Air pollution

Air pollution is t he presence of subst ances in t he at mosphere t hat are harmful t o t he healt h of
humans and ot her living beings, or cause damage t o t he climat e or t o mat erials. There are many
different t ypes of air pollut ant s, such as gases (such as ammonia, carbon monoxide, sulfur
dioxide, nit rous oxides, met hane, carbon dioxide and chlorofluorocarbons), part iculat es (bot h
organic and inorganic), and biological molecules. Air pollut ion may cause diseases, allergies and
even deat h t o humans; it may also cause harm t o ot her living organisms such as animals and food
crops, and may damage t he nat ural environment (for example, climat e change, ozone deplet ion or
habit at degradat ion) or built environment (for example, acid rain). Bot h human act ivit y and nat ural
processes can generat e air pollut ion.

Air pollution from a coking oven.

2016 air quality indicator - light colors have lower air quality and thus higher air pollution.

Air pollut ion is a significant risk fact or for a number of pollut ion-relat ed diseases, including
respirat ory infect ions, heart disease, COPD, st roke and lung cancer.[1] The human healt h effect s
of poor air qualit y are far reaching, but principally affect t he body's respirat ory syst em and t he
cardiovascular syst em. Individual react ions t o air pollut ant s depend on t he t ype of pollut ant a
person is exposed t o, t he degree of exposure, and t he individual's healt h st at us and genet ics.[2]
Indoor air pollut ion and poor urban air qualit y are list ed as t wo of t he world's worst t oxic pollut ion
problems in t he 2008 Blacksmit h Inst it ut e World's Worst Pollut ed Places report .[3] Out door air
pollut ion alone causes 2.1[4][5] t o 4.21 million deat hs annually.[1][6] Overall, air pollut ion causes t he
deat hs of around 7 million people worldwide each year, and is t he world's largest single
environment al healt h risk.[1][7][8] The scope of t he air pollut ion crisis is enormous: 90% of t he
world's populat ion breat hes dirt y air t o some degree. Alt hough t he healt h consequences are
ext ensive, t he way t he problem is handled is oft en haphazard.[9][10][11]

Product ivit y losses and degraded qualit y of life caused by air pollut ion are est imat ed t o cost t he
world economy $5 t rillion per year.[12][13][14] Various pollut ion cont rol t echnologies and st rat egies
are available t o reduce air pollut ion.[15][16] To reduce t he impact s of air pollut ion, bot h
int ernat ional and nat ional legislat ion and regulat ion have been implement ed t o regulat e air
pollut ion. Local laws where well enforced in cit ies have led t o st rong public healt h improvement s.
At t he int ernat ional level some of t hese effort s have been successful, for example t he Mont real
Prot ocol which successful at reducing release of harmful ozone deplet ing chemicals or 1985
Helsinki Prot ocol which reduced sulfur emissions, while ot her at t empt s have been less rapid in
implement at ion, such as int ernat ional act ion on climat e change.

Pollutants

An air pollut ant is a mat erial in t he air t hat can have adverse effect s on humans and t he
ecosyst em. The subst ance can be solid part icles, liquid droplet s, or gases. A pollut ant can be of
nat ural origin or man-made.
Pollut ant s are classified as primary or secondary. Primary pollut ant s
are usually produced by processes such as ash from a volcanic erupt ion. Ot her examples include
carbon monoxide gas from mot or vehicle exhaust s or sulfur dioxide released from fact ories.
Secondary pollut ant s are not emit t ed direct ly. Rat her, t hey form in t he air when primary
pollut ant s react or int eract . Ground level ozone is a prominent example of a secondary pollut ant .
Some pollut ant s may be bot h primary and secondary: t hey are bot h emit t ed direct ly and formed
from ot her primary pollut ant s.

Before flue-gas desulfurization was installed, the emissions from this power plant in New Mexico contained excessive
amounts of sulfur dioxide.
Schematic drawing, causes and effects of air pollution: (1) greenhouse effect, (2) particulate contamination, (3) increased
UV radiation, (4) acid rain, (5) increased ground-level ozone concentration, (6) increased levels of nitrogen oxides.

Thermal oxidisers are air pollution abatement options for hazardous air pollutants (HAPs), volatile organic compounds
(VOCs), and odorous emissions

Pollut ant s emit t ed int o t he at mosphere by human act ivit y include:

Carbon dioxide (CO2) – Because of it s role as a greenhouse gas it has been described as "t he
leading pollut ant "[17] and "t he worst climat e pollut ant ".[18] Carbon dioxide is a nat ural
component of t he at mosphere, essent ial for plant life and given off by t he human respirat ory
syst em.[19] This quest ion of t erminology has pract ical effect s, for example as det ermining

whet her t he U.S. Clean Air Act is deemed t o regulat e CO2 emissions.[20] CO2 current ly forms
about 410 part s per million (ppm) of eart h's at mosphere, compared t o about 280 ppm in pre-

indust rial t imes,[21] and billions of met ric t ons of CO2 are emit t ed annually by burning of fossil
fuels.[22] CO2 increase in eart h's at mosphere has been accelerat ing.[23]
Sulfur oxides (SOx) – part icularly sulfur dioxide, a chemical compound wit h t he formula SO2.
SO2 is produced by volcanoes and in various indust rial processes. Coal and pet roleum oft en
cont ain sulfur compounds, and t heir combust ion generat es sulfur dioxide. Furt her oxidat ion of
SO2, usually in t he presence of a cat alyst such as NO2, forms H2SO4, and t hus acid rain is
formed.[2] This is one of t he causes for concern over t he environment al impact of t he use of
t hese fuels as power sources.

Nit rogen oxides (NOx) – Nit rogen oxides, part icularly nit rogen dioxide, are expelled from high
t emperat ure combust ion, and are also produced during t hunderst orms by elect ric discharge.
They can be seen as a brown haze dome above or a plume downwind of cit ies. Nit rogen dioxide
is a chemical compound wit h t he formula NO2. It is one of several nit rogen oxides. One of t he
most prominent air pollut ant s, t his reddish-brown t oxic gas has a charact erist ic sharp, bit ing
odor.

Carbon monoxide (CO) – CO is a colorless, odorless, t oxic gas.[24] It is a product of combust ion
of fuel such as nat ural gas, coal or wood. Vehicular exhaust cont ribut es t o t he majorit y of
carbon monoxide let int o our at mosphere. It creat es a smog t ype format ion in t he air t hat has
been linked t o many lung diseases and disrupt ions t o t he nat ural environment and animals.

Volat ile organic compounds (VOC) – VOCs are a well-known out door air pollut ant . They are
cat egorized as eit her met hane (CH4) or non-met hane (NMVOCs). Met hane is an ext remely
efficient greenhouse gas which cont ribut es t o enhanced global warming. Ot her hydrocarbon
VOCs are also significant greenhouse gases because of t heir role in creat ing ozone and
prolonging t he life of met hane in t he at mosphere. This effect varies depending on local air
qualit y. The aromat ic NMVOCs benzene, t oluene and xylene are suspect ed carcinogens and
may lead t o leukemia wit h prolonged exposure. 1,3-but adiene is anot her dangerous compound
oft en associat ed wit h indust rial use.

Part iculat e mat t er / part icles, alt ernat ively referred t o as part iculat e mat t er (PM),
at mospheric part iculat e mat t er, or fine part icles, are t iny part icles of solid or liquid suspended
in a gas. In cont rast , aerosol refers t o combined part icles and gas. Some part iculat es occur
nat urally, originat ing from volcanoes, dust st orms, forest and grassland fires, living veget at ion,
and sea spray. Human act ivit ies, such as t he burning of fossil fuels in vehicles, power plant s
and various indust rial processes also generat e significant amount s of aerosols. Averaged
worldwide, ant hropogenic aerosols—t hose made by human act ivit ies—current ly account for
approximat ely 10 percent of our at mosphere. Increased levels of fine part icles in t he air are
linked t o healt h hazards such as heart disease,[25] alt ered lung funct ion and lung cancer.
Part iculat es are relat ed t o respirat ory infect ions and can be part icularly harmful t o t hose
already suffering from condit ions like ast hma.[26]
 Persist ent free radicals connect ed t o airborne fine part icles are linked t o cardiopulmonary
disease.[27][28]

Toxic met als, such as lead and mercury, especially t heir compounds.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) – harmful t o t he ozone layer; emit t ed from product s are current ly
banned from use. These are gases which are released from air condit ioners, refrigerat ors,
aerosol sprays, et c. On release int o t he air, CFCs rise t o t he st rat osphere. Here t hey come in
cont act wit h ot her gases and damage t he ozone layer. This allows harmful ult raviolet rays t o
reach t he eart h's surface. This can lead t o skin cancer, eye disease and can even cause
damage t o plant s.

Ammonia – emit t ed mainly by agricult ural wast e. Ammonia is a compound wit h t he formula
NH3. It is normally encount ered as a gas wit h a charact erist ic pungent odor. Ammonia
cont ribut es significant ly t o t he nut rit ional needs of t errest rial organisms by serving as a
precursor t o foodst uffs and fert ilizers. Ammonia, eit her direct ly or indirect ly, is also a building
block for t he synt hesis of many pharmaceut icals. Alt hough in wide use, ammonia is bot h
caust ic and hazardous. In t he at mosphere, ammonia react s wit h oxides of nit rogen and sulfur
t o form secondary part icles.[29]

Odors — such as from garbage, sewage, and indust rial processes

Radioact ive pollut ant s – produced by nuclear explosions, nuclear event s, war explosives, and
nat ural processes such as t he radioact ive decay of radon.

Secondary pollut ant s include:

Part iculat es creat ed from gaseous primary pollut ant s and compounds in phot ochemical smog.
Smog is a kind of air pollut ion. Classic smog result s from large amount s of coal burning in an
area caused by a mixt ure of smoke and sulfur dioxide. Modern smog does not usually come
from coal but from vehicular and indust rial emissions t hat are act ed on in t he at mosphere by
ult raviolet light from t he sun t o form secondary pollut ant s t hat also combine wit h t he primary
emissions t o form phot ochemical smog.

Ground level ozone (O3) formed from NOx and VOCs. Ozone (O3) is a key const it uent of t he
t roposphere. It is also an import ant const it uent of cert ain regions of t he st rat osphere
commonly known as t he Ozone layer. Phot ochemical and chemical react ions involving it drive
many of t he chemical processes t hat occur in t he at mosphere by day and by night . At
abnormally high concent rat ions brought about by human act ivit ies (largely t he combust ion of
fossil fuel), it is a pollut ant and a const it uent of smog.

Peroxyacet yl nit rat e (C2H3NO5) – similarly formed from NOx and VOCs.
Minor air pollut ant s include:

A large number of minor hazardous air pollut ant s. Some of t hese are regulat ed in USA under
t he Clean Air Act and in Europe under t he Air Framework Direct ive

A variet y of persist ent organic pollut ant s, which can at t ach t o part iculat es

Play media

This video provides an overview of a NASA study on the human fingerprint on global air quality.

Persist ent organic pollut ant s (POPs) are organic compounds t hat are resist ant t o environment al
degradat ion t hrough chemical, biological, and phot olyt ic processes. Because of t his, t hey have
been observed t o persist in t he environment , t o be capable of long-range t ransport ,
bioaccumulat e in human and animal t issue, biomagnify in food chains, and t o have pot ent ially
significant impact s on human healt h and t he environment .

Sources
Mean acidifying emissions (air pollution) of different foods per 100g of protein[30]
Food Types Acidifying Emissions (g SO 2eq per 100g protein)
Beef 343.6
Cheese 165.5
Pork 142.7
Lamb and Mut t on 139.0
Farmed Crust aceans 133.1
Poult ry 102.4
Farmed Fish 65.9
Eggs 53.7
Groundnut s 22.6
Peas 8.5
Tofu 6.7

Anthropogenic (human-made) sources

Controlled burning of a field outside of Statesboro, Georgia in preparation for spring planting.
Smoking of fish over an open fire in Ghana, 2018

These are most ly relat ed t o t he burning of fuel.

St at ionary sources include smoke st acks of fossil fuel power st at ions (see for example
environment al impact of t he coal indust ry), manufact uring facilit ies (fact ories) and wast e
incinerat ors, as well as furnaces and ot her t ypes of fuel-burning heat ing devices. In developing
and poor count ries, t radit ional biomass burning is t he major source of air pollut ant s; t radit ional
biomass includes wood, crop wast e and dung.[31][32]

Mobile sources include mot or vehicles, t rains (part icularly diesel locomot ives and DMUs),
marine vessels and aircraft .

Cont rolled burn pract ices in agricult ure and forest management . Cont rolled or prescribed
burning is a t echnique somet imes used in forest management , farming, prairie rest orat ion or
greenhouse gas abat ement . Fire is a nat ural part of bot h forest and grassland ecology and
cont rolled fire can be a t ool for forest ers. Cont rolled burning st imulat es t he germinat ion of
some desirable forest t rees, t hus renewing t he forest .

There are also sources from processes ot her t han combust ion

Fumes from paint , hair spray, varnish, aerosol sprays and ot her solvent s. These can be
subst ant ial; emissions from t hese sources was est imat ed t o account for almost half of
pollut ion from volat ile organic compounds in t he Los Angeles basin in t he 2010s.[33]

Wast e deposit ion in landfills, which generat e met hane. Met hane is highly flammable and may
form explosive mixt ures wit h air. Met hane is also an asphyxiant and may displace oxygen in an
enclosed space. Asphyxia or suffocat ion may result if t he oxygen concent rat ion is reduced t o
below 19.5% by displacement .

Milit ary resources, such as nuclear weapons, t oxic gases, germ warfare and rocket ry.

Fert ilized farmland may be a major source of nit rogen oxides.[34]

Natural sources
Dust storm approaching Stratford, Texas.

Dust from nat ural sources, usually large areas of land wit h lit t le veget at ion or no veget at ion

Met hane, emit t ed by t he digest ion of food by animals, for example cat t le

Radon gas from radioact ive decay wit hin t he Eart h's crust . Radon is a colorless, odorless,
nat urally occurring, radioact ive noble gas t hat is formed from t he decay of radium. It is
considered t o be a healt h hazard. Radon gas from nat ural sources can accumulat e in buildings,
especially in confined areas such as t he basement and it is t he second most frequent cause of
lung cancer, aft er cigaret t e smoking.

Smoke and carbon monoxide from wildfires. During periods of act ive wildfires, smoke from
uncont rolled biomass combust ion can make up almost 75% of all air pollut ion by
concent rat ion.[35]

Veget at ion, in some regions, emit s environment ally significant amount s of volat ile organic
compounds (VOCs) on warmer days. These VOCs react wit h primary ant hropogenic pollut ant s—
specifically, NOx, SO2, and ant hropogenic organic carbon compounds — t o produce a seasonal
haze of secondary pollut ant s.[36] Black gum, poplar, oak and willow are some examples of
veget at ion t hat can produce abundant VOCs. The VOC product ion from t hese species result in
ozone levels up t o eight t imes higher t han t he low-impact t ree species.[37]

Volcanic act ivit y, which produces sulfur, chlorine, and ash part iculat es

Emission factors
Beijing air in 2005 after rain (left) and a smoggy day (right)

Air pollut ant emission fact ors are report ed represent at ive values t hat at t empt t o relat e t he
quant it y of a pollut ant released t o t he ambient air wit h an act ivit y associat ed wit h t he release of
t hat pollut ant . These fact ors are usually expressed as t he weight of pollut ant divided by a unit
weight , volume, dist ance, or durat ion of t he act ivit y emit t ing t he pollut ant (e.g., kilograms of
part iculat e emit t ed per t onne of coal burned). Such fact ors facilit at e est imat ion of emissions
from various sources of air pollut ion. In most cases, t hese fact ors are simply averages of all
available dat a of accept able qualit y, and are generally assumed t o be represent at ive of long-
t erm averages.

There are 12 compounds in t he list of persist ent organic pollut ant s. Dioxins and furans are t wo of
t hem and int ent ionally creat ed by combust ion of organics, like open burning of plast ics. These
compounds are also endocrine disrupt ors and can mut at e t he human genes.

The Unit ed St at es Environment al Prot ect ion Agency has published a compilat ion of air pollut ant
emission fact ors for a wide range of indust rial sources.[38] The Unit ed Kingdom, Aust ralia, Canada
and many ot her count ries have published similar compilat ions, as well as t he European
Environment Agency.[39][40][41][42]

Exposure
Up to 30 % of Europeans living in cities are exposed to air pollutant levels exceeding EU air quality standards. And around
98 % of Europeans living in cities are exposed to levels of air pollutants deemed damaging to health by the World Health
Organization's more stringent guidelines.[43]

Air pollut ion risk is a funct ion of t he hazard of t he pollut ant and t he exposure t o t hat pollut ant .
Air pollut ion exposure can be expressed for an individual, for cert ain groups (e.g. neighborhoods or
children living in a count ry), or for ent ire populat ions. For example, one may want t o calculat e t he
exposure t o a hazardous air pollut ant for a geographic area, which includes t he various
microenvironment s and age groups. This can be calculat ed[2] as an inhalat ion exposure. This
would account for daily exposure in various set t ings (e.g. different indoor micro-environment s
and out door locat ions). The exposure needs t o include different age and ot her demographic
groups, especially infant s, children, pregnant women and ot her sensit ive subpopulat ions. The
exposure t o an air pollut ant must int egrat e t he concent rat ions of t he air pollut ant wit h respect
t o t he t ime spent in each set t ing and t he respect ive inhalat ion rat es for each subgroup for each
specific t ime t hat t he subgroup is in t he set t ing and engaged in part icular act ivit ies (playing,
cooking, reading, working, spending t ime in t raffic, et c.). For example, a small child's inhalat ion rat e
will be less t han t hat of an adult . A child engaged in vigorous exercise will have a higher
respirat ion rat e t han t he same child in a sedent ary act ivit y. The daily exposure, t hen, needs t o
reflect t he t ime spent in each micro-environment al set t ing and t he t ype of act ivit ies in t hese
set t ings. The air pollut ant concent rat ion in each microact ivit y/microenvironment al set t ing is
summed t o indicat e t he exposure.[2] For some pollut ant s such as black carbon, t raffic relat ed
exposures may dominat e t ot al exposure despit e short exposure t imes since high concent rat ions
coincide wit h proximit y t o major roads or part icipat ion t o (mot orized) t raffic.[44] A large port ion of
t ot al daily exposure occurs as short peaks of high concent rat ions, but it remains unclear how t o
define peaks and det ermine t heir frequency and healt h impact .[45]

Indoor air quality

Air quality monitoring, New Delhi, India.

A lack of vent ilat ion indoors concent rat es air pollut ion where people oft en spend t he majorit y of
t heir t ime. Radon (Rn) gas, a carcinogen, is exuded from t he Eart h in cert ain locat ions and t rapped
inside houses. Building mat erials including carpet ing and plywood emit formaldehyde (H2CO) gas.
Paint and solvent s give off volat ile organic compounds (VOCs) as t hey dry. Lead paint can
degenerat e int o dust and be inhaled. Int ent ional air pollut ion is int roduced wit h t he use of air
fresheners, incense, and ot her scent ed it ems. Cont rolled wood fires in cook st oves and
fireplaces can add significant amount s of harmful smoke part iculat es int o t he air, inside and
out .[46][47] Indoor pollut ion fat alit ies may be caused by using pest icides and ot her chemical
sprays indoors wit hout proper vent ilat ion.

Carbon monoxide poisoning and fat alit ies are oft en caused by fault y vent s and chimneys, or by
t he burning of charcoal indoors or in a confined space, such as a t ent .[48] Chronic carbon monoxide
poisoning can result even from poorly-adjust ed pilot light s. Traps are built int o all domest ic
plumbing t o keep sewer gas and hydrogen sulfide, out of int eriors. Clot hing emit s
t et rachloroet hylene, or ot her dry cleaning fluids, for days aft er dry cleaning.

Though it s use has now been banned in many count ries, t he ext ensive use of asbest os in
indust rial and domest ic environment s in t he past has left a pot ent ially very dangerous mat erial in
many localit ies. Asbest osis is a chronic inflammat ory medical condit ion affect ing t he t issue of
t he lungs. It occurs aft er long-t erm, heavy exposure t o asbest os from asbest os-cont aining
mat erials in st ruct ures. Sufferers have severe dyspnea (short ness of breat h) and are at an
increased risk regarding several different t ypes of lung cancer. As clear explanat ions are not
always st ressed in non-t echnical lit erat ure, care should be t aken t o dist inguish bet ween several
forms of relevant diseases. According t o t he World Healt h Organizat ion (WHO) (ht t ps://web.archi
ve.org/web/20110524203454/ht t p://www.euro.who.int /_ _ dat a/asset s/pdf_ file/0015/123072/A
QG2ndEd_ 6_ 2_ asbest os.PDF) , t hese may be defined as asbest osis, lung cancer, and peritoneal
mesothelioma (generally a very rare form of cancer, when more widespread it is almost always
associat ed wit h prolonged exposure t o asbest os).

Biological sources of air pollut ion are also found indoors, as gases and airborne part iculat es. Pet s
produce dander, people produce dust from minut e skin flakes and decomposed hair, dust mit es in
bedding, carpet ing and furnit ure produce enzymes and micromet re-sized fecal droppings,
inhabit ant s emit met hane, mold forms on walls and generat es mycot oxins and spores, air
condit ioning syst ems can incubat e Legionnaires' disease and mold, and houseplant s, soil and
surrounding gardens can produce pollen, dust , and mold. Indoors, t he lack of air circulat ion allows
t hese airborne pollut ant s t o accumulat e more t han t hey would ot herwise occur in nat ure.

Health effects

Even at levels lower t han t hose considered safe by Unit ed St at es regulat ors, exposure t o t hree
component s of air pollut ion, fine part iculat e mat t er, nit rogen dioxide and ozone, correlat es wit h
cardiac and respirat ory illness.[49] In 2012, air pollut ion caused premat ure deat hs on average of 1
year in Europe, and was a significant risk fact or for a number of pollut ion-relat ed diseases,
including respirat ory infect ions, heart disease, COPD, st roke and lung cancer.[1] The healt h
effect s caused by air pollut ion may include difficult y in breat hing, wheezing, coughing, ast hma[50]
and worsening of exist ing respirat ory and cardiac condit ions. These effect s can result in
increased medicat ion use, increased doct or or emergency depart ment visit s, more hospit al
admissions and premat ure deat h. The human healt h effect s of poor air qualit y are far reaching,
but principally affect t he body's respirat ory syst em and t he cardiovascular syst em. Individual
react ions t o air pollut ant s depend on t he t ype of pollut ant a person is exposed t o, t he degree of
exposure, and t he individual's healt h st at us and genet ics.[2]
The most common sources of air
pollut ion include part iculat es, ozone, nit rogen dioxide, and sulfur dioxide. Children aged less t han
five years t hat live in developing count ries are t he most vulnerable populat ion in t erms of t ot al
deat hs at t ribut able t o indoor and out door air pollut ion.[51]

Mortality
Absolute number of deaths from ambient particulate air pollution[52]

The World Healt h Organizat ion est imat ed in 2014 t hat every year air pollut ion causes t he
premat ure deat h of some 7 million people worldwide.[1] St udies published in March 2019
indicat ed t hat t he number may be around 8.8 million.[53]

India has t he highest deat h rat e due t o air pollut ion.[54] India also has more deat hs from ast hma
t han any ot her nat ion according t o t he World Healt h Organizat ion. In December 2013 air pollut ion
was est imat ed t o kill 500,000 people in China each year.[55] There is a posit ive correlat ion
bet ween pneumonia-relat ed deat hs and air pollut ion from mot or vehicle emissions.[56]

Annual premat ure European deat hs caused by air pollut ion are est imat ed at
430,000[57]-800,000[53] An import ant cause of t hese deat hs is nit rogen dioxide and ot her nit rogen
oxides (NOx) emit t ed by road vehicles.[57] In a 2015 consult at ion document t he UK government
disclosed t hat nit rogen dioxide is responsible for 23,500 premat ure UK deat hs per annum.[58]
Across t he European Union, air pollut ion is est imat ed t o reduce life expect ancy by almost nine
mont hs.[59] Causes of deat hs include st rokes, heart disease, COPD, lung cancer, and lung
infect ions.[1]

Urban out door air pollut ion is est imat ed t o cause 1.3 million deat hs worldwide per year. Children
are part icularly at risk due t o t he immat urit y of t heir respirat ory organ syst ems.[60]

The US EPA est imat ed in 2004 t hat a proposed set of changes in diesel engine t echnology (Tier
2) could result in 12,000 fewer premature mortalities, 15,000 fewer heart at t acks, 6,000 fewer
emergency depart ment visit s by children wit h ast hma, and 8,900 fewer respirat ory-relat ed
hospit al admissions each year in t he Unit ed St at es.[61]
The US EPA has est imat ed t hat limit ing ground-level ozone concent rat ion t o 65 part s per billion,
would avert 1,700 t o 5,100 premat ure deat hs nat ionwide in 2020 compared wit h t he 75-ppb
st andard. The agency project ed t he more prot ect ive st andard would also prevent an addit ional
26,000 cases of aggravat ed ast hma, and more t han a million cases of missed work or
school.[62][63] Following t his assessment , t he EPA act ed t o prot ect public healt h by lowering t he
Nat ional Ambient Air Qualit y St andards (NAAQS) for ground-level ozone t o 70 part s per billion
(ppb).[64]

A new economic st udy of t he healt h impact s and associat ed cost s of air pollut ion in t he Los
Angeles Basin and San Joaquin Valley of Sout hern California shows t hat more t han 3,800 people
die premat urely (approximat ely 14 years earlier t han normal) each year because air pollut ion
levels violat e federal st andards. The number of annual premat ure deat hs is considerably higher
t han t he fat alit ies relat ed t o aut o collisions in t he same area, which average fewer t han 2,000 per
year.[65][66][67]

Diesel exhaust (DE) is a major cont ribut or t o combust ion-derived part iculat e mat t er air pollut ion.
In several human experiment al st udies, using a well-validat ed exposure chamber set up, DE has
been linked t o acut e vascular dysfunct ion and increased t hrombus format ion.[68][69]

The mechanisms linking air pollut ion t o increased cardiovascular mort alit y are uncert ain, but
probably include pulmonary and syst emic inflammat ion.[70]

A st udy by Greenpeace est imat es t here are 4.5 million annual premat ure deat hs worldwide
because of pollut ant s released by high-emission power st at ions and vehicle exhaust s, 65,000
deat hs occur in t he Middle East each year due t o pollut ion.[71] A st udy by scient ist s of U.K. and
U.S. universit ies t hat uses a high spat ial resolut ion model and an updat ed concent rat ion-response
funct ion concluded in 2021 t hat 10.2 million global excess deat hs in 2012 and 8.7 million in 2018
– or a fift h – were due t o air pollut ion generat ed by fossil fuel combust ion, significant ly higher
t han earlier est imat es and wit h spat ially subdivided mort alit y impact s.[72][73]

Cardiovascular disease

A 2007 review of evidence found t hat , ambient air pollut ion exposure is a risk fact or correlat ing
wit h increased t ot al mort alit y from cardiovascular event s (range: 12% t o 14% per 10 µg/m3
increase).[74]

Air pollut ion is also emerging as a risk fact or for st roke, part icularly in developing count ries where
pollut ant levels are highest .[75] A 2007 st udy found t hat in women, air pollut ion is not associat ed
wit h hemorrhagic but wit h ischemic st roke.[76] Air pollut ion was also found t o be associat ed wit h
increased incidence and mort alit y from coronary st roke in a cohort st udy in 2011.[77] Associat ions
are believed t o be causal and effect s may be mediat ed by vasoconst rict ion, low-grade
inflammat ion and at herosclerosis[78] Ot her mechanisms such as aut onomic nervous syst em
imbalance have also been suggest ed.[79][80]

Lung disease

Research has demonst rat ed increased risk of developing ast hma[81] and COPD [82] from increased
exposure t o t raffic-relat ed air pollut ion. Addit ionally, air pollut ion has been associat ed wit h
increased hospit alizat ion and mort alit y from ast hma and COPD.[83][84] Chronic obst ruct ive
pulmonary disease (COPD) includes diseases such as chronic bronchit is and emphysema.[85]

A st udy conduct ed in 1960–1961 in t he wake of t he Great Smog of 1952 compared 293 London
resident s wit h 477 resident s of Gloucest er, Pet erborough, and Norwich, t hree t owns wit h low
report ed deat h rat es from chronic bronchit is. All subject s were male post al t ruck drivers aged 40
t o 59. Compared t o t he subject s from t he out lying t owns, t he London subject s exhibit ed more
severe respirat ory sympt oms (including cough, phlegm, and dyspnea), reduced lung funct ion
(FEV1 and peak flow rat e), and increased sput um product ion and purulence. The differences were
more pronounced for subject s aged 50 t o 59. The st udy cont rolled for age and smoking habit s,
so concluded t hat air pollut ion was t he most likely cause of t he observed differences.[86]
More
recent st udies have shown t hat air pollut ion exposure from t raffic reduces lung funct ion
development in children[87] and lung funct ion may be compromised by air pollut ion even at low
concent rat ions.[88] Air pollut ion exposure also cause lung cancer in non smokers.

It is believed t hat much like cyst ic fibrosis, by living in a more urban environment serious healt h
hazards become more apparent . St udies have shown t hat in urban areas pat ient s suffer mucus
hypersecret ion, lower levels of lung funct ion, and more self-diagnosis of chronic bronchit is and
emphysema.[89]

Cancer (lung cancer)

Unprotected exposure to PM2.5 air pollution can be equivalent to smoking multiple cigarettes per day,[90] potentially
increasing the risk of cancer, which is mainly the result of environmental factors.[91]

A review of evidence regarding whet her ambient air pollut ion exposure is a risk fact or for cancer
in 2007 found solid dat a t o conclude t hat long-t erm exposure t o PM2.5 (fine part iculat es)
increases t he overall risk of non-accident al mort alit y by 6% per a 10 microg/m3 increase.
Exposure t o PM2.5 was also associat ed wit h an increased risk of mort alit y from lung cancer
(range: 15% t o 21% per 10 microg/m3 increase) and t ot al cardiovascular mort alit y (range: 12% t o
14% per a 10 microg/m3 increase). The review furt her not ed t hat living close t o busy t raffic
appears t o be associat ed wit h elevat ed risks of t hese t hree out comes – increase in lung cancer
deat hs, cardiovascular deat hs, and overall non-accident al deat hs. The reviewers also found
suggest ive evidence t hat exposure t o PM2.5 is posit ively associat ed wit h mort alit y from
coronary heart diseases and exposure t o SO2 increases mort alit y from lung cancer, but t he dat a
was insufficient t o provide solid conclusions.[92] Anot her invest igat ion showed t hat higher act ivit y
level increases deposit ion fract ion of aerosol part icles in human lung and recommended avoiding
heavy act ivit ies like running in out door space at pollut ed areas.[93]

In 2011, a large Danish epidemiological st udy found an increased risk of lung cancer for pat ient s
who lived in areas wit h high nit rogen oxide concent rat ions. In t his st udy, t he associat ion was
higher for non-smokers t han smokers.[94] An addit ional Danish st udy, also in 2011, likewise not ed
evidence of possible associat ions bet ween air pollut ion and ot her forms of cancer, including
cervical cancer and brain cancer.[95]

Children
In t he Unit ed St at es, despit e t he passage of t he Clean Air Act in 1970, in 2002 at least 146
million Americans were living in non-at t ainment areas—regions in which t he concent rat ion of
cert ain air pollut ant s exceeded federal st andards.[96] These dangerous pollut ant s are known as
t he crit eria pollut ant s, and include ozone, part iculat e mat t er, sulfur dioxide, nit rogen dioxide,
carbon monoxide, and lead. Prot ect ive measures t o ensure children's healt h are being t aken in
cit ies such as New Delhi, India where buses now use compressed nat ural gas t o help eliminat e
t he "pea-soup" smog.[97] A recent st udy in Europe has found t hat exposure t o ult rafine part icles
can increase blood pressure in children.[98]
According t o a WHO report -2018, pollut ed air leads t o
t he poisoning of millions of children under t he age of 15, result ing in t he deat h of some six
hundred t housand children annually.[99]

Prenat al exposure t o pollut ed air has been linked t o a variet y of neurodevelopment al disorders in
children. For example, exposure t o polycyclic aromat ic hydrocarbons (PAH) was associat ed wit h
reduced IQ scores and sympt oms of anxiet y and depression.[100] A 2014 st udy found t hat PAHs
might play a role in t he development of childhood At t ent ion Deficit Hyperact ivit y Disorder
(ADHD).[101] Researchers have also begun t o find evidence for air pollut ion as a risk fact or for
aut ism spect rum disorder (ASD). In Los Angeles, children who were living in areas wit h high levels
of t raffic-relat ed air pollut ion were more likely t o be diagnosed wit h aut ism bet ween 3-5 years of
age.[102] The connect ion bet ween air pollut ion and neurodevelopment al disorders in children is
t hought t o be relat ed t o epigenet ic dysregulat ion of t he primordial germ cells, embryo, and fet us
during a crit ical period. Some PAHs are considered endocrine disrupt ors and are lipid soluble.
When t hey build up in adipose t issue, t hey can be t ransferred across t he placent a.[103]

Infants

Ambient levels of air pollut ion have been associat ed wit h pret erm birt h and low birt h weight . A
2014 WHO worldwide survey on mat ernal and perinat al healt h found a st at ist ically significant
associat ion bet ween low birt h weight s (LBW) and increased levels of exposure t o PM2.5.
Women in regions wit h great er t han average PM2.5 levels had st at ist ically significant higher odds
of pregnancy result ing in a low-birt h weight infant even when adjust ed for count ry-relat ed
variables.[104] The effect is t hought t o be from st imulat ing inflammat ion and increasing oxidat ive
st ress.

A st udy by t he Universit y of York found t hat in 2010 exposure t o PM2.5 was st rongly associat ed
wit h 18% of pret erm birt hs globally, which was approximat ely 2.7 million premat ure birt hs. The
count ries wit h t he highest air pollut ion associat ed pret erm birt hs were in Sout h and East Asia,
t he Middle East , Nort h Africa, and West sub-Saharan Africa.[105]
The source of PM 2.5 differs great ly by region. In Sout h and East Asia, pregnant women are
frequent ly exposed t o indoor air pollut ion because of wood and ot her biomass fuels being used
for cooking, which are responsible for more t han 80% of regional pollut ion. In t he Middle East ,
Nort h Africa and West sub-Saharan Africa, fine PM comes from nat ural sources, such as dust
st orms.[105] The Unit ed St at es had an est imat ed 50,000 pret erm birt hs associat ed wit h exposure
t o PM2.5 in 2010.[105]

A st udy performed by Wang, et al. bet ween t he years of 1988 and 1991 has found a correlat ion
bet ween sulfur dioxide (SO2) and t ot al suspended part iculat es (TSP) and pret erm birt hs and low
birt h weight s in Beijing. A group of 74,671 pregnant women, in four separat e regions of Beijing,
were monit ored from early pregnancy t o delivery along wit h daily air pollut ion levels of sulfur
Dioxide and TSP (along wit h ot her part iculat es). The est imat ed reduct ion in birt h weight was 7.3
g for every 100 µg/m3 increase in SO2 and 6.9 g for each 100 µg/m3 increase in TSP. These
associat ions were st at ist ically significant in bot h summer and wint er, alt hough, summer was
great er. The proport ion of low birt h weight at t ribut able t o air pollut ion, was 13%. This is t he
largest at t ribut able risk ever report ed for t he known risk fact ors of low birt h weight .[106] Coal
st oves, which are in 97% of homes, are a major source of air pollut ion in t his area.

Brauer et al. st udied t he relat ionship bet ween air pollut ion and proximit y t o a highway wit h
pregnancy out comes in a Vancouver cohort of pregnant woman using addresses t o est imat e
exposure during pregnancy. Exposure t o NO, NO2, CO PM10 and PM2.5 were associat ed wit h
infant s born small for gest at ional age (SGA). Women living less t han 50 met ers away from an
expressway or highway were 26% more likely t o give birt h t o a SGA infant .[107]

"Clean" areas

Even in areas wit h relat ively low levels of air pollut ion, public healt h effect s can be significant
and cost ly, since a large number of people breat he in such pollut ant s. A st udy published in 2017
found t hat even in areas of t he U.S. where ozone and PM2.5 meet federal st andards, Medicare
recipient s who are exposed t o more air pollut ion have higher mort alit y rat es.[108] A 2005 scient ific
st udy for t he Brit ish Columbia Lung Associat ion showed t hat a small improvement in air qualit y
(1% reduct ion of ambient PM2.5 and ozone concent rat ions) would produce $29 million in annual
savings in t he Met ro Vancouver region in 2010.[109] This finding is based on healt h valuat ion of
let hal (deat h) and sub-let hal (illness) affect s.

In 2020, scient ist s found t hat t he boundary layer air over t he Sout hern Ocean around Ant arct ica
is unpollut ed by humans.[110]
Central nervous system

Dat a is accumulat ing t hat air pollut ion exposure also affect s t he cent ral nervous syst em.[111]

In a June 2014 st udy conduct ed by researchers at t he Universit y of Rochest er Medical Cent er,
published in t he journal Environmental Health Perspectives, it was discovered t hat early exposure
t o air pollut ion causes t he same damaging changes in t he brain as aut ism and schizophrenia. The
st udy also shows t hat air pollut ion also affect ed short -t erm memory, learning abilit y, and
impulsivit y. Lead researcher Professor Deborah Cory-Slecht a said t hat "When we looked closely
at t he vent ricles, we could see t hat t he whit e mat t er t hat normally surrounds t hem hadn't fully
developed. It appears t hat inflammat ion had damaged t hose brain cells and prevent ed t hat
region of t he brain from developing, and t he vent ricles simply expanded t o fill t he space. Our
findings add t o t he growing body of evidence t hat air pollut ion may play a role in aut ism, as well
as in ot her neurodevelopment al disorders." In a st udy of mice, air pollut ion also has a more
significant negat ive effect on males t han on females.[112][113][114]

In 2015, experiment al st udies report ed t he det ect ion of significant episodic (sit uat ional)
cognit ive impairment from impurit ies in indoor air breat hed by t est subject s who were not
informed about changes in t he air qualit y. Researchers at t he Harvard Universit y and SUNY
Upst at e Medical Universit y and Syracuse Universit y measured t he cognit ive performance of 24
part icipant s in t hree different cont rolled laborat ory at mospheres t hat simulat ed t hose found in
"convent ional" and "green" buildings, as well as green buildings wit h enhanced vent ilat ion.
Performance was evaluat ed object ively using t he widely used St rat egic Management Simulat ion
soft ware simulat ion t ool, which is a well-validat ed assessment t est for execut ive decision-
making in an unconst rained sit uat ion allowing init iat ive and improvisat ion. Significant deficit s were
observed in t he performance scores achieved in increasing concent rat ions of eit her volat ile
organic compounds (VOCs) or carbon dioxide, while keeping ot her fact ors const ant . The highest
impurit y levels reached are not uncommon in some classroom or office environment s.[115][116] Air
pollut ion increases t he risk of dement ia in people over 50 years old.[117]

Agricultural effects

In India in 2014, it was report ed t hat air pollut ion by black carbon and ground level ozone had
reduced crop yields in t he most affect ed areas by almost half in 2011 when compared t o 1980
levels.[118]

Economic effects
Air pollut ion cost s t he world economy $5 t rillion per year as a result of product ivit y losses and
degraded qualit y of life, according t o a joint st udy by t he World Bank and t he Inst it ut e for Healt h
Met rics and Evaluat ion (IHME) at t he Universit y of Washingt on.[12][13][14] These product ivit y
losses are caused by deat hs due t o diseases caused by air pollut ion. One out of t en deat hs in
2013 was caused by diseases associat ed wit h air pollut ion and t he problem is get t ing worse. The
problem is even more acut e in t he developing world. "Children under age 5 in lower-income
count ries are more t han 60 t imes as likely t o die from exposure t o air pollut ion as children in high-
income count ries."[12][13] The report st at es t hat addit ional economic losses caused by air
pollut ion, including healt h cost s[119] and t he adverse effect on agricult ural and ot her product ivit y
were not calculat ed in t he report , and t hus t he act ual cost s t o t he world economy are far higher
t han $5 t rillion.

Other effects

Artist's illustration of an advanced ET civilization with industrial pollution

Art ificial air pollut ion may be det ect able on Eart h from dist ant vant age point s such as ot her
planet ary syst ems via at mospheric SETI – including NO2 pollut ion levels and wit h t elescopic
t echnology close t o t oday. It may also be possible t o det ect ext rat errest rial civilizat ions t his
way.[120][121][122]
 Historical disasters

The world's worst short -t erm civilian pollut ion crisis was t he 1984 Bhopal Disast er in India.[123]
Leaked indust rial vapours from t he Union Carbide fact ory, belonging t o Union Carbide, Inc., U.S.A.
(lat er bought by Dow Chemical Company), killed at least 3787 people and injured from 150,000 t o
600,000. The Unit ed Kingdom suffered it s worst air pollut ion event when t he 4 December Great
Smog of 1952 formed over London. In six days more t han 4,000 died and more recent est imat es
put t he figure at nearer 12,000.[124] An accident al leak of ant hrax spores from a biological
warfare laborat ory in t he former USSR in 1979 near Sverdlovsk is believed t o have caused at
least 64 deat hs.[125] The worst single incident of air pollut ion t o occur in t he US occurred in
Donora, Pennsylvania in lat e Oct ober 1948, when 20 people died and over 7,000 were injured.[126]

Alternatives to pollution

There are now pract ical alt ernat ives t o t he principal causes of air pollut ion:

Areas downwind (over 20 miles) of major airport s have more t han double total particulate
emissions in air t han ot her areas, even when fact oring in areas wit h frequent ship calls, and
heavy freeway and cit y t raffic like Los Angeles.[127] Aviat ion biofuel mixed in wit h jet fuel at a
50/50 rat io can reduce jet derived cruise alt it ude part iculat e emissions by 50–70%, according
t o a NASA led 2017 st udy (however, t his should imply ground level benefit s t o urban air
pollut ion as well).[128]

Ship propulsion and idling can be swit ched t o much cleaner fuels like nat ural gas. (Ideally a
renewable source but not pract ical yet )

Combust ion of fossil fuels for space heat ing can be replaced by using ground source heat
pumps and seasonal t hermal energy st orage.[129]

Elect ric power generat ion from burning fossil fuels can be replaced by power generat ion from
nuclear and renewable. For poor nat ions, heat ing and home st oves t hat cont ribut e much t o
regional air pollut ion can be replaced by a much cleaner fossil fuel like nat ural gas, or ideally,
renewables.

Mot or vehicles driven by fossil fuels, a key fact or in urban air pollut ion, can be replaced by
elect ric vehicles. Though lit hium supply and cost is a limit at ion, t here are alt ernat ives. Herding
more people int o clean public t ransit such as elect ric t rains can also help. Nevert heless, even
in emission-free elect ric vehicles, rubber t ires produce significant amount s of air pollut ion
t hemselves, ranking as 13t h worst pollut ant in Los Angeles.[130]
 Reducing t ravel in vehicles can curb pollut ion. Aft er St ockholm reduced vehicle t raffic in t he
cent ral cit y wit h a congest ion t ax, nit rogen dioxide and PM10 pollut ion declined, as did acut e
pediat ric ast hma at t acks.[131]

Biodigest ers can be ut ilized in poor nat ions where slash and burn is prevalent , t urning a useless
commodit y int o a source of income. The plant s can be gat hered and sold t o a cent ral aut horit y
t hat will break it down in a large modern biodigest er, producing much needed energy t o use.

Induced humidit y and vent ilat ion bot h can great ly dampen air pollut ion in enclosed spaces,
which was found t o be relat ively high inside subway lines due t o braking and frict ion and
relat ively less ironically inside t ransit buses t han lower sit t ing passenger aut omobiles or
subways.[132]

Reduction efforts

Various pollut ion cont rol t echnologies and st rat egies are available t o reduce air pollut ion.[15][16]
At it s most basic level, land-use planning is likely t o involve zoning and t ransport infrast ruct ure
planning. In most developed count ries, land-use planning is an import ant part of social policy,
ensuring t hat land is used efficient ly for t he benefit of t he wider economy and populat ion, as well
as t o prot ect t he environment .

Because a large share of air pollut ion is caused by combust ion of fossil fuels such as coal and oil,
t he reduct ion of t hese fuels can reduce air pollut ion drast ically. Most effect ive is t he swit ch t o
clean power sources such as wind power, solar power, hydro power which don't cause air
pollut ion.[133] Effort s t o reduce pollut ion from mobile sources includes primary regulat ion (many
developing count ries have permissive regulat ions), expanding regulat ion t o new sources (such as
cruise and t ransport ships, farm equipment , and small gas-powered equipment such as st ring
t rimmers, chainsaws, and snowmobiles), increased fuel efficiency (such as t hrough t he use of
hybrid vehicles), conversion t o cleaner fuels or conversion t o elect ric vehicles.

Tit anium dioxide has been researched for it s abilit y t o reduce air pollut ion. Ult raviolet light will
release free elect rons from mat erial, t hereby creat ing free radicals, which break up VOCs and
NOx gases. One form is superhydrophilic.[134]

In 2014, Prof. Tony Ryan and Prof. Simon Armit age of Universit y of Sheffield prepared a 10 met er
by 20 met er-sized post er coat ed wit h microscopic, pollut ion-eat ing nanopart icles of t it anium
dioxide. Placed on a building, t his giant post er can absorb t he t oxic emission from around 20 cars
each day.[135]
A very effect ive means t o reduce air pollut ion is t he t ransit ion t o renewable energy. According t o
a st udy published in Energy and Environment al Science in 2015 t he swit ch t o 100% renewable
energy in t he Unit ed St at es would eliminat e about 62,000 premat ure mort alit ies per year and
about 42,000 in 2050, if no biomass were used. This would save about $600 billion in healt h cost s
a year due t o reduced air pollut ion in 2050, or about 3.6% of t he 2014 U.S. gross domest ic
product .[133]

There is limit ed evidence t hat effort s t o reduce part iculat e mat t er in t he air can result in bet t er
healt h in Africa, t he Middle East , East ern Europe, Cent ral Asia, and Sout heast Asia.[136]

Control devices

Tarps and netting are often used to reduce the amount of dust released from construction sites.

The following it ems are commonly used as pollut ion cont rol devices in indust ry and
t ransport at ion. They can eit her dest roy cont aminant s or remove t hem from an exhaust st ream
before it is emit t ed int o t he at mosphere.

Particulate control
Mechanical collect ors (dust cyclones, mult icyclones)

Elect rost at ic precipit at ors An elect rost at ic precipit at or (ESP), or elect rost at ic air cleaner
is a part iculat e collect ion device t hat removes part icles from a flowing gas (such as air),
using t he force of an induced elect rost at ic charge. Elect rost at ic precipit at ors are highly
efficient filt rat ion devices t hat minimally impede t he flow of gases t hrough t he device,
and can easily remove fine part iculat es such as dust and smoke from t he air st ream.
 Baghouses Designed t o handle heavy dust loads, a dust collect or consist s of a blower,
dust filt er, a filt er-cleaning syst em, and a dust recept acle or dust removal syst em
(dist inguished from air cleaners which ut ilize disposable filt ers t o remove t he dust ).

Part iculat e scrubbers Wet scrubber is a form of pollut ion cont rol t echnology. The t erm
describes a variet y of devices t hat use pollut ant s from a furnace flue gas or from ot her
gas st reams. In a wet scrubber, t he pollut ed gas st ream is brought int o cont act wit h t he
scrubbing liquid, by spraying it wit h t he liquid, by forcing it t hrough a pool of liquid, or by
some ot her cont act met hod, so as t o remove t he pollut ant s.

Scrubbers
Baffle spray scrubber

Cyclonic spray scrubber

Eject or vent uri scrubber

Mechanically aided scrubber

Spray t ower

Wet scrubber

NOx control
Low NOx burners

Select ive cat alyt ic reduct ion (SCR)

Select ive non-cat alyt ic reduct ion (SNCR)

NOx scrubbers

Exhaust gas recirculat ion

Cat alyt ic convert er (also for VOC cont rol)

VOC abatement
Adsorpt ion syst ems, using act ivat ed carbon, such as Fluidized Bed Concent rat or

Flares

Thermal oxidizers

Cat alyt ic convert ers

Biofilt ers

Absorpt ion (scrubbing)

Cryogenic condensers

Vapor recovery syst ems

Acid Gas/SO 2 control

Wet scrubbers

Dry scrubbers

Flue-gas desulfurizat ion

Mercury control
Sorbent Inject ion Technology

Elect ro-Cat alyt ic Oxidat ion (ECO)

K-Fuel

Dioxin and furan control

Miscellaneous associated equipment

Source capt uring syst ems

Cont inuous emissions monit oring syst ems (CEMS)

Regulations
Smog in Cairo

In general, t here are t wo t ypes of air qualit y st andards. The first class of st andards (such as t he
U.S. Nat ional Ambient Air Qualit y St andards and E.U. Air Qualit y Direct ive (ht t ps://web.archive.org/
web/20110511090225/ht t p://ec.europa.eu/environment /air/qualit y/legislat ion/direct ive.ht m) )
set maximum at mospheric concent rat ions for specific pollut ant s. Environment al agencies enact
regulat ions which are int ended t o result in at t ainment of t hese t arget levels. The second class
(such as t he Nort h American air qualit y index) t ake t he form of a scale wit h various t hresholds,
which is used t o communicat e t o t he public t he relat ive risk of out door act ivit y. The scale may or
may not dist inguish bet ween different pollut ant s.

Canada

In Canada, air pollut ion and associat ed healt h risks are measured wit h t he Air Qualit y Healt h Index
or (AQHI). It is a healt h prot ect ion t ool used t o make decisions t o reduce short -t erm exposure t o
air pollut ion by adjust ing act ivit y levels during increased levels of air pollut ion.

The Air Qualit y Healt h Index or "AQHI" is a federal program joint ly coordinat ed by Healt h Canada
and Environment Canada. However, t he AQHI program would not be possible wit hout t he
commit ment and support of t he provinces, municipalit ies and NGOs. From air qualit y monit oring
t o healt h risk communicat ion and communit y engagement , local part ners are responsible for t he
vast majorit y of work relat ed t o AQHI implement at ion. The AQHI provides a number from 1 t o
10+ t o indicat e t he level of healt h risk associat ed wit h local air qualit y. Occasionally, when t he
amount of air pollut ion is abnormally high, t he number may exceed 10. The AQHI provides a local
air qualit y current value as well as a local air qualit y maximums forecast for t oday, t onight and
t omorrow and provides associat ed healt h advice.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 +
Risk:Low (1–3) Moderat e (4–6) High (7–10) Very high (above 10)

As it is now known t hat even low levels of air pollut ion can t rigger discomfort for t he sensit ive
populat ion, t he index has been developed as a cont inuum: The higher t he number, t he great er t he
healt h risk and need t o t ake precaut ions. The index describes t he level of healt h risk associat ed
wit h t his number as 'low', 'moderat e', 'high' or 'very high', and suggest s st eps t hat can be t aken t o
reduce exposure.[137]

Air
Health Messages [138]
Health Quality
Risk Health
At Risk population General Population
Index

Low 1–3 Enjoy your usual out door act ivit ies. Ideal air qualit y for out door act ivit ies

No need to modify your usual

Consider reducing or rescheduling
out door act ivit ies unless you
Moderate 4–6 st renuous act ivit ies out doors if you
experience sympt oms such as
are experiencing sympt oms.
coughing and t hroat irrit at ion.

Consider reducing or rescheduling

Reduce or reschedule st renuous
st renuous act ivit ies out doors if you
High 7–10 act ivit ies out doors. Children and t he
experience sympt oms such as
elderly should also t ake it easy.
coughing and t hroat irrit at ion.

Avoid st renuous act ivit ies out doors. Reduce or reschedule st renuous
Above Children and t he elderly should also act ivit ies out doors, especially if you
Very high
10 avoid out door physical exert ion and experience sympt oms such as
should st ay indoors. coughing and t hroat irrit at ion.

The measurement is based on t he observed relat ionship of nit rogen dioxide (NO2), ground-level
ozone (O3) and part iculat es (PM2.5) wit h mort alit y, from an analysis of several Canadian cit ies.
Significant ly, all t hree of t hese pollut ant s can pose healt h risks, even at low levels of exposure,
especially among t hose wit h pre-exist ing healt h problems.

When developing t he AQHI, Healt h Canada's original analysis of healt h effect s included five major
air pollut ant s: part iculat es, ozone, and nit rogen dioxide (NO2), as well as sulfur dioxide (SO2), and
carbon monoxide (CO). The lat t er t wo pollut ant s provided lit t le informat ion in predict ing healt h
effect s and were removed from t he AQHI formulat ion.

The AQHI does not measure t he effect s of odour, pollen, dust , heat or humidit y.
Germany

TA Luft is t he German air qualit y regulat ion.

Hotspots

Air pollut ion hot spot s are areas where air pollut ion emissions expose individuals t o increased
negat ive healt h effect s.[139] They are part icularly common in highly populat ed, urban areas, where
t here may be a combinat ion of st at ionary sources (e.g. indust rial facilit ies) and mobile sources
(e.g. cars and t rucks) of pollut ion. Emissions from t hese sources can cause respirat ory disease,
childhood ast hma,[50] cancer, and ot her healt h problems. Fine part iculat e mat t er such as diesel
soot , which cont ribut es t o more t han 3.2 million premat ure deat hs around t he world each year, is
a significant problem. It is very small and can lodge it self wit hin t he lungs and ent er t he
bloodst ream. Diesel soot is concent rat ed in densely populat ed areas, and one in six people in t he
U.S. live near a diesel pollut ion hot spot .[140]

External video

AirVisual Earth (https://airvisual.com/earth) – realtime map of global wind and air pollution[141]

While air pollut ion hot spot s affect a variet y of populat ions, some groups are more likely t o be
locat ed in hot spot s. Previous st udies have shown disparit ies in exposure t o pollut ion by race
and/or income. Hazardous land uses (t oxic st orage and disposal facilit ies, manufact uring
facilit ies, major roadways) t end t o be locat ed where propert y values and income levels are low.
Low socioeconomic st at us can be a proxy for ot her kinds of social vulnerabilit y, including race, a
lack of abilit y t o influence regulat ion and a lack of abilit y t o move t o neighborhoods wit h less
environment al pollut ion. These communit ies bear a disproport ionat e burden of environment al
pollut ion and are more likely t o face healt h risks such as cancer or ast hma.[142]

St udies show t hat pat t erns in race and income disparit ies not only indicat e a higher exposure t o
pollut ion but also higher risk of adverse healt h out comes.[143] Communit ies charact erized by low
socioeconomic st at us and racial minorit ies can be more vulnerable t o cumulat ive adverse healt h
impact s result ing from elevat ed exposure t o pollut ant s t han more privileged communit ies.[143]
Blacks and Lat inos generally face more pollut ion t han whit es and Asians, and low-income
communit ies bear a higher burden of risk t han affluent ones.[142] Racial discrepancies are
part icularly dist inct in suburban areas of t he Sout hern Unit ed St at es and met ropolit an areas of
t he Midwest ern and West ern Unit ed St at es.[144] Resident s in public housing, who are generally
low-income and cannot move t o healt hier neighborhoods, are highly affect ed by nearby refineries
and chemical plant s.[145]

Cities

Nitrogen dioxide concentrations as measured from satellite 2002–2004

Deaths from air pollution in 2004

 Most polluted cities by PM[146]

Particulate

matter,
City
μg/m3 (2016)

173 Kanpur, India

172 Faridabad, India

149 Gaya, India

146 Varanasi, India

144 Pat na, India

143 Dehli, India

138 Lucknow, India

132 Bamenda, Cameroon

131 Agra, India

Air pollut ion is usually concent rat ed in densely populat ed met ropolit an areas, especially in
developing count ries where environment al regulat ions are relat ively lax or nonexist ent .[147]
However, even populat ed areas in developed count ries at t ain unhealt hy levels of pollut ion, wit h
Los Angeles and Rome being t wo examples.[148] Bet ween 2002 and 2011 t he incidence of lung
cancer in Beijing near doubled. While smoking remains t he leading cause of lung cancer in China,
t he number of smokers is falling while lung cancer rat es are rising.[149]

Governing urban air pollution

In Europe, Council Direct ive 96/62/EC on ambient air qualit y assessment and management
provides a common st rat egy against which member st at es can "set object ives for ambient air
qualit y in order t o avoid, prevent or reduce harmful effect s on human healt h and t he environment
... and improve air qualit y where it is unsat isfact ory".[150]

On 25 July 2008 in t he case Diet er Janecek v Freist aat Bayern, t he European Court of Just ice
ruled t hat under t his direct ive [150] cit izens have t he right t o require nat ional aut horit ies t o
implement a short t erm act ion plan t hat aims t o maint ain or achieve compliance t o air qualit y
limit values.[151][152]
This import ant case law appears t o confirm t he role of t he EC as cent ralised regulat or t o
European nat ion-st at es as regards air pollut ion cont rol. It places a supranat ional legal obligat ion
on t he UK t o prot ect it s cit izens from dangerous levels of air pollut ion, furt hermore superseding
nat ional int erest s wit h t hose of t he cit izen.

In 2010, t he European Commission (EC) t hreat ened t he UK wit h legal act ion against t he
successive breaching of PM10 limit values.[153] The UK government has ident ified t hat if fines
are imposed, t hey could cost t he nat ion upwards of £300 million per year.[154]

In March 2011, t he Great er London Built -up Area remains t he only UK region in breach of t he EC's
limit values, and has been given 3 mont hs t o implement an emergency act ion plan aimed at
meet ing t he EU Air Qualit y Direct ive.[155] The Cit y of London has dangerous levels of PM10
concent rat ions, est imat ed t o cause 3000 deat hs per year wit hin t he cit y.[156] As well as t he
t hreat of EU fines, in 2010 it was t hreat ened wit h legal act ion for scrapping t he west ern
congest ion charge zone, which is claimed t o have led t o an increase in air pollut ion levels.[157]

In response t o t hese charges, Boris Johnson, Mayor of London, has crit icised t he current need
for European cit ies t o communicat e wit h Europe t hrough t heir nat ion st at e's cent ral government ,
arguing t hat in fut ure "A great cit y like London" should be permit t ed t o bypass it s government
and deal direct ly wit h t he European Commission regarding it s air qualit y act ion plan.[155]

This can be int erpret ed as recognit ion t hat cit ies can t ranscend t he t radit ional nat ional
government organisat ional hierarchy and develop solut ions t o air pollut ion using global
governance net works, for example t hrough t ransnat ional relat ions. Transnat ional relat ions include
but are not exclusive t o nat ional government s and int ergovernment al organisat ions,[158] allowing
sub-nat ional act ors including cit ies and regions t o part ake in air pollut ion cont rol as independent
act ors.

Part icularly promising at present are global cit y part nerships.[159] These can be built int o
net works, for example t he C40 Cit ies Climat e Leadership Group, of which London is a member.
The C40 is a public 'non-st at e' net work of t he world's leading cit ies t hat aims t o curb t heir
greenhouse emissions.[159] The C40 has been ident ified as 'governance from t he middle' and is an
alt ernat ive t o int ergovernment al policy.[160] It has t he pot ent ial t o improve urban air qualit y as
part icipat ing cit ies "exchange informat ion, learn from best pract ices and consequent ly mit igat e
carbon dioxide emissions independent ly from nat ional government decisions".[159] A crit icism of
t he C40 net work is t hat it s exclusive nat ure limit s influence t o part icipat ing cit ies and risks
drawing resources away from less powerful cit y and regional act ors.
 Projections

According t o one project ion, by 2030 half of t he world's pollut ion emissions could be generat ed
by Africa.[161] Pot ent ial cont ribut ors t o such an out come include increased burning act ivit ies
(such as t he burning of open wast e), t raffic, agri-food and chemical indust ries, sand dust from t he
Sahara, and overall populat ion growt h.

See also

Air pollutant concentrations

Air stagnation

ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution

Asian brown cloud

Atmospheric chemistry

Beehive burner

BenMAP

Best Available Control Technology

Critical load

Emission standard

Emissions & Generation Resource Integrated Database

Environmental agreement

Flue-gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion

Global Atmosphere Watch

Global dimming

Great Smog of London

Haze

Health Effects Institute (HEI)

Indicator value

Intake fraction

International Agency for Research on Cancer

Kyoto Protocol

Light water reactor sustainability

List of smogs by death toll

Lowest Achievable Emissions Rate

Montreal Protocol

NASA Clean Air Study

Non-exhaust emissions

Organic molecular tracers

Particulate matter sampler

Polluter pays principle

Regulation of greenhouse gases under the Clean Air Act

Tire fire

 Global warming port al

 Environment port al

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Further reading

Brimblecombe, Pet er. The Big Smoke: A History of Air Pollution in London Since Medieval
Times (Met huen, 1987)

Brimblecombe, Pet er. "Hist ory of air pollut ion." in Composition, Chemistry and Climate of the
Atmosphere (Van Nost rand Reinhold (1995): 1–18

Brimblecombe, Pet er; Makra, László (2005). "Select ions from t he hist ory of environment al
pollut ion, wit h special at t ent ion t o air pollut ion. Part 2*: From medieval t imes t o t he 19t h
cent ury". International Journal of Environment and Pollution. 23 (4): 351–67.
doi:10.1504/ijep.2005.007599 (ht t ps://doi.org/10.1504%2Fijep.2005.007599) .

Cherni, Judit h A. Economic Growth versus the Environment: The Politics of Wealth, Health and
Air Pollution (2002) online (ht t ps://www.quest ia.com/library/102251606/economic-growt h-ver
sus-t he-environment -t he-polit ics)

Cort on, Christ ine L. London Fog: The Biography (2015)

Currie, Donya. "WHO: Air Pollut ion a Cont inuing Healt h Threat in World's Cit ies," The Nation's
Health (February 2012) 42#1 online (ht t ps://www.quest ia.com/art icle/1G1-280406027/who-air
-pollut ion-a-cont inuing-healt h-t hreat -in-world-s)

Dewey, Scot t Hamilt on. Don't Breathe the Air: Air Pollution and US Environmental Politics,
1945–1970 (Texas A & M Universit y Press, 2000)

Gonzalez, George A. The politics of air pollution: Urban growth, ecological modernization, and
symbolic inclusion (SUNY Press, 2012)

Grinder, Robert Dale (1978). "From Insurgency t o Efficiency: The Smoke Abat ement Campaign
in Pit t sburgh before World War I.". Western Pennsylvania Historical Magazine. 61 (3): 187–202.

Grinder, Robert Dale. "The Bat t le for Clean Air: The Smoke Problem in Post -Civil War America"
in Mart in V. Melosi, ed., Pollution & Reform in American Cities, 1870–1930 (1980), pp. 83–103.

Mingle, Jonat han, "Our Let hal Air" [review of Gary Fuller, The Invisible Killer...; Bet h Gardiner,
Choked...; Tim Smedley, Clearing the Air...; U.S. Environment al Prot ect ion Agency, Integrated
Science Assessment for Particulate Matter (External Review Draft, 2018); and Chart ered Clean
Air Scient ific Advisory Commit t ee, Letter to EPA Administrator on the EPA's Integrated Science
Assessment for Particulate Matter, 11 April 2019], The New York Review of Books, vol. LXVI, no.
14 (26 Sept ember 2019), pp. 64–66, 68. "Today, 91 percent of people worldwide live in areas
where air pollut ion levels exceed t he World Healt h Organizat ion's recommended limit s....
[T]here is no safe level of exposure t o fine part iculat e mat t er.... Most of t hese fine part icles
are a by-product of... burning... coal, gasoline, diesel, wood, t rash... These part icles can get past
t he defenses of our upper airways t o penet rat e deep int o our lungs and reach t he alveoli...
From t here, t hey cross int o t he bloodst ream and spread t hroughout t he body. They can t ravel
t hrough t he nose, up t he olfact ory nerve, and lodge... in t he brain. They can form deposit s on
t he lining of art eries, const rict ing blood vessels and raising t he likelihood of... st rokes and heart
at t acks. [T]hey exacerbat e respirat ory illnesses like ast hma and chronic obst ruct ive pulmonary
disease... There's... evidence linking air pollut ion exposure t o an increased risk of Alzheimer's
and ot her forms of dement ia." (p. 64.)

Mosley, St ephen. The chimney of t he world: a hist ory of smoke pollut ion in Vict orian and
Edwardian Manchest er. Rout ledge, 2013.

Schreurs, Miranda A. Environmental Politics in Japan, Germany, and the United States
(Cambridge Universit y Press, 2002) online (ht t ps://www.quest ia.com/library/108673238/enviro
nment al-polit ics-in-japan-germany-and-t he)

Thorsheim, Pet er. Inventing Pollution: Coal, Smoke, and Culture in Britain since 1800 (2009)

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media relat ed t o Air pollution.

Wikivoyage has t ravel informat ion for Air pollution.

Air Pollut ion: Everyt hing You Need t o Know (ht t ps://www.nrdc.org/st ories/air-pollut ion-everyt hi
ng-you-need-know) Guide by t he Nat ural Resources Defense Council (NRDC)

Global real-t ime air qualit y index map (ht t p://aqicn.org/map/world/)

Air Qualit y Index (AQI) Basics (ht t ps://www.airnow.gov/index.cfm?act ion=aqibasics.aqi)

AQI Calculat or (ht t ps://www.airnow.gov/index.cfm?act ion=airnow.calculat or) AQI t o

Concent rat ion and Concent rat ion t o AQI for five pollut ant s

Int ernat ional Conference on Urban Air Qualit y (ht t p://www.urbanairqualit y.org/) Archived (ht t p
s://web.archive.org/web/20081216144156/ht t p://www.urbanairqualit y.org/) 16 December
2008 at t he Wayback Machine.
 UNEP Urban Issues (ht t p://www.unep.org/urban%5Fenvironment /)

European Commission > Environment > Policies > Air >Air Qualit y (ht t p://ec.europa.eu/environme
nt /air/index.ht m)

Dat abase: out door air pollut ion in cit ies (ht t ps://www.who.int /phe/healt h_ t opics/out doorair/da
t abases/en/index.ht ml) from t he World Healt h Organizat ion

World Healt h Organizat ion Fact Sheet on Air qualit y and healt h (ht t ps://web.archive.org/web/2
0160104165807/ht t p://www.who.int /mediacent re/fact sheet s/fs313/en/)

Cent re for Research on Energy and Clean Air (ht t ps://energyandcleanair.org/)

The Mort alit y Effect s of Long-Term Exposure t o Part iculat e Air Pollut ion in t he Unit ed
Kingdom (ht t p://comeap.org.uk/document s/report s/128-t he-mort alit y-effect s-of-long-t erm-
exposure-t o-part iculat e-air-pollut ion-in-t he-uk.ht ml) , UK Commit t ee on t he Medical Effect s
of Air Pollut ion, 2010.

Ozone Pollut ion (ht t ps://www.epa.gov/ozone-pollut ion) at EPA.gov

Air pollution, its cruel impact and preventions (ht t ps://www.englishfun.in/paragraph-on-pollut i

on-for-children-and-st udent s/)

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