disasters and conflict, are the two major causes for
the increase of slums and squatter settlements in the valley (Ashokkumar Shrestha,
2017, p. 1).

The proximity to income-earning opportunities in the city centre is normally a crucial

issue for the urban poor and, to gain access to inexpensive centrally-located land for
housing, the urban poor normally have to sacrifice tenure security. They are forced to
encroach on any type of vacant land illegally (often ill-suited for housing) and to ignore
building and development regulations. Due to the scarcity of land, settling in the public
land has brought numerous problems such as environmental degradation, conflict
between the residents and the government, and loss of open space in Kathmandu Valley.

The major reasons why poor people are living in squatter settlements are:
▪ Rural-urban migration – the push and pull factors associated with urbanization –
people are looking for employment and better education and health care for their
children;
▪ Because governments, over the years, have not provided an adequate supply of
affordable low-cost housing;
▪ Because of poverty, unemployment and low wages; governments have not
established a minimum wage and have allowed too many workers to be paid wages
well below the poverty line;
▪ Because of the difficulty of obtaining land through the proper channels; and
▪ Because of rapid escalation in the price of land, housing and rents in urban areas
(Shrestha B. K., Safer and Affordable Housing for Urban Poor: A case for
Kathmandu Valley, December, 2010, p. 7)

1.2.1.2 Squatting in Kathmandu

The history of squatter settlements on the bank of Bagmati river shows that these were
established more than 50 years ago but they were few in comparison to the present.
Growth rate is 37.94 percent in 2008, 39.16 percent in 2009, 24.79 percent in 2010 and
15.83 percent in 2011. This indicates rapid growth in the years 2008 and 2009 and
slower growth in 2010 and slow in 2011 (Desar, 2013, p. 133). Settlements are

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relatively small. Some comprise fewer than 20 households are located on public land
on the bank of rivers, these are heterogeneous not only in terms of the ethnicity or caste
of their residents but also in terms of their places of origin, present occupation and
income, family structure and reason of squatting.

1.2.2 EXISTING PATTERN OF SQUATTER SETTLEMENTS IN

KATHMANDU
Squatter settlements have gradually become an integral part of the urban fabric.
Usually, a squatter settlement is highly organized despite being illegal. The occupants
have clearly defined behavioral rules, spatial boundaries and methods of solving
tenurial disagreements. Illegal housing is sold, land is subdivided and leased, and other
transactions are possible as if the land or housing was legal.

Table 1: Name of River and Nearby Squatter Settlements

Nearby River Name of Squatter Settlements

Bagmati River Shanti Nagar, Bijay Nagar, Jagrit Nagar, Gairigaun, Chandani Tole,
Pragati Tole, Kalimati Dole, Kimal Phant, Bansighat, Kuriyagaun and
Sankhamul
Hanumante River Manohara Bhaktapur
Bishnumati River Dhikure Chouki, Kumaristhan Buddhajyoti Marga, Balaju Jagriti Tole,
Sangam Tole, and Ranibari
Dhobi Khola Santi Binayak, Devi Nagar, Bishal Nagar, Kupondole and Pathivara
Tukucha Khola Narayantole, Maharajgung and Khadipakha Maharajgung
Other Locations Palpakot, Anamnagar, Maijubahal, Kumarigal, Radhakrishna Chowk,
Mulpani, Kapan Dhungen, Subigaun, Ramhiti, Mahankal,
Dhumbarahi Sukedhara, Mandhikhatar, Galfutar, Ramghat, Dhaukhel
and Bhimmukteshwor
(Source: www.google.com/kathmandu/squatter-settlements: accessed in September, 2012)

Above table shows that total 11 settlements are residing on the bank of Bagmati River,
1 settlement on Hanumante River, 5 settlements on Bishnumati River, 5 settlements on
Dhobikhola, 2 settlements on Tukucha and 16 settlements on the other locations in
Kathmandu Valley. The squatter communities on the bank of Bagmati River are taken
problematic rather than other settlements, it is because of the central location, heavy
settlement area, and out of the sanitation and drinking water facilities (Desar, 2013, p.
130).

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Table 2: Population and No. of Households by Locations

Location Number of Total Male Female Total Average

Settlements Population Households Size
Bagmati 11 3903 2052 1851 863 4.5
Bishnumati 5 1564 768 796 306 5.1
Hanumante 1 2422 1290 1132 589 4.1
Dhobikhola 5 1247 653 594 271 4.6
Tukucha 2 843 459 384 176 4.8
Others 16 2747 1390 1357 530 5.2
Total 40 12726 6612 6114 2735 4.7
(Source: Lumanti Bulletin, 2069 B.S.)

The 11 squatter settlements along the Bagmati River have 863 households which is
32% of the total squatter households in Kathmandu Valley. Above table shows most of
the squatter settlements established near rivers. There are nearly 10000 people living in
2205 households in squatter settlements along river banks of the valley. Thus, a huge
number of squatters are residing nearby river. (Desar, 2013, p. 132)

1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT

People residing in squatter settlements face many problems like improper sanitation,
unhygienic environmental conditions, social, economic, health, educational and
cultural problems and many more. Illegal sand mining on the river by the squatter
community people has created several environmental problems. The basic problems
inherent in slums are health hazards, lack of basic amenities like safe drinking water,
proper housing, drainage and excreta disposal services, make slum population
vulnerable to infections.
The squatter environment is the perfect breeding ground for a wide range of social and
environmental problems. High unemployment often causes men to stay around the
home growing increasingly frustrated with their pathetic situations and the worsening
poverty. Cramped conditions mean that there is nowhere to go when tensions rise, a
factor that regularly, leads to domestic violence. Sometimes the situation goes to the
other extreme, where people abandon their homes, lured by the prospect of stupor
through alcohol or drug abuse.
The housing sector in the valley (and Nepal) has witnessed a series of trend both in the
built form and implementation practice in the last few decades that has been discussed
in the following table:

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Project Year Features Reasons of Failure

1 Kuleswore housing 1977 Housing for civil Due to stiff resistance from
project servants without the local land owners for
house and land in the low compensation of their
valley through land lands, displacement of the
acquisition could original land owners, poor
not success technical and managerial
capabilities of Kathmandu
Valley Town Development
Committee, lack of
coordination among
various line agencies for
timely provisions of
physical infrastructures,
delay in construction
(assume to be completed in
2-3 years but took more
than 10 years) and hence
overrun of the estimated
cost.
2 Guided Land 1988- Private housing and Ongoing land pooling
Development 2003, real estate programs and housing
(GLD) and Land 1997 companies started development have
Pooling (LP) , constructing private benefitted to local
Apartment housing in the landowners and high
Ownership Act valley, 150 real income group only,
1997 estate companies housing as a business
registered to Nepal venture and investment
Land and Housing object for future high value
Development speculation
Association till now The market value of the
serviced land returned to
the landowners has
increased as high as 300%
to 600% (Karki, 2004),
numerous financial
institutions including
government and private
commercial banks
providing wider range of
housing loans based on
different schemes with
long term repayment
period are of little useful
for low income group as
they have nothing to
deposit as mortgage in the
bank

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 JEEVAN SANGI: SQUATTER REDEVELOPMENT

4 National Shelter 1996, Acknowledged the No policies and guidelines

Policy 1996 and the 2002- need to address regarding how to
Tenth Development 2007 housing issue for implement projects
Plan (2002-2007) urban poor benefitting poor are so far
formulated
5 Poverty Alleviation 2006 Co-operate the poor Concerned with income
Fund Act person household or generating programs but
group for uplifting not housing and
their economic and neighbourhood
social status by improvement
identifying the root
causes of poverty in
local level and by
utilizing the local
know-how and
resources through
the medium of social
mobilization
6 Kirtipur Housing Comprising of 44 Though this project has
Project, Urban number of two demonstrated the success
Community storey houses in six storey due to collaboration
Support Fund ropanies of land was of funds and programs
(UCSF) in built to resettle those among different partners,
collaboration displaced squatters nonetheless, poor space
between from the planning, long commuting
Kathmandu construction of distance for jobs at city
Metropolitan City, Vishnumati Link centres, and social
Lumanti Support Road exclusion by the
Group for Shelter surrounding neighbours
and several national while collecting water from
and international the public taps have diluted
development its achievement
agencies Ownership of land remains
with UCSF and thus sale is
restricted although
residents could still
exercise limited right such
as renting
7 Squatters’ 2009 Led by Squatter
movement in Nepal Federation (Nepal
Basobas Basti
Samrakchan Samaj),
The Nepal Women’s
Unity Society
(Nepal Mahila Ekata
Samaj) and Lumanti
Support Group for
Shelter, has
developed both
national and

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 JEEVAN SANGI: SQUATTER REDEVELOPMENT

regional networks
through exchange
visits with peer
groups to share their
experiences with
savings and credit,
upgrading housing,
monitoring evictions
and so on (Tanaka,
2009)
Source: (Shrestha D. B., 2006, p. 10)
Moreover, the government’s adaptation of National Building Code and provision of
seismic design in structure of building while applying for building permit has little
meaning for those living in slums and squatters, as such illegal settlements do not come
under normal permit system and development control mechanism. Lack of information
and reliable data of informal settlements has further constrained policies and programs
for upgrading and regularization of the areas (Shrestha D. B., 2006, p. 10).

1.4 JUSTIFICATION OF THE PROJECT

Rapid urbanization, low socio-economic growth, inadequate capacity to cope with
housing needs and poor governance has caused increase of urban poverty and slums
and squatter settlements in the Kathmandu valley. The poverty alleviation strategy,
National Shelter Policy 1996 and the land and housing development trend has ignored
the urban housing of poor. However, lack of land right and tenure security has
constrained for better life. There is a failure to close the gap of social legitimacy and
legal legitimacy has been the major issue (Shrestha D. B., 2006). The legal legitimacy
refers to tenure security from legal perspective whereas social legitimacy is about
tenure security from livelihood aspect.

The proximity to income-earning opportunities in the city centre is normally a crucial

issue for the urban poor and, to gain access to inexpensive centrally-located land for
housing, the urban poor normally have to sacrifice tenure security. They are forced to
encroach on any type of vacant land illegally (often ill-suited for housing) and to ignore
building and development regulations. Many housing programs implemented by
governments have failed because they have been located in the urban fringe where
income-earning opportunities normally are scarce.

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 JEEVAN SANGI: SQUATTER REDEVELOPMENT

Squatter settlements along the river are living on very vulnerable polluted environment
and flood risks, most of them are using open sky toilets or direct drained to the river.
Poverty alleviation strategy and present trend of housing development have failed to
address the needs of housing for urban poor living in slums and squatter settlements.
To reverse this situation, integration of both ‘top-down’ strategy and ‘bottom-up’
approach is essential. This thesis deals with researching a safer and affordable housing
and redevelopment of the squatter community.
1.5 OBJECTIVES
The main aim of this thesis is to create an example of community design for
upgrading the quality of life of people living in the squatter settlements by
providing them tenurial security with the right to work and live without any
fear of getting evicted.

1. Qualitative research of squatter settlements to explore people's feelings, perception

and experiences of particular events and phenomenon more closely, a step towards
redevelopment,
2. Design a community based on the study of affordability and environmental
psychology study with the integration of man, nature and built environment in its
form and site giving a unique sense of place,
3. Promote activities that encourage empowerment of the people for local economy.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
• How can squatting be transformed to better living conditions, means of changing
squatter from an eyesore to upgrading, a problem to finding the solution?
• What is important, creating shelter or productive community design in architecture?

1.6 LIMITATIONS

▪ This proposal has not studied the overall squatter settlements in Kathmandu in detail
due to time constraint but a brief data has been collected for knowledge. There have
been detailed researches for few squatter settlements such as Sankhamul, Ramhiti,
Kirtipur, Balkhu and Thapathali only.
▪ Data collection is based on field visits and site observations wherever possible,
otherwise secondary data are used for the basis of research.

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 JEEVAN SANGI: SQUATTER REDEVELOPMENT

▪ Furthermore, the study does not take human psychology for research rather
environmental psychology that would enhance the quality of human experience and
make a more productive environment.

1.7 PROJECT OUTPUT ENVISAGED

From various literature studies and case studies that are mentioned below have become
the baseline for creating the type of functions that are needed for re-vitalizing and
redevelopment of the squatter scenario in today’s Kathmandu. Thus, this proposal
deliberately envisions to include the following programs as per the study:
• Creating healthy, functional and affordable residences
• Training programs for working environment, mostly related to handicrafts viz. art,
pottery, knock off apparels, metal crafts and wood crafts
• Market place for showcasing and selling the products for its sustenance and rent for
houses
• Counseling and revitalization programs for special cases through documentaries,
public awareness for healthy environment, etc.
• Recreation activities for all age groups and special cases that need rehabilitation.

The project would work on design with nature analyzing the environment psychology
and address:
▪ Sustainable design strategies that use materials that are found at the building site
itself, reducing the need for energy-intensive transport or the manufacture of
additional material. For example, if trees are being cut down to make way for the
building, these should be employed as part of the building itself.
▪ Design that works with its natural surroundings encouraging the presence of nature
not only by vision but also through sound.
▪ Minimizing energy consumption with introducing choice of reusable building
materials. Recycled materials such as reclaimed lumber, rapidly renewable bamboo,
inspiring forms (louvers for ventilation) of traditional materials like brick and stone
are few examples.

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 JEEVAN SANGI: SQUATTER REDEVELOPMENT

1.8 METHODOLOGY OF THE RESEARCH

The following outlined methodology were followed for moving a step forward:

Redevelopment of Squatter Communities

Study of Existing Literature Review Case Study

Scenario

Research Objectives Requirement Design Guidelines

Analysis

Site Selection

Program
Formulation

Concept
Development

Design
Development

Figure 1:Methodology of Project

A. Initiation
Initially, the main problem statement and the justifications and proper reasoning for the
project was dealt with through studies of existing scenarios and baseline/ objectives to
overcome these problems were made.
 Definition of the architectural problem
 Objective Analysis and understanding

B. Literature Review, Survey data collection and Case Study

Literature review is the research-based information gathered for proper reasoning of the
problems arising in the present situation related to the thesis project. The updated data
collection was done through study of research papers, journals, reports, newspaper
articles and various websites. Information were also gathered from LUMANTI Shelter

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 JEEVAN SANGI: SQUATTER REDEVELOPMENT

Group for Shelter and Department of Urban Development and Building Construction
(DUDBC) related to literature reviews.
 Existing scenario analysis
 Primary data and secondary data collections
 Inferences
 Project review and requirement analysis
Major case study areas were designated as squatter settlement study in five different
locations and types in national context: Thapathali, Sankhamul, Kirtipur, Balkhu and
Ramhiti.
▪ Focal group discussions with the community leaders and locals was carried out for
primary source of data in cases where people were not willing to open up about
their livelihood.
▪ Structured questionnaire was prepared for primary data on the field where necessary
to get updated information provided.
▪ Secondary data were collected through journals, survey reports done by LUMANTI
and thesis seniors and government reports.
 International, Regional and National Cases
 Inferences
 Project Review and requirement analysis

Documents
Structured
Recorded
interviews
Surveys

Direct FACTS Peer reviewed

Observations journals

Focus Group Related

Discussions thesis

Figure 2: Convergence of multiple source of evidence

C. Site Selection
D. Project Program Formulation
E. Concept Development
F. Design Development

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 JEEVAN SANGI: SQUATTER REDEVELOPMENT

2 LITERATURE REVIEW: LIVELIHOOD OF SQUATTER

SETTLEMENTS
2.1 SQUATTERS, ITS EFFECTS AND IMPACTS
2.1.1 How to identify the landless?
Legally, a sukumbasi is a person who can prove that nobody in his family over the last
three generations held any land title/ lalpurja (Toffin, 2010). Squatters are the object of
fear, anxiety, suspicion and misconceptions among most of the population. Their
shanty-encroachments on rivers are seen as obstacles to restoring the original riparian
landscape and ecology.

A word has been coined, hukumbasi (probably derived from the term hukum, meaning
'order'), to designate the category of person who are fake indigents and are helped by
local bodies and foreign agencies. A hukumbasi is someone who pretends to be a
sukumbasi; in order to obtain a land title, as well as other advantages granted to the
underprivileged. But in fact, they possess some family land documents in their home
district (Toffin, 2010).

From a study carried out by Reily Brooks in various squatter settlements, squatter
federations and INGO’s/NGO’s, the following information were gathered:

2.1.1.1 Fake Squatters Capturing the Land

The concept of “fake” squatters by government and civil society means that they are
not actually landless and have a decent livelihood. For example, the term “fake”
squatter is a label for people who “live too nicely for slum conditions,” like owning a
television, cell phone, refrigerator, motor bike and other amenities that outsiders do not
associate with being landless and/or poor (Brooks, 2016, p. 19).

▪ Reasons behind Fake Squatters Capturing the Land

i. Fake squatters hope that government will distribute land squatters so they can
turn around, sell the land and return to their original settlements.
ii. Squatter settlements are highly influenced by political parties. They bribe
squatter settlements, stating to implement policies that will promote squatters’
quality of life, such as job security and land ownership.
iii. Multiple development organizations, INGOs and NGOs provide free services
that improve local quality of life, promoting dependency and an unwillingness
to work.

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 JEEVAN SANGI: SQUATTER REDEVELOPMENT

▪ Deductions
The national government needs to realize that this is not a “legal vs. illegal issue, but
this is a humanitarian issue. Proper on-the-ground study is required to get reliable
information about actual reasons for squatting.

2.1.1.2 City-Makers Protecting the Land

When asked how squatters view themselves, many representatives of squatter

settlements claimed they are not “capturing the land, but protecting the land” (Brooks,
2016, p. 20).
Box 1: Interview with Moti Lama, a community leader in Sankhamul Squatter Settlement

The squatters are “protectors” of the land because families came in search of
opportunity decades ago and found opportunity on neglected, public land. The
government did not protect the land at the time when they settled, so overtime,
squatter settlements made the land “beautiful and created a small society.” The
government did not protect public land from encroachment when it began 30 to 40
years ago, justifying their actions to “protect the land.” There was mutual agreement
that if the squatter settlements were not on public land, the land would have been
sold and belonged to the private sector by now. Instead the squatter settlements
“saved” the land for development by government.

Representatives from squatter settlements questioned why city people want cheap
labor, but will not provide for travel of cheap labor and do not want to live close to
squatters (Brooks, 2016, p. 21). Leaders of squatter federations referred to squatters as
Kathmandu’s “city-makers” because they take on the construction and service jobs that
keep the city functioning. Joshi Jibgar stated that you need the poor to sustain the life
of the rich (Brooks, 2016, p. 21). Echoing similar thoughts, representatives of squatter
settlements expressed that their contributions to the city are vital to urban development.

▪ Deductions
i. The issue of squatter settlements is not just an isolated issue of land, but involves
their economic opportunities, livelihood and what value they add to the city.
ii. Their perception of being the “protectors of land” and “city-makers” motivates
how they perceive their community, rights and government-driven resettlement
policies (Brooks, 2016, p. 21).

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 JEEVAN SANGI: SQUATTER REDEVELOPMENT

2.1.2 Squatter Settlements and Impacts on Environment

▪ Sewage disposal without any treatment along Bagmati riverside, major source of
water pollution turning the river virtually into an open drain.
▪ Illegal sand mining on Bagmati river by the squatter community people has created
several environmental problems.
▪ Air pollution and land pollution caused by burning, dumping of solid wastes by the
residents themselves.

Figure 3: Degraded environmental conditions along Bagmati River

(Source: Images taken from google)

Poor residents of these communities bear much of the immediate negative

environmental and health impacts morbidity and mortality rates closely linked to
environmental quality, namely infant mortality, diarrhea and respiratory diseases. This
may multiply over the nearby other settlement areas and as a whole city may be at risk.
(Desar, 2013, p. 139)

2.1.3 Squatter Settlement and its environment

Existence of squatters are considered to highlight the poverty of the city itself and
therefore often ignored or not considered as a part of the society as such these
communities hold a stigma of being blight.

▪ Deprived: low income, illiteracy, unskilled, inadequate housing, low level of

infrastructure
▪ Depressing: poverty, social exclusion, stigma
▪ Diseased: unhygienic, epidemics
▪ Dirty: irregular pattern, blight of city
▪ Dangerous: illegal, criminality, low moral standards

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 JEEVAN SANGI: SQUATTER REDEVELOPMENT

Paul Rabe’ stated that this view sees slums as parasites and therefore argues that the
city should get-rid-of slums (Sharma, 2010). In Nepal too, such has been a widespread
view and policy makers often tend to disregard the existence of squatters and slums in
their plans. Such misconceptions are leading the urban structure to nowhere near
development.

2.1.3.1 Poverty

Poverty are divided in two different forms; subsistence poverty and relative poverty.
According to Dixon & Macarov, subsistence poverty is based on the survival that
requires minimum level of income to purchase minimum amount of food intake to
survive. Whereas, as stated by Smith (2009), relative poverty‟ people are viewed as
poor in relation to the general living standards in society. The Oxfam defines as;

“A state of relative powerlessness in which people are denied the ability to control
crucial aspects of their lives. Poverty is a symptom of deeply inequities and unequal
power relationships, institutionalized through policies and practices at the levels of
state, society, and household. People often lack money, land, or freedom because they
are discriminated against on the grounds of one or more aspects of their personal
identity – their class, gender, ethnicity, age, or sexuality: constraining their ability to
claim and control the resources that allow them in life” (Rumba, 2014, p. 13).

Urban poverty is one of the major issues in squatters. It takes specific forms of
deprivation and misery among individual households. The vulnerability of the poor can
be seen as:

▪ Housing vulnerability: lack of tenure, poor quality shelter without ownership

rights, no access to individual water connection/ toilets, unhealthy and insanitary
living conditions.
▪ Economic vulnerability: irregular/ casual employment, low paid work, lack of
access to credit on reasonable terms, lack of access to formal safety net programs,
low ownership of productive assets.
▪ Social vulnerability: low education, low social caste status, lack of access to health
services, exclusion from local institutions.
▪ Personal vulnerability: proneness to violence, or intimidation, especially women
and elderly, lack of information, lack of access to justice (Shrestha B. K., Safer and
Affordable Housing for Urban Poor: A case for Kathmandu, 2010)

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 JEEVAN SANGI: SQUATTER REDEVELOPMENT

2.1.3.2 Social exclusion

Social exclusion refers to the multiple and changing factors resulting in people being
excluded from the normal exchanges, practices and rights of modern society. Poverty
is one of the most obvious factors, but social exclusion also refers to inadequate rights
in housing, education, health and access to services. It affects individuals and groups,
particularly in urban and rural areas as it emphasizes the weaknesses in the social
infrastructure and the risk of allowing a two-tier society to become established by
default (Rumba, 2014, pp. 13,14,15).

Usually slums often remain as an invisible part of a city. UNICEF describes it as an

institutional discrimination whilst authorities systematically neglect the existence of a
particular group of people and their rights (Rumba, 2014, pp. 15,16,17).

2.1.3.3 Fear of Eviction

Eviction has three basic impacts on those affected: physical, economic and
psychological (Desar, 2013, p. 135). Eviction reduces the housing stock of the city and
ruins the economic value of the housing which may be small in real terms but big for
the individual. It detaches the squatter from employment opportunities which are
usually nearby or even in the settlement itself. It also uproots them from the community
which functions as an economic and psychological safety net.

The home is the center of everybody's lives and eviction, often forceful, is a very
traumatic experience, especially for the children. The most harmful impact of eviction
may actually be the fear of being evicted. The fear makes people fatalistic, loses
confidence in them and discourages them from improving their housing.

2.1.3.4 Impacts on the people

2.1.3.4.1 Women

Women face severe discrimination regarding security of tenure. Regardless of its form,
tenure is often registered in the name of men, leaving women dependent on their male
relatives for tenure security. Moreover, while collective forms of tenure can include
women, the decision-making processes are often dominated by men.

Following an eviction, women are often more vulnerable to abuse, particularly if they
have been forced to move to inadequate housing, often in informal settlements. The

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 JEEVAN SANGI: SQUATTER REDEVELOPMENT

lack of shelter and privacy in such settlements can lead to increased exposure to sexual
and other forms of violence. When housing conditions are inadequate, women are often
disproportionately affected. For instance, women are usually responsible for collecting
water if water and sanitation services are inadequate, and often spend up to 4 hours a
day walking, queuing and carrying water. (The Right to Adequate Housing Fact Sheet
No.21/Rev.1, pp. 17-18)

2.1.3.4.2 Children

Figure 4: Children living under harsh housing conditions in squatter settlements

(Source: Images taken during field visit in Thapathali squatter settlement)

Children’s health, educational advancement and overall well-being are deeply

influenced by the quality of housing in which they live. Lack of adequate housing,
forced evictions or homelessness tend to have a profound impact on children due to
their specific needs, affecting their growth, development and enjoyment of a whole
range of human rights, including the right to education, health and personal security.

Homelessness has particular effects on children, compromising their growth,

development and security. Homeless children can be vulnerable to a range of emotional
problems, including anxiety, sleeplessness, aggression and withdrawal. Their access to
basic services, such as health care and education, can also be seriously impaired if they
have no fixed address. Children living and working in the street are particularly
vulnerable to threats, harassment and violence by private individuals and the police.
Forced evictions tend to affect the entire family but have a particular impact on children.
Following forced evictions, family stability is often jeopardized and livelihoods
threatened. The impact of forced evictions on children’s development is considered to
be similar to that of armed conflict. (The Right to Adequate Housing Fact Sheet
No.21/Rev.1, pp. 18-19)

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 JEEVAN SANGI: SQUATTER REDEVELOPMENT

2.2 HISTORICAL MAPPING OF SQUATTING IN KATHMANDU

2.2.1 General Typologies of Poor and Marginalized Communities in Kathmandu
Table 3:Typologies of Poor and Marginalized Communities in Kathmandu

Types Land Acquisition Characteristics

Status
Squatter Invasion of public or Town centers, periphery of towns(river
Settlements private land banks), no tenure security

Shanty Towns Dominant of squatters Mostly downtown and around city center,
(usually renters) small plots with few public amenities and
little prospect of their provision. Likelihood
of self-improvement.

Street May have regular Downtown/inner city. Homeless and move

Sleepers/Dwellers sleeping place, according to workplace.
invasion of public
road/land
Slums Converted large houses Mostly downtown. An increasing portion of
of permanent new rental accommodation in older
structures, usually irregular settlements. Single room per
rentals family and share the same.

Vendors Makeshift/ Mobile Mostly dominant in the center city.

Source: (Rajopadhyaya, 2073/74)

Significant forms/typologies of poverty have been seen from history till date:

Till 2017 BS Travelers and tourists stayed in temples, dharmasahala, pati and sattals

Till 2020’s Early town houses consisted of Chedi (ground floor dedicated for workshop);
owners let the workmen sleep and work for minimum price

Till 2030’s Invasion of lands in city border/ outer rings started

2040’s and Number of squatter settlements still increasing and at certain year had
onwards reached to maximum

Source: (Rajopadhyaya, 2073/74)

2.2.2 SQUATTER ORIGIN AND PROLIFERATION

Kathmandu has witnessed a proliferation of squatter settlements, locally known as
Sukumbasi in the last two decades. Strategic location, administrative and commercial
importance has been the main reason for influx of large number of migrants to the

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 JEEVAN SANGI: SQUATTER REDEVELOPMENT

capital city. The uncontrolled migration and lack of planned social housing schemes
have forced the people to live in substandard housing condition and resulting
emergence of squatter settlements.
Table 4: Growth pattern of squatter settlements in Kathmandu from 19985-2013

Year Number of settlements Number of households Population

1985 17 - 2134
1988 24 348 3665
1990 29 859 4295
1992 33 1271 6355
1996 47 1783 8927
1998 49 2021 10323
2000 61 2031 11862
2003 64 2600 14500
2012 40 2735 12726
2013 44 - 24021
Source: (Rajopadhyaya, 2073/74)

The earlier established squatter communities that dates back to 1950’s. In 1985, it was
estimated that 17 communities were present in Kathmandu with a population of 2134.
For the same area, the figure reached 4,295 in 1990 with addition of 16 communities
and 11 ,862 in 2000 with addition of 12 communities. During the year 1998-2003,
maximum increase in number to 64 was recorded, which accommodated 2600 families
or nearly 15000 people. Political developments in Nepal at that time increased the rate
of internal migration within the country, has had significant impacts on the status of
squatter settlements. At the end of 2012, the number has significantly decreased to 40.
But the development in squatter numbers has been increasing since the last 14 years
which shows 8 new squatter communities with 12,439 populations, half the squatter
population (Rajopadhyaya, 2073/74).

It was found that the first ever squatter settlement is Dhungen Basti, Kapan and the
most recent formed squatter about 6 years ago, is Dirghayu Tole (Rajopadhyaya,
2073/74). The oldest of these settlements dates back to the 1950s. However, most of
them have sprung up over the last two decades. Some of the better known areas are
Sankhamul, on the right bank of the Bagmati, near Naya Baneswar, Sinamangal near
the Airport, on the Bagmati, Balaju, in the north, along the Vishnumati, Khadi Pakha
(KMC, no.5), Tripureshwar (Bansighat), Tankeshwar (KMC, no. 13), Ramhiti (KMC,
no.6), Kumaristhan (KMC, no. 16), etc (Toffin, 2010).

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 JEEVAN SANGI: SQUATTER REDEVELOPMENT

Maoist insurgents that began from 1996 for the rights of the poor and marginalized
against the capitalist Monarchy ended in 29th of January 2003 with the sacrifice of
nearly 8000 people’s life and about 150,000 to 200,000 internally displaced (Rumba,
2014). It is thus believed that sukumbasis formed the backbone of the huge
demonstrations that succeeded in overthrowing King Gyanendra's direct rule and in
abolishing the monarchy in April 2006 (Toffin, 2010). The rise in numbers has not
slowed its pace since the end of the civil war and the abolition of the monarchy.

Manohara squatter settlements which initially started since 2001 in the Manohara area
with a total of 11 households have increased to 742 by the year 2009 (Dr. Kiran K.C.,
2068). Mostly the agricultural land changed to the squatter settlements from the year
2005 to 2007 during the aftermath of conflict in the country.

Since the winter of 2007/08 and spring 2008, two large basti have appeared (or rather
reappeared in one case): the first, made up of about 300 households, in Thapathali, near
the bridge linking Kathmandu to Lalitpur, and the second, larger (about 500
households), in Balkhu (Toffin, 2010). Both these riparian settlements have been set up
on the banks of the Bagmati river.

The first, which has taken the name of Naya Paurakhi Gaon already existed, though to
a lesser extent, in the 1990s, but was razed in 2001 at the time of a SAARC Conference.
It is located in an area given over to the United Nation to commemorate the fiftieth
anniversary of the Organization, and scheduled to be transformed into a UN Riverside
Park (Toffin, 2010).

Secondly, the major reasons for people to come to live in slums in Balkhu area were;
large number of people fleeing from natural disaster and people fleeing from their
village during Maoist insurgency had also increased the number of slums (Ramesh,
2014, pp. 7,8).

Sengupta emphasized that characteristics of squatter settlements tend to correspond to

their age with new settlements, generally made up of temporary structures and
progressing to more permanent structures over the passage of time (Phadera, 2015). In
2008, a significant percentage of Kathmandu's riparian corridor was lined with
permanent housing (Toffin, 2010).

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Figure 5: Catchment of Bagmati and other Rivers within Kathmandu Valley

Figure 6: Pockets of squatter communities developed in river catchment areas in Kathmandu

(Source: BAGMATI RIVER FESTIVAL: CONSERVATION OF DEGRADING RIVER

by Achyut Dahal, Mausam Khanal, and Megh Ale)

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Mapping of the poor and their accessibility to basic infrastructures and services was
carried out by Lumanti in 2008/2009 which has recorded a total of 45 settlements in
Kathmandu Valley with 13,243 people residing in 2844 households (LUMANTI,
2008). Amongst the 45 settlements surveyed, five settlements in Bishnumati river banks
viz. Inyatole, Ramghat, Hyumat, Dhaukhel and Bhimmukteswor are referred to as
indigenous settlements and the remaining 40 settlements are squatters. Therefore, a total
of 12,726 people are living in 2,735 households in forty squatter settlements in the
valley (LUMANTI, 2008).
Increasing Trends of Squatter Households along Bagmati Riversides

Figure 7: Study of household numbers from 2007-2011 AD

(Source: www.google.com/kathmandu/squatter-settlements/in-different-years: accessed in September,
2012)

In every one-year interval, 110-150 households in squatters are increasing and the last
recorded data shows 863 households at the end of the year 2011 AD. The number of
squatter settlements has increases at the rate of 25% per year (Phadera, 2015). Thus,
the number will keep on increasing, as rural to urban migration cannot be stopped, nor
can the land increase.

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2.3 EXISTING SCENARIO OF SQUATTER COMMUNITIES

2.3.1 Households and Population
Table 5: Household distribution by Location

Name of the settlement Number of Population Average household

Household size
1 Manahara, Bhaktapur 700 4800 6=9
2 Shantinagar, Baneswor 370 2400 6=5
3 Balkhu 361 1800 5=0
4 Nahar Ghatta, Godawari 235 1600 6=8
5 Pathibhara 165 1200 7=3
6 Thapathali 258 1100 4=3
7 Khadipakha, Maharajgunj 160 915 5=7
8 Shantinagar 150 878 5=79
9 Balaju 150 850 5=7
10 Bansighat 163 850 5=2
11 Ramhiti, Bouddha 129 750 5=8
12 Mandikatar 82 725 8=8
13 Jagritnagar 115 626 5=4
14 Budhha marga, Sankhamul 108 648 5=6
15 Bijayanagar 85 500 5=9
16 Budhhajyoti, Balaju 75 425 5=7
17 Dirghayu Tole 60 335 5=6
18 Chadani Tole 56 300 5.4
19 Shantibinayak 36 260 7=4
20 Ranibari, Samakhusi 24 250 10=2
21 Palpakot 40 240 6=4
22 Gairigaun 44 222 5=0
23 Devinagar 42 215 5=0
24 Mahabir Galli 15 210 14=1
25 Khadga Bhadrakali 35 205 5=0
26 Sangam Tole, Samakhusi 37 201 5=9
27 Narayan Tole, Maharajgunj 33 192 5=4
28 Maijubahal 26 140 5=8
29 Pragati Tole, Sinamangal 28 140 5=0
30 Dhikure, Maharajgunj 23 133 5=8
31 Bahunechara, Jorpati 18 106 5=9
32 Kalimati 17 100 5=9
33 Kimal Phaat 19 95 5=0
34 Anamnagar 18 88 4=9
35 Mahankal 19 80 4=2
36 Kapan, Dhungen 17 75 4=4
37 Kumarigyal 11 73 6=6
38 Chandole, Bishalnagar 13 66 5=1
39 Gairigaun, Mahankal 24 65 2=7
40 Mulpani 15 65 4=3
41 Subigaun, Boudhha 42 42 1=0
42 Hattigauda 7 41 5=9
43 Dhumabarahi, Sukedhara 6 34 5=7
44 Siphal 2 9 4=5
Total 4035 24021 6=0

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(Source: Information derived from Nepal Basobas Basti Samrakshan Samaj and Nepal Mahila Ekta
Samaj in (Rajopadhyaya, 2073/74))

Table 6: Population and No. of Households by Locations

Location Number of Total Male Female Total Average
Settlements Population Households Size
Bagmati 11 3903 2052 1851 863 4.5
Bishnumati 5 1564 768 796 306 5.1
Hanumante 1 2422 1290 1132 589 4.1
Dhobikhola 5 1247 653 594 271 4.6
Tukucha 2 843 459 384 176 4.8
Others(Non- 16 2747 1390 1357 530 5.2
river side)
Total 40 12726 6612 6114 2735 4.7
(Source: Lumanti Bulletin, 2069 B.S.)

Clustering of squatter settlements is higher in non-river side locations while number of

squatter households is highest along the Bagmati river. The distribution of number of
squatter settlements is not similar to distribution of households by location of the
settlement. A huge number of squatters are residing along the river banks i.e. 80% of
total squatter population. The 11 squatter settlements along the Bagmati River have 863
households with an average size of 5 people in each household which is 32% of the
total squatter households in Kathmandu Valley (LUMANTI, 2008).

2.3.2 Ethnicity
Table 7: Ethnicity of squatter population by location

Location Dalit Janajati Madhesi/Muslim Other Total

Bagmati 67 542 21 233 863
Bishnumati 12 213 2 79 306
Hanumante 33 383 12 161 589
Dhobikhola 19 181 0 71 271
Tukucha 10 93 3 70 176
Others(Non- 40 333 3 154 530
river side)
Total 181 1,745 41 768 2,735
28% 64% 1% 28% 100%
(Source: (LUMANTI, 2008)

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The distribution of households by ethnicity does not differ too much among the
settlements. In all settlements, the largest ethnic group is Janajati followed by other’s
and then Dalit. In five locations, few households of Madhesi/Muslim origin were noted.

2.3.3 Reason of Migration

Two types of migration pattern of squatter population were found:

a. Internal Migration
It is the migration from one squatter settlement to the other within the valley. About
23% households had internally migrated from within Kathmandu Valley, mainly
Kathmandu with 20.9%, Bhaktapur 1.6% and Lalitpur 0.7%. This indicates the
movement of squatters from one settlement to another within the valley is quite
high.

b. External Migration
It is the migration from outside the valley. 77% of the households are externally
migrated from about 62 districts of the country, higher than internal migration.

Migration type vs location

Bishnumati

Dhibikhola

Other location
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Internal migration External Migration

Figure 8: Distribution of households by type of migration and location

(Source: (LUMANTI, 2008)

In case of individual squatter settlements, there are mostly externally migrated

households except in Ranibari, Kumaigal, Kalimati, Kalimati, Pragati, Dhumbarahi,
Sukedhara, Mahankal, Kumariyagaun, Sangam Tole and Kimal Phant. The study
analyses the type of migration in relation with reason of squatting (LUMANTI, 2008).

Regarding the reasons for migration following seven aspects were categorized as main:

Landless, Disaster, Conflict, Better opportunity of work, Better Facilities, Poverty

and Others (those not willing to respond the survey) (LUMANTI, 2008)

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Reason of Migration
Conflict
Better facility
Disaster
Other
Poverty
Landless
Better opportunity of work
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900

Reason of Migration

Figure 9: Distribution of households by major reasons of migration

(Source: (LUMANTI, 2008)

About 31% population seems to have migrated for the better opportunity for work in
the valley, 26% donot have land anywhere else, 22% are residing in squatter settlement
due to poverty with no money for rent, very few households migrated due to natural
disaster (LUMANTI, 2008).

Main reasons for internal migration are better opportunity of work, landless, poverty,
better facilities, conflict, better opportunity of work and others, whereas for external
migration are landless, poverty, disaster, better opportunity of work (LUMANTI,
2008).

2.3.4 Occupation and Housing Construction

Table 8: Distribution of households by main occupation and location

MAIN OCCUPATION BAGMATI PERCENTAGE

SERVICE 163 18.9

SMALL BUSINESS 94 10.9

WAGES 509 59

OTHER 97 11.2

TOTAL 863 100

(Source: Lumanti Bulletin, 2069 B.S.)

The squatter populations, those who are employed in Bagmati river banks, are mainly
engaged in daily wages, services, small business sectors and other varying jobs. Most
of the squatter population rely on daily wages for their income, more than half number
of households: 59%. Almost 19% are working under service sector, 10% have small
business and 11% with varying jobs (LUMANTI, 2008).

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Figure 10: Percentage of households by occupation and type of construction

(Source: Lumanti Bulletin, 2069 B.S.)

There is a direct relationship between occupations of the squatters and the type of
housing constructions because it is mainly based on their daily incomes. Basically, three
types of housing construction can be observed:

a. Permanent: Use of concrete, bricks, stones, cement

b. Semi-permanent: Use of mud, soil, blocks
c. Temporary: Use of thatches, bamboos, shacks, metals, wood pieces, GI sheets

It was found that people engaged in service and small business sector have better houses
than those who depend on daily wages (LUMANTI, 2008).

It was observed that male member or the head of the family were the one who usually
earns for the whole family, larger number of women was at home, most of the youths
were unemployed, and there were also people with entrepreneur skills who had opened
small restaurants and grocery shops mostly at the road side of the settlement. Most of
those small restaurants where one could buy food to eat and drink, and small groceries
shops were run by women. Whereas, the skilled work such as carpenter, constructions
and driving were done by men.

“We are marginalized due to unemployment. We do not have work for every day”
(Rumba, 2014).The parents in most of the family are employed or engaged partly or
regularly at works however young people are mainly in search and need of squatter
settlements upgrading projects. Mostly the young people could not utilize their time
because there is no work for every day or the presence of wage slavery, marginalization
due to unemployment and working poor, mostly the women in a house have to look
after their children (Rumba, 2014).

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2.4 SQUATTING AND ITS LINKAGES TO HOUSING DEFICIT, POVERTY

AND DISASTER IN KATHMANDU

Figure 11: Urbanization trend of Kathmandu Valley in different periods

(Source: Safer and Affordable Housing for Urban Poor: A case for Kathmandu Valley, 2010)

The figure above clearly shows rapid urbanization of the valley that is not only creating
huge demands for housing, infrastructure, employment opportunities and social and
emergency services but also putting a lot of pressure on the existing old infrastructures.

Population movements are changing the context of disaster risk and development
processes are fostering the vicious circle created by poverty, risk and disaster – by
negatively influencing both risk and poverty (Shrestha B. K., Safer and Affordable
Housing for Urban Poor: A case for Kathmandu, 2010, p. 4). Urban development actors
usually do not acknowledge informal settlements, small-scale everyday disasters, and
non-physical/non-structural measures as being part of their sphere of activity.

2.4.1 Squatting in response to Housing Deficit in the Kathmandu Valley

Huge housing deficit of the Kathmandu valley is due to combination of three factors.

▪ Developed plots, extended infrastructure and constructed housing units in the

market are simply inadequate to respond to huge demand of housing due to rapid
urbanization.
▪ Urban poverty and increasing gap between the rich and poor have constrained the
accessibility and affordability in housing.
− From CBS survey,1997, disparity on income level is very high as the bottom 60%
earned only 5.8% compared to 85.4% by the top 20%.
− Rental housing is almost entirely supplied by private owner builder and serves the
housing needs of about 28% of the total urban population. Rabenau stated that
40% of the rented population are relatively poor with lower level services
compared to owner occupied housing.

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− A study on 24 cases of housing in Kathmandu done by LSGS revealed that as high

as 95% families with an average size of 4.8 rented single rooms with an average
size of 120 square feet. Another study revealed that five daily wage workers shared
one rented room no larger than 10 feet X 11 feet for NRs.500 per month (1US$ =
NRs.74.50 at present) (Shrestha B. K., Safer and Affordable Housing for Urban
Poor: A case for Kathmandu, 2010, p. 20).

▪ Construction of a house in Nepal (and the valley) is entirely the responsibility of

individual or family. In such an owner-built informal housing system, they first
acquire a plot of land through their own finance and then construct a house. The
dwelling units are built and expanded incrementally over a period of time as both
the family and income grow higher. (Shrestha B. K., Safer and Affordable Housing
for Urban Poor: A case for Kathmandu, 2010, p. 21)

Table 9: Required dwelling units for extra increased population by 2021

Particular Extra Persons/ Dwelling units needed Need of dwelling
population household for urban poor(below units in total
absolute poverty line)
Housing Deficit 242,724 5 1,602 48,545
in 2001
Extra housing 739,153 5 4,878 147,831
needed from
2001 to 2011
Extra housing 1,076,788 4.5 7,896 239,286
need from 2011
to 2021
Total housing 14,376 435,662(15% of
needed till 2021 total population of
the valley in 2001)
(Source: Modified from KVDTC, 2000 in Safer and Affordable Housing for Urban Poor)

All these factors had led to housing deficit for 242,724 persons even in 2001 and total
dwelling units needed till 2021 will be about 435,662 number, i.e., 15% of the total
population of the valley in 2001 as assumed by KVTDC.

According to Business Plan of DUDBC, there will be a total need of 3,800,000

additional units of houses by the year 2088 BS (Urban: 1,418,000 and rural: 2,382,000.
567,000 units of houses will be required only for Bipanna Varga or poor and low-
income groups (Shrestha D. P., 2074/75).

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2.4.2 Vulnerability to hazardous events

2.4.2.1 News of hazardous events
NEPAL: Fears of violence during expected Kathmandu Squatter Eviction-
Published on February 2012, in International Alliance of Inhabitants
A Nepalese government development plan for Kathmandu could lead to violence as the
authorities seek to evict some 40 squatter settlements with an estimated population of
over 20,000 of landless squatters, the support group Lumanti say. “We are ready to kill
ourselves to stop government bulldozers. This is a life or death situation,” said Saru
Magar, a landless squatter, who has been living at Bansighat settlement in the city
centre for over 30 years. “Where can we go?” asked Indra Prasad Timilsina in
frustration. “We have no place to live.”

Figure 12: 2012 Eviction of Thapathali Squatters by the government

Evicted Once, Nepali Squatters Living in the Ruins of a Razed River Settlement
Fear a Recurring Nightmare- Published on November 5, 2014, in Global Press
Journal

Squatters scrambled to remove their belongings from their homes as bulldozers steadily
levelled the settlement on May 8, 2012. Magar and her daughter watched helplessly as
their home, which had a concrete floor and brick walls, was bulldozed, she says. The
family had built the house stage by stage over eight years, using small amounts of
money it had saved. “When the bulldozers came, the settlers put children and old people
in the front line so that they would stop,” Magar says. “But the police took them away
and continued to bulldoze.” Still, living in a temporary hut on the riverbank, the family
lives in constant fear of being evicted again. “All we want is some land where we can
live,” Nir Magar says. “We will build the house ourselves. Land is all we ask for.”

Squatter worries as monsoon begins- Published on June 21, 2016, The Himalayan
Times

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Every year, as the monsoon starts, squatters in Thapathali become tense. “Every
night I get afraid and worry whether we will be alive the next morning. If our house is
swept away by flood in the Bagamati River, we too will have swept away,” said
Newton. “Along with increase in temperature, we are troubled by the bad smell of the
river and mosquito and insect bites. The impending flood is another big problem,”
Kamala Rai, Newton’s mother said. “We are in trouble but nobody pays any attention
to our pathetic condition,” she lamented (Shrestha A. , 2016).

“Slums continue to grow in urban areas” – Published on April 13, 2017, in The
Himalayan Times website

“People living in informal settlements along the banks of rivers are more vulnerable to
natural calamities but slums are still mushrooming in urban areas, said a national report
recently released by the Ministry of Urban Development (Himalayan News Service,
2017).”

“40 houses destroyed in Balkhu blaze” – Published on October 01, 2017, in The
Himalayan Times website

“The fire was sparked by a traditional oil-fed lamp at the house of Man Bahadur BK
that quickly spread onto neighboring houses. As many as 15 Liquefied Petroleum Gas
(LPG) cylinders blew up, razing down food items, clothes, furniture and all other
belongings in all 40 houses on Saturday night, according to local Shyam Das Pandey.
Similarly, three people were hurt in the blaze. The firefighting team of Nepal Army
mobilized five fire brigades to douse the massive fire (Rastriya Samachar Samiti,
2017).”

This news highlights the facts that even in 2017, people were still using traditional oil-
fed lamps in their houses. The basic facility of electricity is still lacking. 40 houses were
set ablaze due to one single lamp. This gives the idea of how close the houses in the
settlement must be. The possibility of fire hazards is extremely high in this slum area.

“Bagmati River gets polluted yet again; fish start dying” – Published on January 13,
2018, in The Himalayan Times

“The fish in the Bagmati River that lived in the clean water above Guheshwori have
started dying as pollution prevails in the river yet again. Environmentalist Sagar Sigdel
said, “The fish died in the river due to the paucity of oxygen following the mixture of

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human excreta in the river (THT ONLINE/RSS, 2018).” Slums were bulldozed in 2015,
causing a loss of around 100 homes.

2.4.2.2 Reasons

▪ Inadequate building materials

▪ Poor construction and compliance
▪ Increased use of marginal land
▪ Limited appreciation of seismic risk
▪ Poor social indicators
▪ Limited training and knowledge transfer

2.4.3 RIGHTS TO ADEQUATE HOUSING

World Habitat Day(WHD) was established in 1985 by United Nations General
Assembly through Resolution 40/202, and was first celebrated in 1986 and it is held on
the first Monday of every October. The 2016 WHD discussed the theme “Housing at
the centre” that emphasized on access to adequate housing as part of the right to an
adequate standard of living in international instruments including the 1984 Universal
Declaration of Human Rights and in the 1966 International convention on Economic,
Social and Cultural Rights (Bhattarai, 2073/74, p. 43). Adequate housing must provide
more than four walls and a roof. A number of conditions must be met before particular
forms of shelter can be considered to constitute adequate housing”.

Figure 13: Conditions for adequate housing as per WHD

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i. Security of tenure: Housing is not adequate if its occupants do not have a

degree of tenure security which guarantees legal protection against forced
evictions, harassments and other threats.
ii. Availability of services, materials, facilities and infrastructures: Housing is
not adequate if its occupants do not have safe drinking water, adequate
sanitation and energy for cooking, heating, lighting, food storage or refuse
disposal.
iii. Affordability: Housing is not adequate if its cost threatens or comprises the
occupant’s enjoyment of other human rights.
iv. Habitability: Housing is not adequate if it does not guarantee physical safety
or provide adequate space as well as protection against the cold, damp, heat,
rain, wind, other threats to health and structural hazards.
v. Accessibility: Housing is not adequate if the specific needs of disadvantaged
and marginalized groups are not taken into account.
vi. Location: Housing is not adequate if it is cut off from employment
opportunities, health care services, schools, childcare centers and other social
facilities or if located in polluted or dangerous areas.
vii. Cultural adequacy: Housing is not adequate if it does not respect and take into
account the expression of cultural identity.

Box 2: Adequate housing rights related to Displaced people and Migrants

Article 43 of the International Convention for the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant
Workers and Members of Their Families guarantees equal treatment in access to housing,
including social housing schemes, and protection against exploitation in respect of rents to
regular migrants and their families.

ILO Convention No. 97 concerning Migration for Employment (Revised) (1949) addresses the
accommodation of migrant workers.

General recommendation No. 30 (2004) of the Committee on the Elimination of Racial

Discrimination calls on State parties to “guarantee the equal enjoyment of the right to adequate
housing for citizens and noncitizens, especially by avoiding segregation in housing and ensuring
that housing agencies refrain from engaging in discriminatory practices.”

Article 43 of the International Convention for the Protection of the Rights of

All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families guarantees equal treatment
in access to housing, including social 42 housing schemes, and protection against
exploitation in respect of rents to regular migrants and their families.
ILO Convention No. 97 concerning Migration for Employment (Revised) (1949)
 JEEVAN SANGI: SQUATTER REDEVELOPMENT

5 SITE ANALYSIS
Housing is not merely a physical building. It has a wide realm of boundary
incorporating different attributes like location, land, physical and social infrastructures,
physical structure, tenure ship and economic conditions. Study of the present scenario
of housing at squatter settlement has been done in the previous case study section and
for the thesis project Sankhamul squatter settlement has been taken in account as
redevelopment and on-site upgrading project.

5.1 SITE DETAILS

5.1.1 Location and Neighborhood context

Sankhamul, also known as Buddha Marga, is one of the oldest informal settlements in
Kathmandu. At present, 110 houses comprise the settlement, which is in a rapidly
growing urban pocket just 3.5km away from one of the major city centers of Kathmandu
(New Baneswor and Thapathali). With the Bagmati River and the traditional cremation
area to the west, Sankhamul has a mixed residential and commercial zone to the east.

Details of Sankhamul Squatter Details of Existing Squatter Community

Community as per study in 2009-2011 as per field visit in 2019
▪ Area: 68 Ropani ▪ Area: 36.0265 Ropani
▪ No. of Houses: 104 ▪ No. of Houses: 108
▪ Population: 549 ▪ Population: more than 550
▪ Land Type: Government ▪ Land Type: Government
▪ Age of settlement: 30 years ▪ Age of settlement: 39 years

Located at an economically and religiously vibrant location, the area has potential of
development in terms of quality housing, river front recreational spaces and commercial
activities. The very close proximity to income sources, health and education facilities,
public transit systems makes it a good example of 20-minute neighborhood. The
booming social interaction activities in Sankha park on the opposite river bank,
commercial activities in Buddha nagar and also the development of road services makes
it more important to redevelop the now degraded informal settlement into a healthier
quality housing with provision of productive and sustainable approach to contribute in
community and neighborhood development.

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5.1.2 History to present

The squatting in Sankhamul began during 2030 B.S. Initially, there were 6 families who
built their tents and occupied the land by fencing the wood which got expanded with
time. The process speeded up till 2049 B.S. During 1965 AD, the Bagmati River was
flowing in its vigorous form. In the late 1980’s the river has become narrower and left
its course and a chunk of land has been formed (Phadera, 2015).

The settlement has a configuration of a tightly laid row housing having 105 houses,
stretched over the entire length of the land and occupies about 35,452 m2 of land
(Phadera, 2015). The squatter settlement is situated alongside the United Nations Park
Project and faces historically important Sankhamul ghat on the opposite river bank of
Bagmati river.

5.1.2.1 Change in land use

The land-use has been changing over the years. Earlier an agricultural belt along the
river front, the locality now is an attractive residential area to the increasing urban
population. To cater the needs of these new formal residents, the municipality has been
increasing its services in the vicinity. The locality has good road linkages and
transportation services, water, electricity and other infrastructures. Also, a number of
schools, institutes, shops and commercial buildings are emerging in the neighborhood.

2003 2019

Figure 62: Change in land use from agricultural land to commercial active zone with development of road
services from 2003 AD-2019 AD, image taken from google satellite

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5.1.2.2 Booming property market

Since the land occupied by the squatters is illegal it does not have a legal market at
present but the land value of surrounding area has been escalating rapidly in the recent
years and tends to grow continuously.

Table 16: Land value in Sankhamul

Year Value per aana of land

1973 10,000
2008 15,00,000
2019 50,00,000
(Source: (Sharma, 2010)

This rapid rise of surrounding land value provides enough incentives for the
government to desire the land, legalize it and make substantial profit from commercial
developments. Possibility of Land Sharing is thus heightened by the desire for land by
both the squatters and the government sector. Hence, the booming property market,
even the formal booming market of the surrounding can be a driving force for upgrading
of Sankhamul.

5.2 RIVER REGULATIONS

The municipal By-Law of Kathmandu states a construction setback of 20m from river
banks of Bagmati River to prevent possible disasters from flood and land slide. Also
due to poor soil conditions near the banks and in general a low construction quality of
buildings, the setback rule has been strictly followed. This setback has been applied by
a government body HPBCIDC which has a masterplan for constructing 12m wide green
belt and 8m wide road along the Bagmati River throughout the city area for
conservation purposes. Now, the settlement is relatively safer from flooding risks after
the construction of the metaled road.

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5.2.1 GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATIONS OF URBAN CHARACTER

5.2.1.1 EXISTING FEATURES

Figure 63: Graphical representation of existing building uses, infrastructures, site amenities and green
parks present in Sankhamul settlement

Basically, the surrounding context incorporated residential buildings, mixed use

buildings and commercial spaces in large number, as it is located at the junction of city
center Baneswor and historical town Patan. Also the existing public transit system in
near proximity makes it a public active center from morning till the evening. Recent
commercial developments in Sankhamul can help in giving an input to development of
the proposed site.
The site also holds religious places such as Sankhamul Arya ghat on the opposite river
bank, Shiva temple and Budhha temple in the setttlement itself and a Buddha bihar on
the northern part of the site. School buildings and vocational training center is also
found in nearer proximity to the site.

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5.2.1.2 ROAD HEIRARCHY

Figure 64: Graphical representation of road heirarchy in Sankhamul settlement

Two roads on either side of settlement in longitudinal direction from starting to end.
8m wide road at the river side had been blacktopped in 2015 AD. Another 6 m wide
road lies on the opposite face of the houses also, making two streets facing the roads.
Half portion of the 6m wide road at the frontal portion is black topped and the rest is
earthen and in fair condition. Similarly, connection of narrow earthen road about 1m to
2.5m between households were observed, contributed by the owners for their easiness.
Two bridges connect the Kathmandu-Lalitpur area (Sankhamul-Buddhanagar Bridge
and UN Park- Thapathali bridge), one being a small pedestrian bridge very close to the
site as the site lies directly below the bridge and the other bridge at the farther end of
the road junction towards Thapathali area. Easily accessible, the site also holds a public
transit system near the site with local tempos, micro vans and taxi services.

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5.2.1.3 PEDESTRIAN AND VEHICULAR TRAFFIC FLOW

Figure 65: Graphical representation of pedestrian and vehicular flow pattern

The above picture shows the traffic of pedestrian and vehicular flow pattern according
to its density such that higher the density darker the color representation. Basically, the
entrance to the site holds high traffic junctions of vehicular flow thus safer road and
street designs are to be proposed to make the area safer for pedestrians. The blue portion
showing lesser pedestrian movement has to be changed to incorporate more public
activities so that the corner does not become a place for social evils.

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5.2.1.4 LEGIBILITY AND VISIBILITY

Figure 70: Sankha park on the opposite

bank of the river facing the squatter
settlement

Figure 69: Sankhamul ghat on the opposite

Figure 68: View from and towards the site side of the river bank

Figure 67: View of squatter settlement from Figure 66: View of the river running between
the bridge the squatter settlement and the green park

Good legibility, imageability and visibility are the pillars for developing the nodes,
edges and landmarks of a city. The site in Sankhamul has a distinct view of Bagmati
river and the now vibrant green park on the opposite river bank. The site itself shows a
distinct character of row houses linearly placed along the roadside with slope features
and green patches within the settlement. The settlement itself gives a unique identity
and character of a dense low-rise settlement that had been developed more than 30 years
ago.

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5.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF SITE

5.3.1 GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES
5.3.1.1 Topography
The settlement is situated in the bank of Bagmati river in Kathmandu with an elevation
range from 1293m to 1315m. The site is sloppy in nature. The buildings made are
located at a distance of 15-100m (Phadera, 2015). Sankhamul is located on higher
ground, decreasing the risk of flooding but due to its sloppy nature storm water
management is difficult to manage. The site is sloppy in nature with lower roadside at
0.00 level and upper public street at 3.6m level.

Figure 71: Section of the site showing topographical features

5.3.1.2 Climatic Features

Table 17: Characteristic of climatic features of Kathmandu

Bio-Climatic Zone: Temperate Temperate

Summer Temperature
Mean Maximum 25–35°C
Mean Minimum 18–25°C
Winter Temperature
Mean Maximum 17 – 25°C
Mean Minimum 5 – 10°C
Relative Humidity 20 – 90%
Average Precipitation 1300mm
Westerly Wind Speed 0.6m/s
Average Hours of Sunshine 3.3hrs-8hrs
Average Solar Radiation Annual- 1510kWh/m2
Daily- 4.13kWh/m2
Source: (Bodach, 2014)

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Figure 72: Climatic study of the site

5.3.1.3 Soil/ Water Bodies/ Vegetation/ Flora & Fauna

The site lies on the river bank and is a very good cultivable land for crop and vegetables.
Vegetation include small vegetable gardens, peepal tree at the junction and few
evergreen trees scattered in one or two numbers within the settlement.

Bagmati river has been polluted with the mixture of sewage and fluids from connecting
residences, commercial and industrial complexes. The condition is very bad during dry
seasons due to bad odour, harmful and polluted environment. The odour decreases
significantly during rainy seasons and level of water increases gradually.

5.3.2 DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTER

5.3.2.1 Population Density

▪ Population of Sankhamul squatter settlement from household survey by

Lumati in 2010,

Total population = 553

Total number of households = 108
Average family size = 553/108= 5.1

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▪ Population forecast in 2019

− Annual growth rate of population in Nepal
= 1.46% i.e. 1.5% (Taken for design from where, P0= Population in 2010
Central Bureau of Statistics) r= Annual growth rate
− Population in 2019= P0 X ert t= time in years
= 553 X 2.718(1.5X9) = e=2.718
632.9

Also, Total residential population according to Focus Group Discussion in the

settlement = 650-675 people

Number of population taken for design, Design Population(Pd)= 650

Total area of site occupied by settlement = 32.85 Ropani= 16712.03 sq.m. = 1.67
hectare

Existing residential population density = Total residential population= 650 people =

390PPH
Total area of site 1.67
The population density in Kathmandu is designated to be appropriate for 350
populations per hectare but from the study, the population density in Sankhamul
Squatter settlement is characterized as overcrowding.

5.3.2.2 Age and sex composition

As per the survey done on 2011 by Lumanti, the sex composition of Sankhamul
settlement is: Male population= 253 Female population= 250

Basically, the conception of women staying at home taking care of children has changed
and at present every person works in the family. Females are more active in social works
such as saving their money etc. rather than men. As per the Lumanti survey during
2011, the age composition of site is:

0-4 5- 10- 15- 20- 25- 30- 35- 40- 45- 50- 55- 60- 65 T
yrs 9 14 19 24 29 34 39 44 49 54 59 64 +
yr yrs yrs yrs yrs yrs yrs yrs yrs yrs yrs yrs yrs
Age

s
15 36 60 78 53 50 37 42 32 23 31 15 14 16 502
N
o
.

(Source: (LUMANTI, 2008))

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As per focus group discussion with community leaders, it was found that in the last nine
years more than 50 children have been born in the community. Assuming the data
roughly, of the total population, 7.7 % of the population contain children from age
group (0-14) yrs and 11.69% contain elderly population above 59 years.

From the field visit it was found that children at present have better facilities to grow
and learn, nurtured by their parents but the elderly people donot get the privilege to stop
working at stay at home. They are still working constantly to live off the rest of their
lives. Few elder populations about 5% donot have a family and live on their own.

In case of the youths aged from (15-19) years either stop going to schools and colleges
for work or join part time jobs for some money generation. Youths of age group (20-
29) years, mostly have gone abroad for income generation. It was expressed that most
of the youths donot want to stay in the settlement and want to start their life somewhere
else where they earn, live without being judged. It is sad to see it because youths are
the pillar for development of their society and they are the ones who donot contribute.

5.3.2.3 Family type and size

There are a total of 108 households of Sankhamul squatters recorded by Ward Office
of the respective ward no. 10. They have been provided with house numbers for basic
provision of services and facilities. Amongst the households, there are mainly four
categories of families residing as per the discussion with the community leader and
members:

▪ CATEGORY A (15%): Family with land titles somewhere else and good economic
condition but still staying due to place attachment to the settlement
▪ CATEGORY B (20%): Family with land titles somewhere far away in remote
places but are poor, cannot afford leaving the settlement due to proximity to work
▪ CATEGORY C (60%): Joint and nuclear families with children without land titles
and poor economic condition
▪ CATEGORY D (5%): Nuclear families with only elderly couples or single elderly,
differently able person in the family with very poor economic condition

According to the field visit and FGD, two types of family size has been seen:

 15-20 % joint household with at least two families and atmost four families.
 80-85% nuclear households separated from their own families long before.

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5.3.2.4 Ethnicity

The settlement is ethnically heterogeneous and people came from different districts of
Kathmandu Valley. The majority of people in squatter settlements are seen to be Janjati
such as Lama, Magar and Tamang from Hilly region and Newars from Kathmandu.
Their collective percentage is 83% and Brahmin/Chhetri accounts 17%.

5.3.3 PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURES

5.3.3.1 Basic services of water, electricity and sanitation

Two lane 8m wide road has been made on the river side with proper sewer lines and
drain connection from each households to the main road sewer line. Basic services of
water, electricity, health, education and employment services is easily accessible. These
aspects have already been studied under the case study in detail.

5.3.3.2 Housing Condition

Linear in nature, the houses are compact with one storey height though appears only as
a shack from road side, is a long narrow structure extending up to 20m towards the river
at the back.

Most of the squatters felt that on-site upgrading was the best tool to achieve it. In fact,
the squatters feel sufficiently secured to start upgrading their homes themselves.
Especially after abandonment of land sharing they sensed that government will
probably never be able to evict them and therefore more families are willing to invest
in their homes now. People have developed their housing conditions with their own
effort and they are commendable.

Figure 73: Housing before and after land sharing proposal by government, permanent structures with
high storey construction done by those who are capable

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5.3.3.2.1 Building Material

a. Floor and Roof

Roofing Material Type of floor

7%

44%
56%

93%

CGI Sheets Others Earthen floor Others

Figure 74: Roofing Material Types Figure 75: Type of flooring

(Source: (Phadera, 2015)

Majority of houses in the settlement have cemented floor i.e 56% compared to the
earthen floor and 93.34% household having CGI sheet as roofing material. 6.6% used
RCC slab/roof.

b. Wall type

Initially, the people lived on shacks of small huts with low durability like plastic sheets,
sacks, hoarding boards, reused wood and bamboo for construction of wall. At present
brick walls with cement and mud plaster to build semi-permanent structures have been
seen abundant on site.

Sengupta emphasized that characteristics of squatter settlements tend to correspond

to their age with new settlements, generally made up of temporary structures and
progressing to more permanent structures over the passage of time (Phadera, 2015).

Few buildings have been newly constructed, renovate buildings have changed the
construction materials from temporary to permanent and 20% of buildings have small
wall with cement and mud mortar whereas 3.33% of houses was found to be made of
bamboo strips.

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5.3.3.2.2 Space available

Figure 76: Measured drawing taken during field visit in SSS showing housing unit

According to site visit by author,

− Size of one unit with courtyard as per measurement: 19ft * 118.16 ft = 2245.04 for
two households with six families
− Space of courtyard= 290.875 sft
− Built up area= 1954.16 sft
− Average space used by one family= 2245.04/ 6 = 325.5 sq. ft. per family
− Family size= 6 people
− Space available= 325.5/6 = 54.25 sq. ft. per person

Box 6: Space availability in Sankhamul settlement

 No. of households: 108

 Built up Area Coverage on site: 14265.30 sq.m.

(Source: (Phadera, 2015)

Room space available According to the survey, 10% are
1 room living in one room, 20% people
13% 10%
2 rooms have 2 rooms in a building, 26.66%
20% 3 rooms have 3 rooms, 30% have 4 rooms
30% 4 rooms and the rest have more than that.
More than 4
Single storey dwelling: 83.34%
27%
Double or more storey:16.66%

Figure 77: Room space availability (Source: (Phadera, 2015)

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5.3.4 SOCIO-ECONOMIC FEATURES

5.3.4.1 Migration and squatting
In Sankhamul, the major residents are from Kathmandu Valley i.e. 30% and others have
migrated from Sindhupalchowk, Dolakha, Dhading, Kavrepalanchowk, Makwanpur,
Chitwan, Gorkha accounting 70 % of the surveyed household showing higher external
migration in the settlement.

According to the household study by LUMANTI, 73.33% of household have been

staying here for more than 34 years. People reveal that they were initially migrated to
some other place in the valley and staying on rent, but they gradually had to move over
here with their families to save the money expensed from rent.

▪ 47% said that they squat the public land due to inability to pay rent and poverty
▪ 20% of respondent said better facilities for better work and facilities
▪ 13% for other reasons

5.3.4.2 Occupation and income sources

The survey shows that main occupation of the households is in service with regular
salary i.e. 36.66%. 26.66 % of household are dependent on small business, 20% in
wages and rest of the household are dependent on income from family members from
abroad like Qatar, Dubai, Saudi etc., as labor and other occupation.

▪ Basically, all the people in the settlement work whether it be 60 years old or 16
years old. The maximum population depends on catering business as waiters,
housekeeping services or cleaning banks, party palaces and labors. As for the labors,
there is uncertainty of work.
▪ Few populations have started their own business such as dairy products, small
kirana stores, small hotels (khaja ghar) and one of the famous restaurants, Michael
Bajeko Sekuwa Ghar.
▪ Usually household also depend on rental income by renting rooms and roadside
garages, furniture shops, carpentry shops and metal shops.
▪ Mostly men work as drivers and women stay at home if there are no jobs available.
Women have taken vocational training classes of tailoring, crystal making,
electrician and plumbing but they have not implemented their work.

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5.3.4.3 Monthly household income

The family’s living standard is defined by the monthly income. Based on the survey,
most of the households have monthly income ranging in between Rs. 10,000-Rs.
15,000. The average saving of a household is Rs. 2620. Most people have realized the
need of upgrading their houses over time if they are provided with the opportunity
through micro financing and labor investment. The settlement is highly organized
in this matter.

5.3.4.4 Education level

The literacy rate of the squatter settlement is 76% which is very near to National
Literacy rate. According to focus group discussions, the children of the settlement are
going to private schools and there are few cases of school and college dropouts.

5.3.4.5 Social organization

The community leaders in Sankhamul are very active in terms of awaring the people
about their rights to living a good quality life through various awareness programs.
Vocational trainings for the men and women of the family related to electrician,
plumbing, tailoring, crustal making etc. are constantly provided by BRACA in
coordination with the NBBSS. Such programs have been emphasized more because of
partial employment cases. Every person in the household needs to work and earn to
continue their livelihood and uncertainty in work cannot get in their way.

According to an interview with treasurer of a women group, “Jyoti Women Upliftment

Saving and Credit Cooperative Limited” it was found that weekly or monthly savings
on agreed amount has been gathered. The leader of the group takes care of the money
and based on group decisions the credit is given turn by turn as per the need.

There is provision of a single community hall i.e. an open room for carrying out
education, health, micro financing and training programmes. Many organizations
are involved for development such as:

 Buddha Marga Tol Bikash Samiti: Social development of the society

 Nepal Basobas Basti Samrakshan Samaj; Advocate during forced evictions and
fighting for shelter safety
 Jyoti Women Upliftment Saving & Credit Cooperative Limited: Women Saving
cooperative

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 Sishoo Swastha Kendra: Day care center for small children within the community
 Community hall: Vocational trainings and meetings
 Children Development Youth Network
 LUMANTI: Provision of building materials for construction of good toilets

5.3.5 SOCIAL AND CULTURAL ACTIVITIES

5.3.5.1 Social Use of Space

There is a clear pattern of hierarchy of use of space from public to private as can be
seen in the sketches below. Almost all the social activities are carried out on the street
whether it be children’s play area, workspace for carpentry, gathering of elderlies and
adults gossiping together, parking their bikes or scooters. Stalls of pani puri and other
street foods, small carts for shopping of handmade ornaments, shoes and clothes is set
every evening. A lively neighborhood is created due to the activity on the main street.

Small narrow alleys lead to an open

courtyard between the cluster of 3-4
families. Small gardens or karesa bari
are made by the people themselves.

Each house is a long strip with a total

length of 40-45 ft and width of 6-9 ft.
The rooms facing the streets and main
road are used as shops and restaurants
whereas the innermost rooms contain
bedrooms and kitchen spaces. The
problem arises with inadequate
lighting and ventilations, and
insufficient living spaces for the
Figure 78:Heirarchy of space in Sankhamul Squatter residents.
settlement

The portion of land beyond the rear side black topped road is left abandoned but plans
have been incorporated for green development. The now running road is high in traffic
and several cases of accidents have been recorded. This piece of land can prove to
reduce such high-speed vehicle congestion after its re-planning as a recreation space
connecting the squatter settlement for booming social interaction.

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5.3.5.2 Place of attachment and belongingness

According to literature, longer establishment of the community creates affinity towards
the land and makes the inhabitants claim their right over the land. With time, the
surrounding neighborhood of Sankhamul Settlement that was originally agricultural
and crematory grounds began growing as residential area. The location value thus
gradually increased. After two decades of its establishment, the surrounding land value
had substantially increased. Also people had established themselves at work at close
proximity (64% respondents had jobs at walking distance). Due to these factors, the
territorial attachment of the land grew stronger among the squatters. When asked about
their feelings towards the location, some of the replies were:

“I was born there and got married here in the same settlement. I have nowhere else to
go, this place is my life.” (32 years old housewife, interview with author, Kathmandu,
April 2019)

Despite such attachment to the place, the replies from the elderly and younger people
vary to a certain extent. Since the older generation worked hard to get their families
established in the area, they have more sentiments over the land. But the younger
generation grew in better conditions and therefore do not necessarily hold the same
sentiments. Elderly residents do not prefer move out of the location at all but the
answers vary among younger residents (Sharma, 2010).

Nonetheless, most of the younger generation still prefers to stay in the location and the
community as a whole is determined to make the land their own formally. Such an
attachment to their land could have only grown out of longer duration of stay in the
area. This determination to hold on to the ground was definitely a positive point for
possibility of upgrading project.

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5.3.5.3 Cultural aspect

It is commendable how different ethnic groups and religions are living together in peace
in the squatter communities. It is the strong emotional connection of community
bondage that keep the people together.

Being on the river bank, idols of gods and goddesses have been found within the site.
For this reason, they have built two temples viz. Budhha Temple and Shiva temple at
the spot where the idols had been discovered. Various festivals such as Teej, Dasain,
Tihar, Shiva Ratri, Buddha Jayanti, Christmas etc. are celebrated by the community
together and mainly the street is active during these times.

▪ Idols of gods in front of their houses and on the street facing wall entrance.
▪ Flags of dharmadhatu kept in front of houses for safety and decorations.
▪ Special features such as unique colors while painting their homes. Distinct bright
neon colors and few houses were decorated by hand.

5.4 LIFE STORIES OF THE RESPONDENTS

―When we first arrived here, the entire neighborhood was an agricultural land. I still
remember pointing out our small hut from New Baneshwor Chowk (a major road
junction 1 km away) to my so, we could easily locate it since there was no big structure
to obstruct our view. Now it is a concrete jungle. There are every types of buildings and
all facilities you want– (62 years old community leader, interview with author,
Kathmandu, August 2019)
―In 2003, when bulldozers were brought in this settlement to threaten us for
construction of UN park, the members of area committee protested by laying down in
front of the bulldozers. We fought together and drove them away. – (34 years old
community leader interview with
author, Kathmandu, May 2019)
―It doesn’t ‘t matter to me if this looks like a slum to your eyes, in my eyes this place
is a heaven- (67 years old housewife, interview with author, Kathmandu, August 2019)
―This has been my house since I came here with my husband. I have children but they
donot want to stay here. I clean dishes in party complexes but the work is rarely
available. We are poor but will not leave our home, we have put a lot of effort in putting
brick by brick of our house. - (60 years old lady, interview with author, May 2019)

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―We are used to having independent homes and doing things on our own terms. Few
years back my brother-in-law got married and built an additional room at the backyard
for his new family. But such increment will not be possible in apartment system, the
community will have to share many spaces, partition of growing joint families will not
be possible which can lead to family problems. – (26 years old housewife, interview
with author, Kathmandu, August 2019)
―I have a small lawn at my back yard. I often sit here and study. My wife dries clothes
in this back yard and grows vegetables. The apartment design does not even have a
balcony to dry clothes or to get some fresh air. How can we sacrifice such a nice home
we built with our own hands for something worse? – (69 years old social activist,
interview with author, Kathmandu, August 2019)
Poverty was never an option for the people residing in Sankhamul settlement. They are
very proud of their achievements of building their own house even though by collecting
penny after penny. The situation is still seen as not only the adults but young children
and elderly also work to support their family’s livelihood. The respondents in each case
have only one concern that is not to leave their house that has been there since the last
30 or more years. Every aspect of physical, social or cultural attributes developed in the
site has been connected with their livelihood. They only ask for safety and their right
for living a peaceful life with security of their home not being taken away from them.

5.5 SITE JUSTIFICATION

▪ Unhealthy living conditions with unhygienic sanitation and low quality of living
space
▪ Disaster vulnerability due to temporary and semi-permanent mode of construction
alongside the riparian lands prone to earthquake, liquefaction, flooding, fire hazard
▪ Low space availability for living, cases such as one family living in a small space
of 100 sq.ft. in Sankhamul
▪ Isolation from the neighbourhood communities for water supply, open spaces, play
spaces, etc.
▪ Relocation projects built in Kirtipur and Ichangunarayan are unsuccessful to
provide satisfaction to the communities that it was designed for, in terms of
workplace proximity, bonding with the society, low space availability and no
expansion space and isolated service provision

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Relocation can never be an option for upgrading Sankhamul squatter community as it

lies at the vantage point where all the activities and facilities converge such as bustling
commercial activity, booming market price, booming public parks, religiously
important ghat, educational infrastructures, site services, road distribution and public
transit system. Most importantly it forms a good example of 5-minute neighborhood
with close proximity to the workspaces of squatters in the newly developing
commercial hub Baneswor.

5.5.1 LEGAL ASPECT: PERSPECTIVE TOWARDS TENURE SECURITY

AND UPGRADATION
In case of Sankahmul, the squatters have confronted a serious threat of eviction only
once for construction of a UN park in their area in 2003. After a notice of eviction and
bulldozing attempts by government, the community strongly protested and the
government had to step back. The squatters confronted eviction successfully but they
still faced a certain degree of threat.

With support from Lumanti, they negotiated strongly with the government and later
compromised certain portion of their back yards for the use of park. At that moment of
time, the land was already shared for public good. Thereafter, government succumbed
to the international treaties of human rights and adopted a more tolerant policy.

Table 18: Stakeholder's Opinion towards squatter upgrading and tenure security

Government’s view Land sharing is not feasible due to regulations and action plans. Parks
can be built but not structures like commercial complexes. Squatters
have to be relocated to other lands.

Lumanti’s View Land sharing is a good solution since the land is sufficient and market
value is high. Cross-subsidy from commercial use can help to provide
secure housing for squatters.

Sqautter’s view We have already shared sufficient land from our back yards for public
good. Now all we want is to be legalized.

Source: (Sharma, 2010)

The community leader expressed, “We have preserved and invested on this land for too
long to let others come and reap off benefits from our hard work.” While the concept
of upgrading is a must in such cases, community participation holds equal participation
because they are the ones who have to stay there. During interviews with the residents,
when asked about the type of upgradation, many preferred on site redevelopment
and land sharing instead of resettlement and relocation.

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