Unit-IV

Bridges
Syllabus: AC Bridges Measurement of inductance- Maxwell’s bridge, Anderson bridge.
Measurement of capacitance - Schering Bridge. Wheat stone bridge. Wien Bridge, Errors and
precautions in using bridges. Q-meter
Introduction:
• If the electrical components are arranged in the form a bridge or ring structure, then that
electrical circuit is called a bridge.
• In general, bridge forms a loop with a set of four arms or branches. Each branch may
contain one or two electrical components.
• Bridges can classify into the following two categories based on the voltage signal with
which those can be operated.
– DC Bridges
– AC Bridges
DC Bridge:
• If the bridge circuit can be operated with only DC voltage signal, then it is a DC bridge
circuit or simply DC bridge. DC bridges are used to measure the value of unknown
resistance.
• The DC bridge has four arms and each arm consists
of a resistor. Among which, two resistors have fixed
resistance values, one resistor is a variable resistor and
the other one has an unknown resistance value.
• The DC bridge circuit can be excited with a DC
voltage source by placing it in one diagonal.
The galvanometer is placed in other diagonal of DC
bridge. It shows some deflection as long as the bridge is unbalanced.
• Vary the resistance value of variable resistor until the galvanometer shows null (zero)
deflection. Now, the DC bridge is said to be a balanced one. So, we can find the value
of unknown resistance by using nodal equations.
AC Bridge:
• If the bridge circuit can be operated with only AC voltage signal, then it is said to be AC
bridge circuit or simply AC bridge.
• The AC bridge has four arms and each arm consists of some impedance. That means,
each arm will be having either single or combination of passive elements such as resistor,
inductor and capacitor.
• Among the four impedances, two impedances
have fixed values, one impedance is variable and
the other one is an unknown impedance.
• The AC bridge circuit can be excited with an AC
voltage source by placing it in one diagonal. A
detector is placed in other diagonal of AC bridge. It
shows some deflection as long as the bridge is
unbalanced.
• The AC bridge circuit can be excited with an AC
voltage source by placing it in one diagonal. A detector is placed in other diagonal of AC
bridge. It shows some deflection as long as the bridge is unbalanced.
• Vary the impedance value of variable impedance until the detector shows null (zero)
deflection. Now, the AC bridge is said to be a balanced one. So, we can find the value
of unknown impedance by using balanced condition.
• The detector may be either Head Phones or Vibration Galvanometers or Tunable
Amplifier detectors.
• Head phones are widely used as detectors at frequencies of 250 Hz up to 3 or 4KHz.
They are most sensitive detectors for this range of frequency.
• Vibration galvanometers are extremely used for power and low audio frequency ranges.
These are work at frequencies ranging from 5Hz to 1000Hz. The vibration galvanometers
are used for power frequency range and low range of audio frequency as these
instruments are very sensitive and selective for this frequency range.
• The transistor amplifier can be tuned electrically to any desired frequency and then it can
be made to respond to a narrow bandwidth at a bridge frequency. Tunable amplifier
detectors are most versatile of all other detectors. These detectors can be used over a
frequency range of 10Hz to 100KHz
• Impedances at AF or RF are commonly determined by means of an ac Wheatstone
bridge.
• The bridge is excited by an ac source the detector is a pair of headphones, for detecting
ac, When the bridge is balanced.
 • Where Z1, Z2, Z3 and Z4 are the impedances of the arms, and are vector
complex quantities that possess phase angles.
• It is thus necessary to adjust both the magnitude and phase angles of the impedance arms
to achieve balance, i.e. the bridge must be balanced for both the reactance and the
resistive component. Then,
z1 z2

z3 z4
Comparison Bridge:
There are two types of Comparison Bridge, Namely
1. Capacitance Comparison Bridge
2. Inductance Comparison Bridge
Capacitance Comparison Bridge:
Figure shows the circuit of a capacitance comparison bridge. The ratio arms R 1, R2 are
resistive. The known standard capacitor C3 is in series with R3. R3 may also include an added
variable resistance needed to balance the bridge. Cx is the unknown capacitor and Rx is the small
leakage resistance of the capacitor. In this case an unknown capacitor is compared with
a standard capacitor and the value of the former, along with its leakage resistance, is obtained.

Z1  Z R1  R1
Z 2  Z R2  R2
Z 3  Z R3  Z L3  R3  jwL3
Z 4  Z Rx  Z Lx  Rx  jwLx

If thebridgeis balanced
Z1Z 4  Z 2 Z 3
R1  Rx  jwLx   R2  R3  jwL3 
R1Rx  jwR1Lx  R2 R3  jwR2 L3
Nowcomparethe real terms onboth sides
R1 Rx  R2 R3
R2 R3
Rx 
R1
Nowcomparetheimaginary terms on both sides
jwR1 Lx  jwR2 L3
R1 Lx  R2 L3
R2 L3
Lx 
R1
Inductance Comparison Bridge:
Figure gives a schematic diagram of an inductance comparison bridge. In this, values of
the unknown inductance Lx and its internal resistance Rx are obtained by comparison with the
standard inductor and resistance, i.e. L3 and R3.
Z1  Z R1  R1
Z 2  Z R2  R2
1
Z 3  Z R3  Z C3  R3 
jwC3
1
Z 4  Z Rx  Z Cx  Rx 
jwC x
If the bridge is balanced
Z1Z 4  Z 2 Z 3
 1   1 
R1  Rx    R2  R3  
 jwC x   jwC3 
 j   j 
R1  Rx    R2  R3  
 wC x   wC3 

 1 j j j
  2  
 jw j j w w

R1 R
R1 Rx  j  R2 R3  j 2
wCx wC3
Nowcomparethe real terms on both sides
R1 Rx  R2 R3
R2 R3
Rx 
R1
Nowcomparetheimaginary terms on both sides
R R
j 1 j 2
wCx wC3
R1 R2

Cx C3
R1C3
Cx 
R2
In this bridge R2 is chosen as the inductive balance control and R3 as the resistance
balance control. (It is advisable to use a fixed resistance ratio and variable standards). Balance is
obtained by alternately varying L3 or R3.
Maxwell Bridge:
Maxwell Bridge Theory, shown in Figure, measures an unknown inductance in terms of a
known capacitor. The use of standard arm offers the advantage of compactness and easy
shielding. The capacitor is almost a loss-less component.
If bridgeis balanced , then
Z1Z 4  Z 2 Z 3

Z1 is Equivalent impedance of Re sistor  R1  is parallel with capacitor  C1 

Z R1Z C1
i.e Z1  Z R1 || Z C1 
Z R1  Z C1
Z R1  R1
j 1
Z C1   
wC1 jwC1
1 1
R1 R1
jwC1 jwC1 R1
Z1   
1 jwC1 R1  1 1  jwC1 R1
R1 
jwC1 jwC1

Z 2 is impeadance of resistor  R2   R2
Z 3 is impeadance of resistor  R3   R3
Z x is equivalent impedance of resistor  Rx  is in series with inductor  Lx 
ie Z x  Rx  jwLx

Z1Z x  Z 2 Z 3
R1
 Rx  jwLx   R2 R3
1  jwC1 R1
1  jwC1 R1
Rx  jwLx  R2 R3
R1
R2 R3 wC1 R1 R2 R3
Rx  jwLx  j
R1 R1
R2 R3
Rx  jwLx   jwC1R2 R3
R1
Nowcompare real terms
RR
Rx  2 3
R1
Nowcompareimaginary terms
wLx  wC1 R2 R3
Lx  C1 R2 R3
 wLx
Q  factor : Q 
Rx
wC1 R2 R3
Q
R2 R3
R1
Q  wC1 R1
Maxwell Bridge Theory is limited to the measurement of low Q values (1 — 10). The
measurement is independent of the excitation frequency. The scale of the resistance can be
calibrated to read inductance directly.
Maxwell Bridge Disadvantages:
The Maxwell bridge using a fixed capacitor has the disadvantage that there is an
interaction between the resistance and reactance balances. This can be avoided by varying the
capacitances, instead of R2 and R3, to obtain a reactance balance. However, the bridge can be
made to read directly in Q.
The bridge is particularly suited for inductances measurements, since comparison with a
capacitor is more ideal than with another inductance. Commercial bridges measure from 1 —
1000 H, with ± 2% error. (If the Q is very large, R1 becomes excessively large and it is
impractical to obtain a satisfactory variable standard resistance in the range of values required)
Hays Bridge:
Hays Bridge Circuit, shown in Fig., differs from Maxwell’s bridge by having a resistance
R1 in series with a standard capacitor C1 instead of a parallel. For large phase angles, R1 needs to
be low; therefore, this bridge is more convenient for measuring high-Q coils. For Q = 10, the
error is ± 1%, and for Q = 30, the error is ± 0.1%. Hence Hay’s bridge is preferred for coils with
a high Q, and Maxwell’s bridge for coils with a low Q.

If thebridgeis balanced , then

Z1Z x  Z 2 Z 3
Z1 is Equivalent impedance of Re sistor  R1  is series with capacitor  C1 
i.e Z1  Z R1  Z C1
Z R1  R1
j 1
Z C1   
wC1 jwC1
j
Z1  R1 
wC1
Z 2 is impeadance of resistor  R2   R2
Z 3 is impeadance of resistor  R3   R3
Z x is equivalent impedance of resistor  Rx  is in series with inductor  Lx 
ie Z x  Rx  jwLx
Z1Z x  Z 2 Z 3

 j 
 R1    Rx  jwLx   R2 R3
 wC1 
R wLx
R1 Rx  jR1wLx  j x  j 2  R2 R3
wC1 wC1
Rx L
R1 Rx  jR1wLx  j  x  R2 R3
wC1 C1
Lx  R 
R1 Rx   j  R1wLx  x   R2 R3
C1  wC1 
Nowcompare real terms
L
R1 Rx  x  R2 R3       1
C1
Nowcompareimaginary terms
R
R1wLx  x  0
wC1
Rx
R1wLx 
wC1
Rx  R1w2 LxC1        2 

substitute eq 2 in eq1
L
R12 w2 LxC1  x  R2 R3
C1
 1 
Lx  R12 w2C1    R2 R3
 C1 
 1  R12 w2C12 
Lx 
   R2 R3
 C1 
R2 R3C1
Lx         3
1  R12 w2C12

substitute eq3 in eq 2
 R2 R3C1  w2C12 R1R2 R3
Rx  R1w2C1  
 1  R 2 w2C12  1  R12 w2C12
 1 
The term w appears in the expression for both Lx and Rx. This indicates that the bridge is
frequency sensitive.
 The Hays Bridge Circuit is also used in the measurement of incremental inductance. The
inductance balance equation depends on the losses of the inductor (or Q) and also on the
operating frequency.

R2 R3C1
wLx 1  R12 w2C12
Q  Facctor  w
Rx w2C12 R1 R2 R3
1  R12 w2C12

wR2 R3C1 1
Q  Facctor  2 2

w C1 R1 R2 R3 wC1 R1
1
 wC1 R1
Q
R2 R3C1 R RC
Lx  ; Lx  2 3 1 2
1  R1 w C1
 
2 2 2
1 1
Q
If Q valueis morethan 10
1
Q 2  100; 2  0.01
Q
1
we can neglect 2
Q
then Lx  R2 R3C1
The Lx = R2R3C1, which is the same as Maxwell’s equation. But for inductors with a Q
less than 10, the 1/Q2 term cannot be neglected. Hence this bridge is not suited for measurements
of coils having Q less than 10. A commercial bridge measure from 1 μ H — 100 H with ± 2%
error.
Anderson Bridge:
Anderson bridge circuit is shown in Figure, to measure the unknown inductance value.
If thebridgeis balanced , then
I 2  I1  current through the det ector is zero 
For theloop ABEDA
I1 R1  jwL1I1  rI C  I 3 R3  0

I1  R1  jwL1   rI C  I 3 R3       1
for the loop BCEB

IC
I1 R2  0
jwC
 IC
I1 R2 
jwC
I C  jwCI1 R2         2 
for theloop ECDE
IC
 I 4 R4  rI C  0
jwC
 1 
IC  r    I 4 R4       3
 jwC 
KCL at po int D
I3  I 4  IC
I 4  I3  IC       4
substitute eqn  4  in eqn  3

 1 
IC  r    I 4 R4
 jwC 
 1 
IC  r     I 3  I C  R4
 jwC 
 1 
IC  r    I 3 R4  I C R4
 jwC 
 1 
IC  r   R4   I 3 R4
 jwC 
IC  1 
I3  r   R4 
R4  jwC 
substitute I C  jwCI1R2
jwCI1 R2  1 
I3  r   R4 
R4  jwC 
jwCI1 R2 jwCI1R2 1 jwCI1R2
I3  r  R4
R4 R4 jwC R4
jwCI1 R2 r I1R2
I3    jwCI1 R2         5 
R4 R4

from the eqn 1

I1  R1  jwL1   rI C  I 3 R3
substitute I C  jwCI1 R2
I1  R1  jwL1   jrwCI1 R2  I 3 R3

I 3 R3  I1  R1  jwL1   jrwCI1 R2
 I1
I3   R1  jwL1  jrwCR2         6 
R3
from eqn  5  &  6 
jwCI1 R2 r I1R2 I
  jwCI1 R2  1  R1  jwL1  jrwCR2 
R4 R4 R3
R CR r  R L CR r 
I1  2  jw 2  jwCR2   I1  1  jw 1  jw 2 
 R4 R4   R3 R3 R3 
Compare real terms
R2 R1

R4 R3
R2 R3
R1 
R4
compareimaginary terms
CR2 r L CR r
 CR2  1  2
R4 R3 R3
CR2 R3r
L1  CR2 r   CR2 R3
R4
CR2 R3r
L1   CR2 R3  CR2 r
R4
This method is capable of precise measurement of inductance and wide range of values from a
few µH to several henries.
Schering Bridge:
A very important bridge used for the precision measurement of capacitors and their
insulating properties is the Schering Bridge Experiment. Its basic circuit arrangement is given in
Fig. The standard capacitor C3 is a high quality mica capacitor (low-loss) for general
measurements, or an air capacitor (having a very stable value and a very small electric field) for
insulation measurement.
If thebridgeis balanced , then
Z1Z x  Z 2 Z 3
1
R1
jwC1 R1
Z1  
R1 
1 R1 jwC1  1
jwC1
Z 2  R2
1
Z3 
jwC3
 1
Z x  Rx 
jwCx
Z1Z x  Z 2 Z 3
R1  1  1
 Rx    R2
jR1wC1  1  jwCx  jwC3
 1  1  jwR1C1
 Rx   jwC3  R2
 jwCx  R1
C3 R2 wR R C
jwRx C3   j 1 2 1
Cx R1 R1
Nowcompare real terms
C3 R2

Cx R1
C3 R1
Cx 
R2
Nowcompareimaginary terms
Rx C3  R2C1
R2C1
Rx 
C3
Dissipation factor D  wCx Rx
C3 R1 R2C1
Dw
R2 C3
D  wR1C1
Also, D is the reciprocal of the quality factor Q, i.e. D = 1/Q. D indicates the quality of
the capacitor.
Commercial units measure from 100 pf — 1 μf with ± 2% accuracy. The dial of C3 is
graduated in terms of direct readings for Cx, if the resistance ratio is maintained at a fixed value.
This bridge is widely used for testing small capacitors at low voltages with very high precision.
The lower junction of the bridge is grounded. At the frequency normally used on this bridge, the
reactance of capacitor C3 and Cx are much higher than the resistances of R1 and R2. Hence, most
of the voltage drops across C3 and Cx and very little across R1 and R2. Hence if the junction of
R1 and R2 is grounded, the detector is effectively at ground potential. This reduces any stray-
capacitance effect, and makes the bridge more stable.
Wien Bridge:
The Wien Bridge Circuit Diagram shown in Fig. has a series RC combination in one arm
and a parallel combination in the adjoining arm. Wien’s bridge in its basic form, is designed to
measure frequency. It can also be used for the measurement of an unknown capacitor with great
accuracy.
If the bridge is balanced , then
Z1Z 4  Z 2 Z 3
1
Z1  R1 
jwC1
Z 2  R2
1
R3
jwC3 R3
Z3  
R3 
1 jwR3C3  1
jwC3
Z 4  R4
Z1Z 4  Z 2 Z 3
 1   R3 
 R1   R4  R2  
 jwC1   jwR3C3  1 
 1 j  R3 
 R1   R4  R2  
 jwC1 j   jwR3C3  1 
 j   R3 
 R1   R4  R2  
 wC1   jwR3C3  1 
R2 R3  j 
  R1    jwR3C3  1
R4  wC1 
R2 R3 j j
 R1   jR1wR3C3   jwR3C3 
R4 wC1 wC1
R2 R3 j RC
 R1   jR1wR3C3  3 3
R4 wC1 C1
R2 R3 RC j
 R1  3 3   jR1wR3C3
R4 C1 wC1
Nowcompare real terms
RC RR
R1  3 3  2 3
C1 R4
Nowcompareimaginary terms
1
  R1wR3C3  0
wC1
1
R1wR3C3 
wC1
1
w2 
C1C3 R1 R3
1
w
C1C3 R1 R3
Wheatstone Bridge:
Wheatstone bridge is the most accurate method available for measuring resistances and is
popular for laboratory use. The circuit diagram of a typical Wheatstone Bridge Circuit is given in
Figure. The source of EMF and switch is connected to points A and B, while a sensitive current
indicating meter, the galvanometer, is connected to points C and D. The galvanometer is a
sensitive microammeter, with a zero centre scale. When there is no current through the meter, the
galvanometer pointer rests at 0, i.e. mid scale. Current in one direction causes the pointer to
deflect on one side and current in the opposite direction to the other side.
When SW1 is closed, current flows and divides into the two arms at point A, i.e. I1 and I2.
The bridge is balanced when there is no current through the galvanometer, or when the potential
difference at points C and D is equal, i.e. the potential across the galvanometer is zero.
From the circuit
Apply KCL at po int A
I  I1  I 2
If thebridge is balanced current through galavanameter is zero
 I1  I 3 and I 2  I 4      1
For theloop ADCA KVL equation is
I 2 R2  I1 R1  0
I 2 R2  I1 R1          2 
For theloop CDBC KVL equation is
I 4 R4  I 3 R3  0
I 4 R4  I 3 R3         3

eqn  2 
perform
eqn  3
I 2 R2 I1 R1

I 4 R4 I 3 R3
from eqn 1  I1  I 3 and I 2  I 4
I 2 R2 I1 R1

I 2 R4 I1 R3
R2 R1

R4 R3
R2 R3
R4 
R1
Unbalanced Wheatstone Bridge:

To determine the amount of deflection that would result for a particular degree of
unbalance, general circuit analysis can be applied, but we shall use Thevenin’s theorem. For
determining the current through the galvanometer, it is required to find the Thevenin’s
equivalent, as seen by the galvanometer.
Thevenin’s equivalent voltage is found by disconnecting the galvanometer from the
Wheatstone Bridge Circuit circuit, as shown in Fig, and determining the open-circuit voltage
between terminals a and b.
From thebridge circuit
voltage at po int " a " is voltage drop across " R3 " and
voltage at po int " b " is voltage drop across " R4 "
ER3 ER4
Ea  and Eb 
R1  R3 R2  R4
Thevenin ' s Equivalent voltage Eth  Ea  Eb
ER3 ER4  R3 R4 
Eth    E  
R1  R3 R2  R4  R1  R3 R2  R4 
Rth  R1 || R3  R2 || R4
R1 R3 RR
Rth   2 4
R1  R3 R2  R4
Eth
I
Rth

If a galvanometer is connected across the terminals a and b of Fig, or its Thevenin

equivalent Fig. it will experience the same deflection at the output of the bridge. The magnitude
of current is limited by both Thevenin’s equivalent resistance and any resistance connected
between a and b. The resistance between a and b consists only of the galvanometer resistance R g.
The deflection current in the galvanometer is therefore given by
Eth
The current throughthe galvanometer is I g 
Rth  Rg
Application of Wheatstone Bridge:
 A Wheatstone bridge may be used to measure the dc resistance of various types of wire,
either for the purpose of quality control of the wire itself, or of some assembly in which it is
used. For example, the resistance of motor windings, transformers, solenoids, and relay coils
can be measured.
 Wheatstone Bridge Circuit is also used extensively by telephone companies and others to
locate cable faults. The fault may be two lines shorted together, or a single line shorted to
ground.
Limitations of Wheatstone Bridge:
 For low resistance measurement, the resistance of the leads and contacts becomes significant
and introduces an error. This can be eliminated by Kelvin’s Double bridge.
 For high resistance measurements, the resistance presented by the bridge becomes so large
that the galvanometer is insensitive to imbalance. Therefore, a power supply has to replace
the battery and a dc VTVM replaces the galvanometer. In the case of high resistance
measurements in mega ohms, the Wheatstone bridge cannot be used.
 Another difficulty in Wheatstone Bridge Circuit is the change in resistance of the bridge arms
due to the heating effect of current through the resistance. The rise in temperature causes a
change in the value of the resistance, and excessive current may cause a permanent change in
value.
Kelvins Bridge:
When the resistance to be measured is of the order of magnitude of bridge contact and
lead resistance, a modified form of Wheatstone bridge, the Kelvin Bridge theory is employed.
Kelvin Bridge theory is a modification of Wheatstone bridge and is used to measure values of
resistance below 1 Ω. In low resistance measurement, the resistance of the leads connecting the
unknown resistance to the terminal of the bridge circuit may affect the measurement.
Consider the circuit in Fig., where 'r' represents the resistance of the connecting leads
from R3 to Rx (unknown resistance). The galvanometer can be connected either to point c or to
point a. When it is connected to point a, the resistance r, of the connecting lead is added to
the unknown resistance Rx, resulting in too high indication for Rx. When the connection is made
to point c, R3, is added to the bridge arm R3 and resulting measurement of Rx is lower than the
actual value, because now the actual value of R3 is higher than its nominal value by the
resistance r. If the galvanometer is connected to point b, in between points c and a, in such a way
that the ratio of the resistance from c to b and that from a to b equals the ratio of resistances
R1 and R2, then
R1 Rcb r1
        1
R2 Rab r2
r1  r2  r       2 
If thebridgeis balanced , then
R2  Rx  r1   R1  R3  r2         3
from eq 1
R1 r1

R2 r2
R1 r
1  1 1
R2 r2
R1  R2 r1  r2

R2 r2
R1  R2 r
R2

r2
 eqn  2  
rR2
r2         4
R1  R2
from eqn  2 
r1  r2  r
rR2
r1  r
R1  R2
rR2
r1  r 
R1  R2
rR1  rR2  rR2
r1 
R1  R2
rR1
r1         5
R1  R2
substitute eqn  4  &  5  in eqn  3
R2  Rx  r1   R1  R3  r2 

 rR1   rR2 
R2  Rx    R1  R3  
 R1  R2   R1  R2 
rR1 R  rR2 
Rx   1  R3  
R1  R2 R2  R1  R2 
R1 R3 R1 rR2 rR1
Rx   
R2 R2 R1  R2 R1  R2

R1 R3 rR1 rR1
Rx   
R2 R1  R2 R1  R2
 R1 R3
Rx 
R2
The above Equation is the usual Wheatstone balance equation and it indicates that the
effect of the resistance of the connecting leads from point a to point c has been eliminated by
connecting the galvanometer to an intermediate position, b.
Kelvin’s double bridge:
The incorporates a second set of ratio arms. Figure shows a schematic diagram of
Kelvin’s double bridge. The second set of arms, a and b, connect the galvanometer to a point c at
the appropriate potential between m and n connection, i.e. Ry. The ratio of the resistances of arms
r1 and r2 is the same as the ratio of R1 and R2. The galvanometer indication is zero when the
potentials at k and c are equal.

Elk  Elmc
R2
Elk  E
R1  R2
Thetotal resis tan ce of the circuit is given by
for the potential differancebetween l & k

R  R3  Rx 
 r1  r2  r
r1  r2  r
E  IR
 r  r  r 
E  I  R3  Rx  1 2 
 r1  r2  r 

Elk 
R2  r  r  r 
I  R3  Rx  1 2 
R1  R2  r1  r2  r 
for the potential differance between l & c
r2  r1  r2  r
R  R3 
r1  r2 r1  r2  r
 r  r1  r2  r 
Elmc  I  R3  2 
 r1  r2 r1  r2  r 
Elk  Elmc

R2  r  r  r  
I  R3  Rx  1 2   I  R3 
rr2 

R1  R2  r1  r2  r   r1  r2  r 
 r  r  r R  R2  R  rr2 
R3  Rx  1 2  1  3 
r1  r2  r R2  r1  r2  r 
R3  Rx 
 r1  r2  r  R1R3  R1 rr2
 R3 
rr2
r1  r2  r R2 R2 r1  r2  r r1  r2  r

Rx 
R1 R3 R1

rr2

rr2 r  r  r
 1 2
R2 R2 r1  r2  r r1  r2  r r1  r2  r
R1 R3 R1 rr2 rr2 rr1 rr2
Rx     
R2 R2 r1  r2  r r1  r2  r r1  r2  r r1  r2  r
R1 R3 R1 rr2 rr1
Rx   
R2 R2 r1  r2  r r1  r2  r
condition for kelvin ' s bridgeis
R1 r1

R2 r2
R1 R3 r1 rr2 rr1
Rx   
R2 r2 r1  r2  r r1  r2  r
R1 R3
Rx 
R2
This is the usual equation for Kelvin Bridge theory. It indicates that the resistance of the
connecting lead has no effect on the measurement, provided that the ratios of the resistances of
the two sets of ratio arms are equal. In a typical Kelvin Bridge theory the range of a resistance
covered is 1 — 0.00001 Ω (10 μ Ω) with an accuracy of ± 0.05% to ± 0.2%.
Errors in Bridges:
• Stray conductance effects, due to imperfect insulation.
• Mutual inductance effects due to magnetic coupling between various components of the
bridge.
• Stray capacitance effects, due to electrostatic fields between conductors at different
potentials.
• Residuals in components for example the presence of small magnitudes of series
inductance or shunt capacitance in non-reactive resistors.
Precautions to be taken when using Bridges:
• High quality components must be used for the elements of the bridge.
• The layout of the bridge must be made to avoid interaction of the bridge arms.
• The sensitivity of the bridge must be more.
• The bridge components and other pieces must be mounted on insulation stands to prevent
stray conductance effects.
• Presence of large conducting masses near the bridge arms must be avoided to prevent eddy
current effects.
 • Residual error can be avoided by identifying the nature, evaluating them and compensating
them.
• Wave filters that eliminate the unwanted harmonics from the source or tuned detectors in
place of headphones may be used to avoid the difficulty of frequency and wave form
errors.
Q meter:
• The overall efficiency of coils and capacitors intended for RF applications is best evaluated
using the Q value.
• The Q Meter is used to measure some electrical properties of coils and capacitors.
• The Q Meter Working Principle is based on series resonance; the voltage drop across the
coil or capacitor is Q times the applied voltage (where Q is the ratio of reactance to
resistance, XL/R).
• If a fixed voltage is applied to the circuit, a voltmeter across the capacitor can be calibrated
to read Q directly.
• At resonance XL= XC and EL= IXL, EC = IXC, E = I R
Here E - Applied Voltage EC - Capacitor voltage
EL - Inductive voltage XL - Inductive Reactance
XC - Capacitive Reactance R - Coil Resistance
I - Circuit Current
If E is kept constant the voltage across the capacitor can be measured by a voltmeter calibrated
to read directly in terms of Q
X L X C EC
Q  
R R R
Power dissipated
Q
Power stored in the element
 The wide range oscillator, with frequency range from 50 kHz to 50 MHz, delivers current
to a resistance Rsh having a value of 0.02 Ω. This shunt resistance introduces almost no resistance
into the tank circuit and therefore represents a voltage source of a magnitude e with a small
internal resistance. The voltage across the shunt is measured with a thermocouple meter. The
voltage across the capacitor is measured by an electronic voltmeter corresponding to Ec and
calibrated directly to read Q.
The oscillator energy is coupled to the tank circuit. The circuit is tuned to resonance by
varying C until the electronic voltmeter reads the maximum value. The resonance output voltage
E, corresponding to Ec, is E = Qe, that is, Q = E/e. Since e is known, the electronic voltmeter can
be calibrated to read Q directly.
The inductance of the coil can be determined by connecting it to the test terminals of the
instrument. The circuit is tuned to resonance by varying either the capacitance or the oscillator
frequency. If the capacitance is varied, the oscillator frequency is adjusted to a given frequency
and resonance is obtained. If the capacitance is presented to a desired value, the oscillator
frequency is varied until resonance occurs. The Q reading on the output meter must be multiplied
by the index setting or the ―Multiply Q by‖ switch to obtain the actual Q value. The inductance
of the coil can be calculated from known values of the coil frequency and resonating capacitor
(C).
X L  XC

1
f 
2 Lx C
1
2 Lx C 
f
1
Lx 
2 f C
1
Lx 
 2 f 
2
C
The Q indicated is not the actual Q, because the losses of the resonating capacitor,
voltmeter and inserted resistance are all included in the measuring circuit. The actual Q of the
measured coil is somewhat greater than the indicated Q. This difference is negligible except
where the resistance of the coil is relatively small compared to the inserted resistance Rsh.
Factors that May Cause Error:

1. At high frequencies the electronic voltmeter may suffer from losses due to the transit time
effect. The effect of Rsh is to introduce an additional resistance in the tank circuit, as shown in
Figure.
wL
Qact 
R
wL
Qobs 
Rsh  R
Qact wL wL R R R
  sh  1  sh
Qobs R Rsh  R R R
 R 
Qact  Qobs 1  sh 
 R 
Qact  Actual Q
Qobs  Observed Q
To make the Qobs value as close as possible to Qact, Rsh should be made as small as possible. An
Rsh value of 0.02 – 0.04 Ω introduces negligible error.
2. Another source of error, and probably the most important one, is the distributed capacitance or
self capacitance of the measuring circuit. The presence of distributed or stray capacitances
modifies the actual Q and the inductance of the coil. At the resonant frequency, at which the self
capacitance and inductance of the coil are equal, the circuit impedance is purely resistive this
characteristic can be used to measure the distributed capacitance.
One of the simplest methods of determining the distributed capacitance (Cs) of a coil involves the
plotting of a graph of 1/f2 against C in pf.
The frequency of the oscillator in the Q meter is varied and the corresponding value of C for
resonance is noted. 1/f2 is plotted against C in pf, as shown in Fig. (a). The straight line produced
to intercept the X-axis gives the value of Cs. The value of the unknown inductance can also be
determined from the equation.
 Fig. Measurement of stray capacitance
1
f 
2 LC
There is stray capaci tan ce was added
1
f 
2 L  C  Cs 
Cs  stray capaci tan ce
1
f2
4 L  C  Cs 
2

1
2
 4 2 L  C  Cs 
f
1
 0; if C  Cs
f2
Another method of determining the stray or distributed capacitance (Cs) of a coil involves
making two measurements at different frequencies. The capacitor C of the Q meter is calibrated
to indicate the capacitance value. The test coil is connected to the Q meter terminals, as shown in
Fig.(b)
The tuning capacitor is set to a high value position (to its maximum) and the circuit is resonated
by varying the oscillator frequency. Suppose the meter indicates resonance and the oscillator
frequency is found to be f1 Hz and the capacitor value to be C1.
The oscillator frequency, of the Q-meter is now increased to twice the original frequency,
that is, f2 = 2f1, and the capacitor is varied until resonance occurs at C2. The resonant frequency
of an LC circuit is given by
1
f 
2 LC
Assumethat at f1 the circuit is balanced
1
f1 
2 L  C1  Cs 
Now apply the frequency f 2  2 f1
Nowthe circuit is unbalanced . therefore it is required to var y the tunable capacitor
Now assumethat at C2 the circuit is balanced
1
f2 
2 L  C2  Cs 
we knowthat f 2  2 f1
1 1
2
2  L  C2  C s  2  L  C1  Cs 
 1
L  C2  C s  L  C1  Cs 
4
4C2  4Cs  C1  Cs
4Cs  Cs  C1  4C2
3Cs  C1  4C2
C1  4C2
Cs 
3
Impedance Measurement Using Q Meter:
An unknown impedance can be measured using a Q meter, either by series or shunt
substitution method. If the impedance to be measured is small, the former is used and if it is large
the later method is used.
In the Q meter method of measurement of Z, the unknown impedance Zx is determined
by individually determining its components Rx and Lx. The technique utilizes an LC tank of a Q
meter, L being an externally connected standard coil.
Figure (a) shows the method of series substitution while Fig.(b) shows the shunt substitution
method.
Referring to Fig. (a), the unknown impedance is shorted or otherwise not connected and the
tuned circuit is adjusted for resonance at the oscillator frequency. The value of Q and C are
noted. The unknown impedance is then connected, the capacitor is varied for resonance, and new
values Q1 and C1 are noted.

Initailly removetheimpedance from circuit

1
at resonance wL        1
wC
Nowconnect theimpedance, then
1
at resonance wL  X x        2
wC1
1
wL  X x 
wC1
1
Xx   wL
wC1
from eqn 1
1 1 1  1 1  1  C  C1 
Xx        
wC1 wC w  C 1 C  w  CC 1 
If X x is positive, it indicates inductive reac tan ce
If X x is negative, it indicates capacitive reac tan ce
Z x  Rx  jX x
R  Rx  R1 ;
Rx  R1  R
X L wL
we knowthat Q  
R R
wL
R
Q
wL
R1  1
Q
Rx  R1  R
wL wL  1 1  Q  Q1 
Rx    wL  1    wL  1 
Q1 Q Q Q  QQ 
Z x  Rx  jX x
 Q  Q1  1  C  C1 
Z x  wL  1 
 j  
 QQ  w  CC1 

A positive value of Xx indicates inductive reactance and a negative value indicates capacitive
reactance.
If Zx is considerably greater than XL, the unknown impedance is shunted across the coil and the
capacitor, as shown in Fig.(b).
Yx represents the shunt admittance of the unknown impedance. It consists of two shunt elements,
conductance Gx and susceptance Bx. In this method, Yx is disconnected and the capacitor C is
tuned to the resonant value. At the oscillator frequency, the values of Q and C are noted. With
Yx connected, the capacitor is tuned again for resonance at the oscillator frequency and the new
values Q1 and C1 are noted.
Hence
Admit tan ceYx
Yx  Gx  jBx
Gx  Conduc tan ce
Bx  Suscep tan ce
Bx  wC  wC1  w  C  C1 

1  Q  Q1 
Gx   
wL  QQ1 
1  Q  Q1 
Yx    jw  C  C 
1

wL  QQ1 

The accuracy with which the reactance can be determined by the method of substitution is quite
high. Error may mainly be because
(i) C1 cannot be accurately determined since the resonance curve may be flat due to additional
resistance, and
(ii) The stray inductance associated with the tuning capacitor causes errors at VHF.
The accuracy with which the resistance component of the unknown impedance is obtained is
poor. If the losses in the unknown impedance are too small to introduce any change in the Q, the
substitution method is quite satisfactory.
The substitution method can also be used for measuring the losses of the coil. It is not
satisfactory for measuring the losses of an air-dielectric capacitor, since they are too small to be
detected by this method.
Measurement of Characteristic Impedance (Z0) of a Transmission Line Using Q Meter:
Figure (a) shows a series substitution method for determining the characteristic
impedance of a transmission line and Figure (b) shows a shunt or parallel method of substitution
for the same purpose.

In Fig. (a), the transmission line or cable under test is tuned for series resonance. Since the input
impedance is low, the method of series substitution can be used to determine Z0 = R0 +jX0 for the
transmission line.
The reactance/unit length of the line is the total reactance divided by the length l.
Series resonance occurs when the line is short-circuited and the line length is an even multiple of
a λ/4 and when open-circuited an odd multiple of λ/4.
Parallel resonance occurs when the line is short-circuited and the length is an odd multiple of
λ/4, or open-circuited it is an even multiple of λ/4.
Measurement of Q by Susceptance Method:
The coil under test is connected in series with a calibrated low loss variable capacitor. With the
use of the meter as an indicator, the circuit is tuned for resonance to the oscillator frequency, by
tuning the variable capacitor to a value Cr a shown in Fig. (a). The capacitor is then detuned to a
value Cb on the low capacitance side of resonance at which the meter reading falls to 70.7% of
the resonant voltage. Next, the capacitor is set on the higher capacitance side of resonance to a
value Ca, where the voltmeter deflection again drops to 70.7% of the resonant voltage, as shown
in Fig. (b).

The points Ca, Cb and Cr are closer together when coil Q is high (sharp tuning) and far apart
when Q is low (broad tuning). The value of Q can be then determined as follows.
Ca and Cb are the value of capacitances at the half power point and Cr is the value of the
capacitance at resonance.
1
X Ca 
wCa
1
X Cb 
wCb
X L  X Ca  X cb  X L  R
1
wL   R     1
wCa
1
 wL  R      2 
wCb

1 1
1   2   wL    wL  R  R
wCa wCb
1 1
  2R
wCb wCa
1 1
  2 wR
Cb Ca
Ca  Cb
2 wR       3
Ca Cb
Xc 1
We have Q  
R wCr R
Cr2  Ca Cb
Ca  Cb
2 wR 
Cr2

2 wRCr Cr  Ca  Cb
1
2Cr  Ca  Cb
Q
2Cr
Q
Ca  Cb
In this method, the coil under rest is connected in series with a calibrated low loss capacitor. The
frequency of the signal generator is kept at a suitable value and the output across the capacitor is
measured by an electronic voltmeter. This method requires less expensive components than the
Q meter.