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You’ve Evolved!
The Process of Evolution

The Evidence for Evolution

Fossil Record
Fossils are the
preserved remains of
once-living organisms.
Fossils are created when
three (3) events occur:
1.) the organism must
become buried in
sediment; 2.) the
calcium in the bone or
other hard tissue must
mineralize; and 3.) the
surrounding sediment http://dailymail.co.u
must eventually harden Source: http://dailymail.co.uk
to form rock. The process of fossilization probably occurs rarely.
Usually, animals or plant remains will decay or be scavenged
before the process can begin. Only a fraction of the species that
have existed are known from fossils. Nonetheless, the fossils
that have been discovered are sufficient to provide detailed
information on the course of evolution through time.
th
Source: Raven, et al., Biology 9 edition figure 21.10
Dating Fossils
By dating the rocks in which fossils occur, we can get an Today, rocks are dated by measuring the degree of decay of
accurate idea of how old fossils are. In Darwin’s day, rocks were certain radioisotopes contained in the rock, a process called
dated by their position with respect to one another, a process absolute dating; the older the rock, the more of its isotopes have
called relative dating; rocks in deeper strata are generally older. decayed. Because radioactive isotopes decay at a constant rate

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unaltered by temperature or pressure, the isotopes in a rock act to evolutionary modification of the limbs. All three (3) fossil
as an internal clock, measuring the time since the rock was forms occurred in the Eocene Period, 45-55 million years ago
formed. This is a more accurate way of dating rocks and (MYA).
provides dates stated in millions of years, rather than relative
dates. When fossils are arranged according to their age, from Modern-day members of the Equidae include horses,
oldest to youngest, they often provide evidence of successive zebras, and donkeys, all of which are large, long-legged, fast-
evolutionary change. At the largest scale, the fossil record running animals adapted to living on open grasslands. These
documents the progression of life through time, from the origin species, all classified in the genus Equus, are the last living
of eukaryotic organisms, through the evolution of fishes, the rise descendants of a long lineage that has produced 34 genera since
of land-living organisms, the reign of dinosaurs, and on to the its origin on the Eocene Period approximately 55 MYA.
origin of humans. Examination of these fossils provided a particularly well-
documented case of how evolution has proceeded by adaptation
Given the low likelihood of fossil preservation and to changing environments.
recovery, it is not surprising that there are gaps or “missing
links” in the fossil record. Nonetheless, paleontologists
(scientists who study fossils) continue to fill the gaps in fossil
record. Today, fossil record is far more complete, particularly
among vertebrates; fossils have been found linking all the major
groups. For example, a four-legged aquatic mammal was
discovered that provides important insights concerning the
evolution of whales and dolphins from land-living hoofed
ancestors. Similarly, a fossil snake with legs has shed light on
evolution of snakes, which descended from lizards that
gradually became more and more elongated with simultaneous
reduction and eventual disappearance of limbs.

The recent discoveries of Ambulocetus, Rodhocetus, and

Pakicetus have filled in the gaps between whales and their
hoofed mammal ancestors. The features of Pakicetus illustrate
that intermediate forms are not intermediate in all
characteristics; rather, some traits evolve before others. In the
case of evolution of whales, changes occurred in the skull prior
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Source: Raven, et al., Biology 9 edition figure 21.10

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The earliest known members of the horse family are species All these changes may be understood as adaptation to
in the genus Hyracotherium, which did not look much like changing global climates. In particular, during the late Miocene
horses at all. Small, with short legs and broad feet, these species and early Oligocene (20-25 MYA), grasslands became
occurred in wooded habitats, where they probably browsed on widespread in North America, where much of horse evolution
leaves and herbs and escaped predators by dodging through occurred. As horses adapted to these habitats, long-distance and
openings in the forest vegetation. The evolutionary path from high speed locomotion probably became more important to
these small creatures to the workhorses of today has involved escape predators and travel great distances.
changes in a variety of traits, including: By contrast, the greater flexibility provided by multiple
 Size – the first horses were no bigger than dogs, some toes and shorter limbs, which was advantageous for ducking
was the size of a housecat. The modern equids can weigh through complex vegetation, was not longer beneficial. At the
more than half a ton. same time, horses were eating grasses and other vegetation that
 Toe reduction – the first horses had four (4) toes on its contained grit and other hard substances, thus favoring teeth and
front feet and three (3) on its hind feet; encased in fleshy skulls better suited for withstanding such materials.
pads. The feet of modern horses have a single toe
enclosed in a tough bony hoof. Homology
 Tooth size and shape – the teeth of Hyracotherium were As vertebrates evolved, the same bones were sometimes put to
small and relatively simple in shape. Through time, horse different uses. For example, the forelimbs of vertebrates are
teeth have increased greatly in length and have homologous structures, that is, structures with different
developed a complex pattern of ridges on their molars appearances and functions that are all derived from the same
and premolars. Accompanying these changes have been body part in a common ancestor.
alterations in the shape of the skull that strengthen the
skull to withstand the stresses imposed by continual
chewing.

Source: Raven, et al., Biology 5th edition figure 21.14

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Embryological Development embryological forms provides convincing evidence that they are
both mollusks
In many cases, the evolutionary history of an organism can
be seen to unfold during its development, with the embryo Vestigial Structures

Many organisms
possess vestigial
structures that
have no apparent
function, but
resemble
structures their Source: Raven, et al., Biology 5th edition figure
21.17
presumed
ancestors had. Human, for example, possess a complete set of
muscles for wiggling their ears, just as a coyote does. Boa
Source: Raven, et al., Biology 5th edition figure 21.15 constrictors have hip bones and rudimentary legs. The skeleton
of a baleen whale, which contains pelvic bones, as other
exhibiting characteristics of the embryos of its ancestors. For mammal skeletons do, even though such bones serve no known
example, early in their development, human embryos function in the whale. It is difficult to understand vestigial
possess gill slits, like fish; at later stage, every human structures such as these as anything other than evolutionary
embryo has a long bony tail, the vestige of which we carry relics, holdovers from the evolutionary past. They argue strongly
to adulthood as the coccyx at the end of our spine. Human for the common ancestry of the members of the groups that share
fetuses even possess a fine fur (called lanugo) during the them, regardless of how different they have subsequently
fifth month of development. These relict developmental become.
forms suggest that our development has evolved with new
instructions layered on top. Evidence from Biochemistry and Genetics
The observation that seemingly different organisms may Blood tests show that human blood is more like the
exhibit similar embryological forms provides indirect but rabbit’s blood than a frog’s blood or an insect’s blood.
convincingly evidence of a past evolutionary relationship. Slugs Furthermore, human blood is more like an ape blood is more like
and giant ocean squids, for example do not bear much superficial an ape’s blood than rabbit’s blood. Notice that the closer the
resemblance to each other, but the similarity of their groups are in structure, the closer their blood chemistry. This is

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one more piece of evidence of relationship and common As a result, the population will gradually come to
ancestral origin. include more and more individuals with advantageous
characteristics. In this way, the population evolves and
Modern genetics also provides evidence of evolution. becomes better adapted to its local circumstances.
All organisms use the same genetic code to synthesize proteins.
A universal genetic code is consistent with the idea that all THREE (3) SAMPLES OF NATURAL SELECTION
organisms evolved from a common ancestor that used that code.
 Selection to Avoid Predators
Theories of Evolution

Selection

Selection is the process where some individuals

leave behind more progeny or offspring than others, and the
rate which they do so is affected by phenotype or behavior.
There are two (2) types of selection:

Natural selection – environmental conditions th

Source: Raven, et al., Biology 9 edition figure 20.7
determine which individuals in a population produce
the most offspring. Many of the most dramatic documented instances of
adaptation involve genetic changes, which decrease the
Artificial selection – the breeder selects for desired probability of capture by predator. An example is the pocket
characteristics. It is usually human interference that mice from the Tularosa Basin of New Mexico whose color
creates the chance for artificial selection. matches the background.

Natural Selection In these areas, the black rock formations produced when
lava cooled contrasts to the surrounding bright glare of the
Natural selection produces evolutionary change dessert sand. The pocket mice in figure (A) matches the color of
when in a population, some individuals which possess the cooled lava and the one of figure (B) is light colored to match
certain inherited characteristics, produce more surviving the white sand.
offspring than individuals lacking these characteristics.

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 Selection to Match Climatic Conditions uptake of insecticide, whereas alleles at the kdr and dld-r genes
decrease the number of target sites, thus decreasing the binding
Many studies of ability of insecticide. Other alleles enhance the ability of the
selection have focused on insects’ enzymes to identify and detoxify insecticide molecules.
genes encoding enzymes.
Often investigators fined the
enzyme allele frequencies Source: http://new.coolclassrooom.org
vary with latitude, so that one
allele is more common in northern populations, but is
progressively less common at more southern locations. An
example is seen in studies of a fish, the mummichog (Fundulus
heteroclitus), which ranges along the eastern coast of North
America. In this fish, geographic variation occurs in allele
frequencies for the gene that produces the enzyme lactate
dehydrogenase, which catalyzes the conversion of pyruvate to
lactate (for release of energy when there is not enough oxygen). th
Source: Raven, et al., Biology 9 edition figure 20.7
Biochemical studies show that enzymes formed by these alleles
function differently at different temperatures, thus explaining
their geographic distributions. The form of the enzyme more
frequent in the north is a better catalyst at low temperatures than
the enzyme from the south. Moreover, studies indicate that at
low temperatures, individuals with the northern allele swim
faster, and presumably survive better, than individuals with the
alternative alleles.

 Selection for Pesticide Resistance

A particularly clear example of selection in action in

normal populations is provided by studies of pesticide resistance
th
in insects. The widespread use of insecticides has led to the rapid Source: Raven, et al., Biology 9 edition figure 20.7
evolution of resistance in more than 400 pest species. For
example, the resistance allele at the pen gene decreases the

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The Relationship and Differences of Natural Selection and suggested to him that lineages change gradually as species
Evolution migrate from one area to another.

Natural selection is a process, whereas evolution is the On the Galapagos Islands, Darwin encountered a variety
historical record, or outcome, of change through time. An of different finches on various islands. The 13 species of finches,
example is how giraffes evolved to have longer necks from their although related slightly differed in appearance, particularly in
ancestors. Through the process of natural selection, longer- their beaks. Darwin thought that all these birds had descended
necked giraffes are more successful in survival and pass the from a common ancestor from the South American mainland
long-neck trait on to their offspring. several million years ago. Eating different foods on different
islands, the finches' beaks had changed during their descent.
Natural selection can lead to evolution, but natural
selection is only one of several processes that can result to The diversity of Darwin’s finches:
evolutionary change. The five agents of evolutionary change are
mutation, gene flow, nonrandom mating, and genetic drift.  Ground finches – feed on seeds that they crush in their
powerful beaks
Natural selection can occur without producing
evolutionary change; only if variation is genetically based will  Warbler finches – feed on insects with their smaller and
natural selection lead to evolution. An example is an offspring narrower beaks
who do not resemble its parents because of its experience on
different environments during growth and not because it is  Fruit/bud/cactus finches – feed on fruit/bud/cactus and
different genetically. other insects they attract

Charles Darwin is an English Naturalist who wrote the  Sharp-beaked ground finches – include “vampires” that
book “On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection”. sometimes creep up on seabirds and use their sharp beaks
In Darwin’s time, most people believed that the different kinds to pierce seabirds’ skin and drink their blood.
of organisms resulted from direct actions of a creator. Darwin
was a part of a five-year navigational mapping expedition  Wood-pecker finches – pick up a twig, cactus spine, or
around the coast of South America, aboard H.M.S. Beagle. leaf stalk, and trim it into shape with their beaks, and
During the voyage, he studied a wide variety of plants and then poke it into dead branches to pry out grubs.
animals on continents and islands in distant seas. Darwin
repeatedly saw characteristics of similar species varied
somewhat from place to place. These geographical patterns

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have imposed selection on just about every conceivable aspect

of the fruit fly, including body size, eye color, growth rate, life
span, and exploratory behavior with a consistent result, which is
selection of trait leads to strong and predictable evolutionary
response.
In one classic experiment, scientists selected fruit flies
with many bristles (stiff, hair-like structures) on their abdomen.
At the start of the experiment, the average number of bristles
was 9.5. Each generation, scientists picked out the 20% of the
population with the greatest number of bristles and allowed them
to reproduce, thus establishing the next generation. After 86
generations of such selection, the average number of bristles had
quadrupled, to nearly 40. In a similar experiment, fruit flies were
selected for either the most or the fewest number of bristles.
Within 35 generations, the populations did not overlap at all in
range of variation.
The figure
shows that one
population of
Source: Raven, et al. Biology 5th Drosophila was
edition figure 21.12 selected for low
number of bristles
and the other for
high numbers. Note
that not only did the
means of
Artificial Selections populations change
greatly in 35
th
Application Source: Raven, et al., Biology 9 edition figure 21.1 generations, but also
Laboratory Experiments that all individuals
A favorite subject for artificial selection inside the in both experimental populations lie outside the range of the
laboratory is the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster. Geneticists initial population.

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Agriculture Domestication also

has led to
Artificial selection have been practiced in agriculture for unintentional
many centuries. Familiar livestock, such as cattle and pigs, and selection for some
crops, like corn and strawberries, are greatly different from their traits. In recent years,
wild ancestors. These differences have resulted from generations as part of an attempt
of selections for desirable traits like milk production and corn to domesticate the
stalk size. silver fox, Russian
scientists have Source: Raven, et al. Biology 5th edition figure 21.8
chosen the most
docile animals in each generation and allowed them to
reproduce. Within 40 years, most foxes were exceptionally
tame, not only allowing themselves to be petted, but also
whimpering to get attention and sniffing and licking their care
takers. In many respects, they became like domestic dogs. It was
not only their behavior that changed, these foxes also began to
Source: Raven, et al., Biology 9th edition figure 21.6 exhibit other traits seen in some dog breeds, such as different
color patterns, floppy ears, curled tails, and shorter legs and tails.
Referring to the figure, Teosinte, which can be found today Presumably, the genes responsible for docile behavior either
in a remote part of Mexico, is very similar to the ancestor of affect these traits as well or as closely linked to the genes for
modern corn. Artificial selection has transformed it to the these other traits.
form we know today.
Lamarck’s Theories of Evolution
Domestication A French naturalist, Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck (1744-
Artificial selection has also been responsible for the great 1829), made observations of fossils and existing organisms. He
variety of breeds of cats, dogs, pigeons, cattle, and other saw pieces of evidence that organisms had changed through
domestic animals. In some cases, breeds have been time.
developed for particular purposes. Greyhound dogs, for His observations were based on two basic facts: (1) fossil
example, were bred by selecting for maximal running records showed that organisms in the past were different from
abilities, with the end result being an animal with long legs those living today, and (2) organisms are well- adapted to their
and tail, an arched back, and great muscle mass. environment.

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As basis, for his observations, these assumptions were strong running muscles in its legs. An animal like the giraffe has
developed: to keep reaching up to tall shrubs and trees for food. Each
1. The Theory of Need generation of giraffes had a slightly longer neck. After hundreds
2. The Theory of Use and Disuse of thousands of years, the short-necked giraffes became the
3. The Theory of Transmitting Acquired Traits present-day long necked giraffes. In the case of snakes, the legs
and short bodies, which were believed to be present in their early
 Theory of Need ancestors, eventually disappeared. It became necessary for
Lamarck believed that organisms change because they snakes to walk through narrow places. They began to stretch
need to. It seemed, according to him, that there is natural their bodies and to crawl rather than walk.
tendency for organisms to make themselves better and more
suited to their environment.  Theory of Acquired Traits
For example, birds developed wings because their Lamarck explained that an organism acquired a body
ancestors developed the need to fly. Elephants have long trunks structure (for example, characteristic structure to its offspring.
for gathering food; lions have powerful claws and jaws for He thought that if an organism acquired a body structure
capturing prey; and deer have long, swift legs for escaping (for example, long limbs, legs, or necks) during its lifetime, it
predators. Each organism therefore adapts to suit its particular could pass on that characteristic structure to its offspring.
way of life. According to him, this is how evolution occurs.
Lamarck further believed that changes happened
because organisms were able to reshape their bodies in many Lamarck and Darwin’s Observations Compared
new ways. Body structures, he explained, could be altered in size
or shape depending on the needs of the organism. Lamarck’s giraffe
For example, birds trying to use their front limbs for 1. Original, short-necked ancestor
flying could eventually change those limbs into wings, the same 2. Keeps stretching neck to reach leaves higher up on tree
way birds with short legs could develop long legs by stretching 3. And stretching
into deeper water. Then, if these animals had no more need for 4. And stretching until neck becomes progressively longer
the structures they had developed through time, these body parts
would decrease in size or eventually disappear.

 Theory of Use and Disuse

Lamarck further explained that organisms developed
specialized characteristics by the use or disuse of organs. For
example, a deer that runs swiftly to escape wolves will develop Source: www.tumblr.com

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Darwin’s giraffe position, gene loss or duplication, and insertion of foreign

1. Original group exhibits variation in neck length sequences. Mutation from one allele to another can
2. Natural selection favors longer necks; better chance to obviously change the proportion of a particular alleles in a
get leaves of trees. Favored characteristics pass on to population. Mutation is the ultimate source of genetic
next generation. variation and thus makes evolution possible.
3. After many generations, the group is still variable but
shows a general increase in neck length.  Gene Flow
Gene flow is the movement of alleles from one
population to another. It can be a powerful agent of change
because members of two (2) different populations may exchange
genetic materials. Sometimes gene flow is obvious as when
animal moves from one place to another. If the characteristics of
Source: www.tumblr.com the newly arrived animal differ from those of the animals already
there, and if the newcomer is adapted well enough to the new
Five (5) Agents of Evolutionary Change
area to survive and mate successfully, the genetic composition
of the receiving population may be altered. Other important
There are different types of winter squash such as
kinds of gene flow are not obvious such as drifting of gametes
acorn, butternut, Hubbard, pumpkin, and spaghetti squash.
or immature stages of plants or marine animals from one place
All are members of the same species, Cucurbita maxima.
to another.
Humans were able to produce such a variety of squash.
Both natural selection and artificial selection are
mechanisms of change in the gene pool of a population. The
key difference is that in artificial selection, humans ensure
that individuals with the more desirable traits are allowed to
reproduce. In natural selection, those individuals who are
best suited to their environment survive and reproduce.
There are five (5) agents of evolutionary change: mutation, Source: evolution.berkeley.edu
gene flow, nonrandom mating, genetic drift, and selection.
 Nonrandom Mating
Nonrandom mating happens when individuals with
 Mutation
certain genotypes sometimes mate with one another more
Mutation is a permanent change in a cell’s DNA. It includes
commonly than would be expected on a random basis.
changes in the nucleotide sequence, alteration of gene
Inbreeding (mating with relatives) is a type of nonrandom

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mating that causes frequencies of particular genotypes to differ

greatly. Inbreeding does not change the frequency of the alleles,
but rather increases the proportion of homozygous individuals
because relatives are likely to be genetically similar and does
produce offspring with two (2) copies of the same allele. By
increasing homozygosity in a population, inbreeding increases
the expression of recessive alleles. It is for this reason that
marriage between close relatives is discouraged and to some Source: free-stock-illustration.com
degree outlawed, because it increases the possibility of
producing children homozygous for an allele with one (1) or Bottleneck effects – Even if organisms do not
more of genetic disorders. move from place to place, occasionally their
populations may be drastically reduced in size.
 Genetic Drift This may result from flooding, drought, epidemic
disease, and other natural forces, or from
Generic drift happens in small populations where progressive changes in the environment. The
frequencies of particular alleles may change drastically by resultant alterations and loss of genetic
chance alone. Such changes in allele frequencies occur variability has been termed the bottleneck effect.
randomly, as if frequencies were drifting. If gametes of only a The parent population contains roughly equal
few individuals form the next generation, the alleles they carry numbers of blue and yellow individuals. By
may by chance not be representative of the parent population chance, the few remaining individuals that
from which they were drawn. There are two (2) related causes comprise the next generation are mostly blue.
of decreases in population size, the founder effects and the
bottleneck effects:

Founder effects – when one (1) or a few

individuals disperse and become the founders of
a new, isolated population at some distance from
their place of origin. Many self-pollinating plants
start new populations from a single seed. Isolated th
Source: Raven, et al., Biology 9 edition figure 20.6
human populations are often dominated by  Selection
genetic features characteristic of their particular This agent is already introduced to you in the
founders. discussion of the evolution theories. Refer to pages 8 and 9 of

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this handout for the discussion of the two (2) types of selection Anthropoids
which are natural and artificial.  Known as the higher primates; include monkeys,
apes, and humans.
The Evolution of Humans  Diurnal, feeding mainly in fruits and leaves.
 Live in groups of complex interactions.
In 1897, Charles Darwin published another ground  Tend to care for their young for prolonged periods,
breaking book, “The Descent of Man”. In this book, he allowing for a long childhood of learning and brain
suggested that humans evolved from the same African ape development.
ancestors that gave rise to the gorilla and the chimpanzee. Little  New World monkeys - anthropoids migrated to
fossil evidence existed at that time to support Darwin's case but South America
numerous fossil discoveries made since then strongly support his  Old World monkeys – a group of anthropoids that
hypothesis. remained in Africa.
The story of human evolution begins around 65 million
years ago, with a group of small, arboreal (species that live in Homonoids
trees) mammals called Archonta. These primarily insectivorous
 Apes have larger brains than monkeys and they lack
mammals had large eyes that were most likely nocturnal (active tails. The living apes consists of the gibbon,
at night). Their radiation gave rise to different types of orangutan, gorilla, and chimpanzee. Fossils
mammals, including bats, tree shrews, and other primates, the discovered suggest the first possible Hominoid:
order of mammals that contains humans. o Ramapithecus – 8 million year old jaw with
teeth found in India. Fossils indicate they are
40 million years ago, the Archonta split in to two (2) groups: closely related to orangutan.
o Proconsul – has many characteristics of Old
Prosimians World monkeys, but lacks tail and has
 Looked like a cross between a squirrel and a cat. apelike hands, feet, and pelvis.
 Common in North America, Europe, Asia, and  Apes evolved knuckle-walking, supporting their
Africa. weight on the back sides of their fingers.
 Nocturnal, have grasping digits, and binocular  Hominids became bipedal and walking upright.
vision.
 An example of a prosimian that survived today is the Five to ten million years ago, the world’s climate began
tarsier. to get cooler, and the great forests of Africa were largely

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replaced with savannas and open woodland. In response to  Australopithecus boisei – nicknamed the “Nut-
these changes, the hominids, which were bipedal arose. cracker man”. It had a great bony ridge, a Mohawk
In every case where fossils allow determination to be haircut of bone, on the head to anchor its immense
made, the hominids are bipedal, walking upright. Bipedal jaw muscles.
locomotion is the hallmark of hominid evolution.  Australopithecus afarensis - nicknamed “Lucy”. The
There are two (2) major groups of hominids: The skeleton was 40% complete and over 3 million years
Australopithecus and the Homo: old. The shape of the pelvis indicated that Lucy was
a female, and her leg bones proved she walked
Australopithecus upright. Her brain was no larger than that of a
 First hominid chimpanzee, about the size of an orange.
 Walked upright and lived in Africa over 3 million Homo
years ago  African origin
 Had a small brain  Have larger brain than Australopithecus and most
 Weighed about 18 kilograms and were about 1 meter likely used tools
tall  Homo habilis – means “handy man”. Found with
 Dentition was distinctly hominid, but their brains stone tools near its fossil. Its skull suggests a brain
were not any larger than those of apes volume of 680 cubic centimeters that which is larger
 Australopithecus africanus – a skull of a five-year- than the Australopithecus. Homo habilis was small
old individual, still with his milk teeth. While the in stature, with arms longer than legs and a skeleton
skull had many apelike features such as a projecting much like Australopithecus.
face and a small brain, it had distinctly human  Homo rudolfensis – the skull which was 1.9 million
features as well (a rounded jaw, unlike the pointed years old, had a brain volume of 750 cubic
jaw of apes). The ventral position of the foramen centimeters and many characteristics if human
magnum (the hole at the base of the skull from which skulls. It was assigned to a different species than
the spinal cord emerges) suggested that the creature Homo habilis because of its substantial brain
walked upright. Raymond Dart, the anatomy expansion.
professor who discovered the skull, concluded it was  Homo ergaster – have even larger brains than Homo
a human ancestor. Scientists now estimate the skull rudolfensis, with skeletons less much like the
to be 2.8 million years old. Australopithecus and more like a modern human in
 Australopithecus robustus – second kind of both size and proportion.
Australopithecus unearthed in South Africa. It had
massive teeth and bones.
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Homo erectus  Homo neanderthalensis – short, stocky, and

 Evolved in Africa and migrated from there to Europe powerfully built. Their skulls were massive, with
and Asia. protruding faces, heavy, bony ridges over the brows,
 About 1.5 meters tall, a lot larger than a homo and larger brain cases. They made diverse tools,
habilis. including scrapers, spearheads, and hand axes. They
 It had a large brain, about 1000 cubic centimeters and lived in huts or caves and took care of their injured
walked erect. and sick. They buried their dead, often placing food,
 Its skull had prominent brow ridges and a rounded weapons, and even flowers with the bodies, which
jaw like modern humans. suggests that they believed in life after death. This is
 Lived in tribes of 20 to 50 people, often dwelling in the first evidence of the symbolic thinking
caves. characteristic of modern humans.
 Successfully hunted animals, butchered those using
flint and bone tools, and cooked them over fire. Homo sapiens
 Survived for over a million years, longer than any  The only surviving species of the genus Homo, and
species of human. is the only surviving hominid. The skulls are modern
 Java man – Homo erectus found in Java. Structure of in appearance, with high, short braincases, vertical
its thigh bone indicated it was an excellent walker foreheads with only slight brow ridges, and a cranial
and skull cap suggested a very large brain. capacity of roughly 1550 cc, within the range of
modern humans.
 Peking man – Homo erectus found in Peking (now
o Cro-Magnons – fossils of Homo sapiens that had
Beijing) China that closely resembled Java man.
complex social organization and are thought to
have had full language capabilities. They lived by
The evolutionary journey to modern humans entered its
hunting and made beautiful cave paintings
final phase when modern humans first appeared in Africa
throughout Europe.
about 600,000 years ago.
REFERENCES
Three (3) Species of Modern Humans Capco, C. e. (2010). You and the Natural World Biology . Quezon City: Phoenix
 Homo heidelbergensis – has more advanced Publishing House, Inc.
Evolution theories and biodiversity. (n.d.). Retrieved from
anatomical features than Homo erectus such as a http://www.edu.gov.mb.ca/k12/cur/science/found/gr12_bio/unit3.pdf
bony keel running along the midline of the skull, a In Darwin's Footsteps. (2014, September 4). Retrieved from
thick ridge over the eye socket, and a large brain. http://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/05/science/in-darwins-footsteps.html
Mason, K. A., Losos, J. B., & Singer, S. R. (2014). Biology 10th Edition. New York:
McGraw-Hill Education.

09 Handout 1 *Property of STI

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